The Sociocultural Level of Analysis

Session 11: Cultural Dimensions

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour

Learning Outcome

What the command term means:

Examine: Consider an argument or

concept in a way that uncovers the

assumptions and

interrelationships of the issue.

Conducted one of the largest studies carried out on culture

Survey study with over 100,000 participants from 50 different countries

Participants were employees of multinational company IBM Asked about morale in the workplace

Research looked at the 40 most represented countries in the surveys.

Carried out a content analysis on the responses he received, focusing on the key differences submitted by employees in different countries.

The trends he noticed he called “dimensions”

Initially identified four dimensions and later added a fifth

Hoefstede (1980)

1. Individualism vs.. Collectivism2. Masculinity vs.. Femininity3. Power Distance4. Uncertainty Avoidance5. Long term vs.. short term orientation

Hoefstede’s 5 Cultural Dimensions

Read through the notes on Cultural Dimensions

Each of you will be assigned a dimension Take notes and be ready to explain your

dimension to the group

Task

Five Cultural Dimensions

Guess where Fiji lies on each of the dimensions

http://geert-hofstede.com/Fiji.html

What about Fiji?

Hoefstede argued that understanding cultural dimensions will help facilitate communication between cultures.

Understanding and respect of cultural norms can promote successful international diplomacy as well as international business.

Hoefstede gives the example of cultural differences in business interactions in Middle Eastern countries and western countries like the US…..

Why are cultural dimensions important?

When negotiating in western countries, the objective is to work towards a target of mutual understanding and agreement, and shake hands when that agreement is reached—a cultural signal of the end of negotiations and the start of working together.

In Middle Eastern countries, much negotiation takes place leading into the agreement, signified by shaking hands.

However, this does not signal that the deal is complete. In fact, in Middle Eastern culture it is a sign that serious negotiations are just beginning.

Why are cultural dimensions important?

1. Individualism vs.. Collectivism

2. Power Distance

We will focus on

According to Hoefstede:

In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.

In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provides them with support and protection throughout their lifetime. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Countries high on individualism: USA, UK, CanadaCountries high on collectivism: South Korea, Singapore, Japan

1. Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualist

People taking care of themselves (including immediately family only)

Self-orientation

Identity based on individual

Making decisions based on individual needs

“I” mentality

Emphasis on individual initiative and achievement

Collectivist

Expect absolute loyalty to group (nuclear family, extended family, caste, organization)

Group-orientation

Decisions based on what is best for the group.

Identity based on social system

Dependence on organization and institutions (Expects organization / institution / group to

take care of individual)

“We” mentality

Emphasis on belonging

Markus and Kitayama (1991) characterized the difference between US and Japanese culture by citing two of their proverbs:

“In America, “the squeaky wheel gets the grease; in Japan, the nail that stands out gets pounded down.”

Individualist societies allow a boundary between the individual and society◦ People can do what they want as long as they don’t hurt

others

Collectivist societies emphasize connectedness – no boundaries◦ Individuals in collective societies that do not live up to the

cultural norms can be ostracized/punished

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Hoefstede’s data revealed several associations with this dimension:◦ Wealth: There is a strong relationship between a nation’s wealth and

individualism.◦ Geography: Countries with moderate and cold climates tend to show more

individualism.◦ Birth rates: Countries with higher birth rates tend to be collectivist.◦ History: Confucian countries are collectivist. Migrants from Europe who

populated North America, Australia, and New Zealand tended to be sufficiently individualist to leave their native countries.

◦  

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Research has shown that people from individualist cultures (e.g.. North America and Western Europe) will conform less than people from collectivist cultures (e.g.. Asia).

Individualism implies a strong personal identity based on an independent self) whereas collectivism implies commonality and interconnections with others ( an interdependent self). Also, compared to people in individualist cultures people in collectivist cultures are more concerned about their relationships with others, value tradition more highly, and define themselves more in terms of their social roles. All these factors should increase conformity in collectivist cultures compared to individualist cultures.

Individualism vs. Collectivism & Conformity

Bond & Smith (1996) Meta-analysis of 133 studies in 17 countries on Asch

paradigm Found higher conformity rates in collectivist cultures

compared to individualistic cultures Level of conformity (i.e. % of incorrect answers)

ranged from 15% in an experiment with Belgian students to 58% among Indian teachers in Fiji.

5. Culture

Bond & Smith (1996) Conformity Meta Analysis

•The meta-analysis showed that more conformity was obtained in collectivistic countries like the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong and Brazil than in individualistic countries like the USA, the UK or France.

Berry (1967)

Used a variation of Asch’s conformity experiment to study whether conformity rates among Temne in Sierra Leone in Africa and Inuits of Baffin Island in Canada could be linked to social norms and socialisation practices

Inuits Culture Score low on conformity Hunters and hunt alone Child-rearing practices emphasize self-reliance because its needed within culture

Temne CulturePeople had high conformity ratesCulture based on agriculture & dependent on cooperation for farming Emphasises obedience in child rearing

Evaluation

However it should not be concluded from this discussion that members of collectivist societies always conform to group views.

Level of conformity may depend on the exact nature of the group. Thus, collectivists may be more likely to conform to members of a group they are tied to (e.g. family, classmates, fellow workers) than they are to groups to which they are not attached.

Consistent with this analysis, Williams and Sogon (1984) found significantly higher levels of conformity among Japanese groups who already knew one another than among groups lacking pre-acquaintance. Takano & Sogano found less conformity ( similar to American samples) amongst informal sports clubs (doukoukai) than formal sports clubs (taikukai) Such research shows we should not make broad generalizations about one’s collectivism or individualism. Broad generalizations can turn into stereotypes

Individualism vs. Collectivism & Conformity

Hoefstede (1997) defined power distance as “the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”

He believed that power distance is learned early in families. In high power distance cultures, children are expected to be obedient toward parents versus being treated more or less as equals.

In high power distance cultures, people are expected to display respect for those of higher status. For example, in countries such as Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, people are expected to display respect for monks by greeting and taking leave of monks with ritualistic greetings, removing hats in the presence of a monk, dressing modestly, seating monks at a higher level, and using a vocabulary that shows respect.

Power distance also refers to the extent to which power, prestige, and wealth are distributed within a culture. Cultures with high power distance have power and influence concentrated in the hands of a few rather than distributed throughout the population. These countries tend to be more authoritarian and may communicate in a way to limit interaction and reinforce the differences between people.

In the high power distance workplace, superiors and subordinates consider each other existentially unequal. Power is centralized, and there is a wide salary gap between the top and bottom of the organization. In cultures high in power distance, for example, corporate presidents’ offices are more likely to be luxurious, with controlled access. Company bosses are “kings” and employees “loyal subjects” who don’t speak out. In the low power distance workplace, subordinates expect to be consulted, and ideal bosses are democratic.

2. Power Distance

Power Distance Index

Higher PDI means more inequality People in high PDI cultures are more likely to

accept their inequality

Saudi Arabia (80)

Austria (11)

I reject inequality

I accept inequality

Hoefstede notes four interesting associations with power distance:1. Geographic latitude: Higher latitudes are associated with

lower power distance.2. Population: Large population is associated with high power

distance.3. Wealth: National wealth is associated with lower power

distance.4. History: Countries with a Romance language (Spanish,

Portuguese, Italian, French) score medium to high as do Confucian cultural inheritance countries, whereas countries with a Germanic language (German, English, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish) score low. Both the Romance language countries and the Confucian cultural inheritance countries were ruled from a single power center, whereas the Germanic language countries remained “barbaric” during Roman days.

2. Power Distance

  The United States is becoming higher in power distance. The

year 2002 was the year of Enron and other corporate scandals. Their chief executive officers (CEOs) had taken excessive compensation. In the United States in 1980, the average CEO salary was 42 times as much as the average worker. In 1990, it was 85 times as much. In 2000, it was 531 times as much.

Japan began to worry when its CEOs were making more than 8 times the factory worker’s wage. In 1977, the top 1% in the United States had an after-tax income equal to the bottom 49 million; in 1999, the top 1% had an after-tax income equal to the bottom 100 million.

Brazil has one of the largest gaps: The poor constitute half the population but earn only 12% of the national income.

2. Power Distance

Malcolm Gladwell in his 2008 book, Outliers, gave an example of how the power distance cultural dimension played a part in airline crashes and this is covered in his chapter ‘The Ethnic Theory of Plane Crashes’.

Power Distance and Plane Crashes

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• PDI has several effects– Attitude towards authority– Respect for authority

• High PDI respect authority a lot and fear it– High PDI individuals less likely to confront authority

• High PDI individuals use mitigating language and indirectly express concerns to authority figures–Do you think it rains more in this area? (Korea – High

PDI)– I think we should decrease speed to combat the rain

conditions (Low PDI)

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• Korean Air– Attitude towards authority– High respect for authority

• Flight 801 – Landing the plane in rain• First Officer – Do you think it rains more in

this area? (hinting rain might affect our landing)

• Captain – Silence• Flight Engineer – Captain, the weather radar

has helped us a lot (hinting we should use it to land the plane)

• Captain – Yes. They are very useful.

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• Korean Air Flight 801 • Captain resorted to a

visual landing• The First Officer and Flight Engineer did not

say ‘don’t do a visual landing, the weather is too harsh’

• First Officer and Flight Engineer feared the authority of the captain

• Didn’t want to upset the captain who is higher up in the hierarchy

• Plane crashed

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• South Korea – PDI 60• Korean Air – 7 crashes 1977–1994• Korea – hierarchy very important• Korea uses ex-military pilots – respond to authority

• Interventions taken to improve communication despite their PDI and cultural background• No crashes since 1999

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYNdR9FZXAE

Power Distance and Plane Crashes

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

US – PDI 40 Columbia – PDI 67 January 1990 Columbian airliner Avianca

flight 052 that crashed when trying to land at New York’s Kennedy Airport; it crashed because it ran out of gas. 

How is communication (behavior) affected by the cultural dimension of PDI?

Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• Captain: Advise ATC we don’t have fuel– Not interpreted as we have actually run out of fuel– Planes normally are low on fuel during landing

• First officer: Climb and maintain 3 thousand and, ah, we’re running out of fuel sir– Did not say it’s an emergency!

• Air Traffic Control: I’m gonna bring you about fifteen miles northeast and then turn you back onto the approach. Is that OK with you and your fuel? – New Yorker snappy attitude intimidates Colombian pilots

• First officer: I guess so. Thank you very much– Columbian respects ATC’s authority, doesn’t express concern

about low fuel because low PDI doesn’t want to upset high PDI US controller

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Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• Columbia – PDI 67• US – PDI 40• Avianca flight crashed• Flight crew ran into trouble– Intimidated by low PDI US flight controllers

communication• Flight crew implies suggestions about what to

do – not said directly and explicitly• Low PDI (US) cultures do not take hints well– Prefer to be told explicitly what the flight crew’s

wants

Role of Cultural Dimensions on Behavior: Power Distance Index – Plane Crashes

• Mitigated speech from subordinates plays a role in plane crashes

• Reducing mitigated speech– Call superiors by first name– Communicate clearly – be assertive and explicit

• Train pilots to act as facilitators and negotiators instead of commanders– Subordinates can then feel more at ease correcting

pilot’s mistakes• Aim to remove hierarchy so communication

lines are clear

A measure of PDI on pilots around the world found that the top 5 PDI pilot countries (Brazil, South Korea, Morocco, Mexico and Philippines) closely matched the rankings of plane crashes by country!

Power Distance Index & Plane Crashes

Evaluation of Hoefstede’s cultural dimensions

Strengths Limitations

Its important to avoid making generalizations - not all people from a particular culture behave in the

same way. Kuschel (2004) argues that culture cannot be used as an explanation of an individuals’

behavior. Also subcultures within a culture to consider.

Hofstede’s scales are based on data collected through surveys, so some of the data could be unreliable and subject to bias – e.g. participants may have answered questions in the ‘expected’ manner and not truthfully.

Its important to avoid ‘cultural determinism’ as other factors (biological/ cognitive) are also important in understanding human behavior.

Generalisability? only IBM employees, only certain countries included

Data gathered 1960s-1970s. Globalisation? Is data old and obsolete?

The first and most successful attempt to gather data on cultural differences and

quantify and consolidate it into a useful and highly applicable manner.

These concepts give psychologists a way to generalize about cultures in order to better

discuss the role that culture plays in behavior.

Crucial to understand and respect cultural dimensions in a globalized world

Important for international business and also political relationships between

cultures and nations.

1. What is the name of the researcher that developed the concept of cultural dimensions?

2. How did Hoefstede carry out his early research into cultural dimensions at IBM?

3. What concepts did he develop after his research?4. Why is understanding cultural dimensions important?5. Explain the example Hoefstede presents to illustrate the importance of

understanding cultural norms…6. Explain how individualist and collectivist cultures are different, using 6

examples.7. What proverbs do Marcus & Kitayama (1991) to illustrate cultural

differences?8. How does Hoefstede define power distance index?9. According to Gladwell how does power distance index affect

communication among pilots?10. Give 5 strengths and 5 weaknesses of Hoefstede’s theory of cultural

dimensions.

Review Questions

This answer will examine the role of individualism and collectivism on conformity.

It will also examine the role of power distance on plane crashes.

How to approach the exam question