selected indigenous trees and shrubs in polish botanical ... harmata et alii.pdf · silhouettes,...

Introduction

Trees, proud and beautiful, witnesses of the life ofmany generations, being planted frequently in order tocommemorate some important event or to prolong thememory about somebody. Whose heart has not beengrieved when an old tree was being cut down? Whocould have passed unconcerned by the giant struck onthe ground by gale? Or, maybe, one felt joy and hope,when brushing aside the grass and seeing there a smallseedling of an oak growing from between the blades.Even for us – people of the Western culture – trees aresomething more then ordinary plants.

It seems impossible not to notice the analogybetween humans’ and trees’ stages of life. It is even morevisible among the dioecious species (i.e. willows,birches), which have their flowers unisexual andcontaining single male or female reproductive organsonly. The seed is made up of skin, embryo and granarytissue with nutrients. Germination is a biologicalprocess, the growth of the embryo being the result of anassessment of its repose. During the process ofgermination, an embryo becomes plover – a juvenileplant. Characteristic for each of the species silhouette isshaping during several years. Different species of treesvary in the life’s length. Those that have lived to beancient trees, sometimes even rewarded becoming amonument of nature, require special care treatment suchas branch cutting, loss sealing etc. Trees, however,unlike people, live and die with their branches reachingthe sky.

Tadeusz Teller (1994: 55) wrote: «You might belooking at the trees with an eye of a lumberjack, as asource of timber; looking at the calf brains with an eyeof a chef, as a tasty dish; looking at the tree leaves, if notwith an eye of a street sweeper, then from the position ofa Darwinian, as the accidentally created structures,whose main function is photosynthesis and to be thesource of oxygen. I propose to my Reader a new, muchdeeper insight which allows us to see, what really allthese life structures are and to discover their purpose.These structures are processors, whose precision andcomplexity surpasses incomparably human products likeradios, televisions or computers. On the basis of theseliving processors – trees, leaves, brains, there are severalminds functioning and processing the informationnecessary to control the whole of geostasis of the Earth’slife. The number and complexity of this information cannot be understood by the human imagination ... You donot need to have an extraordinary imagination tounderstand how powerful computer is a million-year-oldtree and how much information is collected in its tissueatoms. You should admire the intuition of our ancestors,who worshipped the sacred groves».

Late-glacial and Holocene migration of selected tree taxa

Different species of trees are distinguished by theirsilhouettes, bark, leaf shape and finally the characte -ristics associated with the construction of flowers. They

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Selected indigenous trees and shrubs in Polish botanical literature,customs and art (Juniperus communis, Salix, Betula verrucosa,Populus tremula, Pinus sylvestris, Quercus, Tilia, Picea excelsa,Abies alba)

Krystyna HARMATA1, Jacek MADEJA1, Alicja ZEMANEK2 and Bogdan ZEMANEK2

1 Department of Palaeobotany, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland2 Botanic Garden, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland

SummaryDrzewa, wyniośli, piękni świadkowie życia nieraz wielu ludzkich pokoleń, często były sadzone by zachować w świadomościważne wydarzenie lub przedłużyć pamięć o kimś. Poszczególne gatunki drzew wyróżniają się nie tylko sylwetką, pokrojem,cechami morfologicznymi, ale charakteryzuje je również historia występowania na danym obszarze. Ma ona niewątpliwyzwiązek z gwałtownymi zmianami klimatu, charakterystycznymi dla młodszej części Neogenu, w Plejstocenie i HolocenieZ poszczególnymi gatunkami drzew często wiążą się wierzenia, zwyczaje, przekazywane przez tradycję, opisane w najstarszejpolskiej botanicznej literaturze. Na przestrzeni wieków człowiek próbując rozmaite rośliny odkrywał wśród nich takie, którepomagają w dolegliwościach, zachwycony ich pięknem malował je, a później sławił ich urodę w prozie lub poezji.

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SELECTED INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS IN POLISH BOTANICAL LITERATURE, CUSTOMS AND ART

are also characterized by the history of their occurrencein a certain area. Undoubtedly, it is connected with rapidclimate changes, so characteristic for the younger partof the Neogene, Pleistocene and the Holocene(www.earthscienceworld.org). During the glacial timesthe forest boundary move to the South and lowering inthe mountains. After the glacier withdrawal, the gradualstabilization of the soils and improvement of climateconditions allowed for subsequent entering of varioustree species. This phenomenon is well illustrated bymeans of isopollen maps (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al.2004). These changes have resulted in the evolution ofsoil and vegetation, in accordance with the cycle ofglacial-interglacial cycle (Iversen 1958; Mamakowa2003: 238). According to that scheme the next Quater -nary glacial periods (kryocratic stages) werecharacterized by intense movements of the mineralsubstrate, which there could develop arctic-Alpinevegetation only. In tundra assemblages, juniper, apioneer species and component of the postglacialvegetation has appeared first-of-all (Okuniewska-Nowaczyk et al. 2004).

In the most initial plant communities there occurreddwarf shrub willows, in addition to the juniper, recordedin pollen spectra by some palinologists as Salix herbaceaand S. polaris-type, characterizing the tundra assem -blages. Along with the climate improvement the per -c entages of willow pollen increased. Part of the willowpollen could have originated from tree-willows, that werea part of a gradually spreading forest communities withbirches and pines (Balwierz et al. 2004).

During the further time of warming, there weregrasslands, initial forests and finally mixed forests(protocratic stage), forming on unlyed soils containingcarbonates. The soonest birch appeared, a tree of light,winged seeds, well-bearing hard, continental climaticconditions, tolerating high summer temperatures andsevere winters. Its presence is recorded by theoccurrence of macroscopic remains from the Pleni-Vistulian Hengelo / Denekamp interstadial sediments, aswell as from the oldest Dryas period. Its further presenceis confirmed by means of the pollen analysis (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al. 2004). In addition to birch, at thesame time, there occurred poplars. Having also light andwinged fruits, they spread easily for larger distances.Very early there appeared aspen (Populus tremula), alight-loving species. Its presence is illustrated on theisopollen maps and validated by the analysis ofmacroscopic remains (Filbrandt-Czaja et al. 2004).Extremely important role during the protocratic phasewas played by pine – a pioneer tree. During the Olderand Younger Dryas cooling periods it confined partly itsexpansion. The maximum forest attendance aspenreached in the Alleröd Interstadial and early Holocene(Latałowa et al. 2004).

Continuing improvement of the climate and edaphicconditions (formation of the brown soils) created theconditions for colonization by species with higherrequirements. In our latitude these were climaxcommunities of mixed, deciduous forests. These speciesappeared in different order depending on the particularsite and region of Poland. The trees showing warm,friendly climate were oak and lime. They wereaccompanied by elm, hazel and ash. Oak moved fromthe south and south-east between 9000 BP. Its Holocenemaximum spread occurred 4500-4000 BP, during theexpansion of Neolithic cultures (Milecka et al. 2004). Itis probably the desert of the fact man had alreadyprotected oaks especially, cutting down other species oftrees to create better conditions for oak flowering.

Lime has also extended its range from the south,south-east, to a lesser extent also from the north-east,covering fertile soils. It reached its maximum attendanceabout 6000 BP (Kupryjanowicz et al. 2004). Thedecrease of the percentages of lime began around 5500BP, accelerating from 4500BP. It was resulted by thecool climate change launched by the end of the AtlanticPeriod. It was also undoubtedly related to the activitiesof Neolithic tribes and settlement of the people of theearly bronze period.

This land-repopulation by Neolithic tribes hasproceeded in stages. Groups of humans appeared in thearea, planted fertile deciduous forests, cultivated fieldsand as soon as they became barren – left them. The landswere undergoing the rules of natural plant succession,were being gradually repopulated by pioneering, lightdemanding species: birch and aspen. Sometimes onthese open areas there appeared juniper. Pollen of thesetaxa were found in the profiles indicating that suchhuman activity was interrupted. The most often situationwas that right before the development of dense forestcommunities, there was a new group of Neolithic tribesre-cultivating the same or nearby fields. You find thenpollen of the cultivated plants, weeds and synanthropictaxa in biogenic sediments.

Early Mesolithic human presence is not clearlymarked in the pollen diagrams. They record only aslight decline in tree pollen (AP) and possibly theemergence of heliophil taxa or synanthropic. Changesin the relative amount of trees and shrubs pollen (AP)to the herbaceous plants (NAP) as well as theproportion between the pollen of shadow tolerating andlight demanding trees are telling us about the level ofthe landscape openness. But the local forest coveragelimit does not have to be caused by the penetration ofhunting groups. However, on the basis of molecularstudies, allowing to confirm the presence of fossil DNAof the faecal bacteria from the Bacteroides-Prevotellagroup (intestinal bacteria common to humans andwarm-blooded animals), these changes in pollen

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diagrams can be combined with human activity (Madejaet al. 2009). Another, younger anthropopression traceson the natural environment recorded in the pollendiagrams were even more intensive as the abovemolecular tests confirmed too.

Worsening weather conditions, cooling andhumidation, as well as soils acidification and theirfurther impoverishment caused the transformation ofplant communities leading to the formation of meso- andoligotrophic forests, bogs and mixed boreal forests(telokratic stage). An increasingly intense human activityimposed on climatic conditions. Thus, spruce, whicharrived to Poland from refuges in the Western andEastern Carpathians, was present in the PolishCarpathians in the Late Glacial; but its percentages inpollen spectra were very low. Later, its occurrenceincreased steadily, as it migrated also from the north-eastdirection. Between 4500 and 4000 BP spruce showedmaximum shares (Obidowicz et al. 2004).

Fir was the last tree species, which arrived to theterritory of Poland. It came from the south around 5000BP and its maximum spread out took place between2500 and 2000 BP (Obidowicz et al. 2004). Its con -temporary presence is very limited mainly because ofhuman activity. It should be a protected species.

Selected trees and shrubs in the oldest botanicalliterature

Juniper (Juniperus communis)

Polish name “juniper” appears often in medievalpharmaceutical-medical manuscripts (mainly fromfifteenth century) (Rostafiński 1900: 106-107). Several16th century authors of herbals write about the juniper(Falimirz 1534; Marcin of Urzedow 1595). Accordingto Falimirz (1534: leaf 66 [67]) “berries” werecommonly used for medicinal purposes as a medicineagainst diarrhea. Wine boiled with juniper and iris rootwas used as a diuretic and against colic. Juniper oil hadmany purposes, for example to facilitate breathing andagainst breast aches, on aching joints, as well as to treatwounds after poisonous animal bites. It was alsobelieved that the juniper vodka expels snakes, spiders,mice and worms (Falimirz 1534: leaf 13). Marcin ofUrzedow writes about it (1595: 350), referring toDioscorides, who advices to incense the house. Herecommends juniper also as a mean against cough andmashed leaves put to the wounds in the form of the patchagainst snake bites; he believes also that in order to detersnakes you should lubricate body with juniper. In theeighteenth century juniper was used in many domains oflife. According to Kluk (Kluk 1787: 66-67) juniper woodwith nice color and a pleasant smell was used in themanufacture of decorative objects and also had medical

uses. Water boiled with that wood was applied to skindiseases and ulcers for humans and animals. Juniper topsof the sprouts were fried in sugar syrup and used to treatcough. “Juniper berries” were used as a kitchen spiceand the tea was also made from them, brewing and jamused to improve digestion, during menstruation stoppingand breast diseases. Oil from the “berries” was used asa carminative and for cattle during the plague. There wasalso being produced juniper vodka, used for thetreatment of venereal diseases, scurvy, cold and as adiuretic.

Birch (Betula verrucosa)

Old Polish name “brzezie” appears in medievalpharmaceutical-medical manuscripts (mainly fromfifteenth century) (Rostafiński 1900: 142). There are nonames of birch in Polish printed Renaissance herbals. J.Rostafiński indicates that birch played the role in magiconce: «If the horse had a spell put on it, incense it withthe birch bark, mirrha and a white cow manure» and«Against the witchery, let the bewitched pee on thebroom, made of birch brushwood, genista and sambucicervini (chebd) put in the ground» (Rostafiński 1893:10). Krzysztof Kluk gives many uses of birch in theeighteenth century. In Poland brooms were produced offrom its old branches and wood tar was obtained from itsbark. Birch juice was used in medicine, because it wasmade to the syrup used to treat, among others scurvy andtuberculosis. Birch leaves were collected as wintertimefare for cattle. They were also used in dye-making forthe yellow-green and yellow paint, while brown-redcolor for dyeing canvas was produced from the bark(Kluk 1786: 70).

Pine (Pinus sylvestris)

Old name “sosnina”, “sośnia” and now used “sosna”(pine) appear in medieval pharmaceutical-medicalmanuscripts (mainly from fifteenth century) (Rostafiński1900: 104). Sixteenth-century herbalists include com -prehensive chapters on pine (Falimirz 1534: leaf 115 andMarcin of Urzedow 1595: 369). Falimirz writes thatPolish pine “has the power in the bark and resin”,recalling the use of cones and leaves for medicaltreatment. Suffering from lungs are advised to stay inthe pine woods and breathing air filled with the scent ofresin. According to that author, decoct leaf was usedagainst toothache. Leave boiled in red wine and pineresin (in the form of slices) were used for woundcleaning. Both Falimirz and Marcin of Urzedow writethat powdered bark is used to treat old wounds.According to Marcin of Urzedow, who refers to theDioscorides, adulation with pine bark helps with thebirth. The same author recommends applying the pineleaves on the wounds, leaves boiled in vinegar for thetoothache and the resin for poisons, tuberculosis and

KRYSTYNA HARMATA, JACEK MADEJA, ALICJA ZEMANEK, BOGDAN ZEMANEK

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cough. Charcoal made of burning pine wood was used inthe manufacturing of ink, as well as in cosmetic purposes– to dye eyebrows.

In the eighteenth century pine tree, as the mostpopular tree in Poland, was used primarily as a buildingmaterial (houses, ships, etc.), as well as a fuel. Peasantsmanufactured torches with its roots. Bark was used fortanning the leather. Vodka was made of the youngsprouts as well as a tea used as a diaphoretic and diuretic.Chemists used the pine pollen to cover the pills. Oilobtained from the cones was used for the treatment ofanimals (Kluk 1787: 186).

Oak (Quercus)

Words “dąb” (oak), “dębianka” (oak worm) appear inmedieval pharmaceutical-medical manuscripts (mainlyfrom the fifteenth century) (Rostafiński 1900: 139), butit was not distinguished from Q. sessilis. In the sixteenthcentury it was used in medicine as a binding mean, for thetreatment of wounds and the stopping of bloody diarrheas(Falimirz 1534: leaf 116). Acorns were eaten as a diureticand as a cure for bites and poisons (acorns with milkaccording to Dioscorides), but the side-effects of eatingthem – headaches and flatulence – were noticed. Mashedoak leaves were applied on the swell and aching places(Marcin of Urzedow 1595: 376-377). Krzysztof Klukwrote: «Oak tree from the largest works, to the smallesteverywhere is the most useful» (Kluk 1787: 254). Oakbark was used for tanning leather, but leaves, youngtwigs, chips and acorns were also used in that purpose.Pigs were fed with acorns. During crop failure the breadwas baked of acorns, but that caused diseases,particularly constipation. Kluk recommends roastedacorns as a substitute of coffee. He recommends also theuse of oak juice obtained profusely in the spring, as acure for bloody urine and gout. Water, boiled with oakchips, treated venereal diseases. Wine boiled with leaveswas applied to the gum disease, sore throat, sores andwounds. Tuberculosis was treated with oak young leavesvodka. There was the superstition that chopped youngsprouts added daily to the horse fare resulted the changefrom its ointment from black to white. Sixteenth-centuryauthors write that oak has a great magic power, a «devilis afraid of leaf smoke», so leaves and wood were usedas a medicine against magic (Rostafiński 1893: 16-17).

Fir (Abies alba)

Old Polish names “jedla” or “jedlina” to define a firtree, as well as the names “smola jodowa” (fir tar),“turpentine”, “żywica jodłowa” (fir resin) appear inmedieval pharmaceutical-medical manuscripts (mainlyfrom fifteenth century) (Rostafiński 1900: 105). Amongthe sixteenth-century Polish herbalists, the one whodescribe the fir is Marcin of Urzedow in his “PolishHerbal” (1595). The author mentions that fir knows

everyone, because it is on the top in the Polish forests.Due to the light wood it is used for the sea needs,including the production of masts. Marcin of Urzedowcites Pliny, who recommended slices of fir resin as aremedy for treating wounds and skin eczemas. Marcin ofUrzedow writes also: «fir resin incision in a bad air» isvery helpful, «you do not have to look for foreign odour»(Marcin of Urzedow 1595: 323).

The information about the wide use of a fir tree inthe eighteenth-century Poland is given by KrzysztofKluk in “Dykcyonarz roslinny” (Dictionary of plants)(1786-1788). Fir beams were highly respected in thebuilding industry. The fir wood was used to manufacturemusical instruments, utensils and furniture. Klukprovides an original fir furniture colouring system: «youcan give redness of the overseas tree to your tables,washing it with urine mixed with the horse manureseveral times». Living tissue of young sprouts (called“biel”) was eaten as vegetables. Teas from the youngtwigs were used against scurvy, as well as a cure forconsumption and ulcers on the legs. The strong vodkawas sometimes made of young twigs. Bark foundapplication in the tanning leather. Resin from immaturecones was used for the production of oil, whichimproved the quality of varnish. The tar was obtainedfrom the wood. Purified, set resin was highly appreciatedas rosin used in the maintenance of violin strings and forthe production of therapeutic patches. Kluk draws alsoattention to the role of fir forests in the climatictreatment: «Where there is a lot of fir tree growing,the air for consumed must be very healthy» (Kluk 1787:194).

Trees in beliefs, customs, culture

Nine selected taxa of trees and shrubs allowed tocharacterize the Late Glacial and Holocene vegetationsuccession in Polish territories. They were presented inthe order of their appearance in Poland and let this orderbe maintained while continuing their description.Particularly, those different roles they played, differentclimate and edafic adaptations somehow define themtoo and characterize. From the oldest times it couldhave influence on the human emotional relationship tothem.

The various species of trees are often linked to beliefsand customs pass on by tradition. Probably they comefrom the times when human felt much closer with thesurrounding nature. However, we are usually unable tounderstand why oaks were enshrined, nor why the aspenpegs were used to pierce the dead corpses. During theages, man has discovered some of the plants that helpwith ailments and – delighted with their beauty – paintedthem and praised their pulchritude in prose or poetry.

Leopold Staff, “The High Trees” (excerpt):

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Oh, what is more beautiful to the high trees, With an evening ray forged in twilight brown, Near the water overflowed with the pheasantfeathers’glowAnd deepened with the firmament of branches ample.

The height of a tree determines its importance. Thefact that it grows higher than any other vegetationarranges the vertical order of the world, at the same timebonding three parts of the Universe-Heaven, Earth andwhat is in its depth. The tree links things that are abovewith these under the ground. The central organization oftrees is also important, especially these growing alone,as well as a symmetrical branch surrounding. They arethe determinants of the world order and the place ofpossible contact with the areas of the Space which haveconnection with each other (Kowalski 2007: 94). Hence,symbols of the trees were often used in the Polish coatsof arms (fig. 1).

The legends about the beginning of the royal city ofKrakow invoked the mythical beginning of the world. Itwas important because of the need to locate the capitalof the country in the centre of the Space, which involvedattributing the town the sacral roots. Krakow’s name isderived from the word “krak” meaning branchy tree(“krakowiate”). On top of the Krakus mound, located inKrakow, there grew a huge oak, which probably was theobject of worship, according to the archaeologicalresearch (Kowalski 2007: 98).

Juniper (Juniperus communis)

The first species we would like to describe is not ahigh tree. It copes well with arctic-alpine climate, as wellas quickly it arrives at the open areas. The name“jałowiec” comes from the fact it can grow on arid(“jałowy”), poor soils. There is something raw in thisalways green, pricking bush that firstly has green berry-like cones which become brown after a year or two, thenviolet blue, until finally almost black with silver coating.One can say this is a good tree, favouring people. Evennowadays juniper is a part of the fragrant incense herbalswhose fumes accompanies to the ceremonies of differentreligions. Cold meat smoked with juniper (woodlub branches) gained specific flavour. The greatestPolish Romantic poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855)refers to this practice in the poem “Pan Tadeusz”:

All excellent, all the way home-madeCured in the chimney with a juniper smoke.

(Ks. II, w. 518)

Juniper fruits are used as a sweet-spicy taste to foodand as a component of a mixture of herbs it is usedagainst arthritic and liver aches. Several aphrodisiacproperties were also connected to it. Fallen juniper-needles decays fairly quickly, it affects the benefit of

many fruiting mushrooms, as well as good developmentof pine seedlings too.

One of the traditional Polish fortune-telling on St.Andrew Eve was connected with juniper. Maidens ranto a nearby forest at midnight, in order to immerse theleft hand in the juniper and pick one twig. Next, notwaiting for each other, as soon as possible they returnedhome and here they checked what they gathered. A greentwig was telling bachelor, a brown meant widower andwithered an old duffer (Ziółkowska 1983: 107).

Willow (Salix)

Willow (Salix) has received the rank of the treesymbolizing Poland (fig. 2). Type of Salix is representedby several species. The above-mentioned characteristics,


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1. - Coats of arms of selected Polish towns and villages: 1. NowaDęba; 2. Oborniki Śląskie; 3. Konstancin - Jeziorna; 4. MałkiniaGórna; 5. Godzimba; 6. Sośnicowice; 7. Lipnica Murowana; 8.Poddębice; 9. Borne Sulinowo.

2. - “After the sunset” by Witold Pruszkowski.



such as adaptation to the tough climate conditions andsoil, resulted it has a character of a pioneering tree.Willow is a symbol of vital forces, fertility and the annualregeneration of life. Not only animals gained fertilitybenefits in the shadow of the willow, but also womenwaiting their children in vain. Willow inflorescences andleaves develop in early spring, twigs uproot easily, itsprings out its fresh sprouts apparently from completelydry stump, all this, with stories about the wicker furniture,which became green in springtime, showed the cyclicalregeneration of the world after winter. On Palm Sunday,people used to whip themselves with willow switches inorder to boost the power of life, what also cleaned theirbodies from the demons and evil spirits (Kowalski 2007:595). The most popular medicinal treatment using willowrequired swallowing the consecrated willow catkin to getrid of throat ache and even to protect against it throughoutthe year.

Willow was well known as a remedy in ancientRome, particularly White Willow, because of itsproperties, it was a good tonic, tightening and antipyreticmedicine (Macioti 2006). Salicine (phenolic glycosidemade of salicylic alcohol and glucose), found in willowand poplar leaves and bark has a bitter taste; itsbiological function is to protect low, young plants andthe systematic features of taxa from the herbivorousanimals.

The solitary, old willows were mediation placeswhere the way was open leading to another world; wheredemons, evil spirits and witch had their habitat. Polishproverb says: “In the old willow there is a devil living”.

Birch ( Betula verrucosa)

Birch ( Betula verrucosa ) a beautiful, light, delicatetree, with the most beautiful greenery in Spring and atthe same time expansive (fig. 3). For ages it has beenconsidered as a tree which emitates positive energy. Inorder to get this power it was held tight. In Spring aftercutting it gives juice which served as a drink, at presentit may be found in shops with healthy food. From the

birch juice you may get alcohol, make beer, vinegar,sparkling wine reminding bread acid in taste and sirop.It is a tree full of disorders because it causes flow of tearswith allergic people. The concentration of birch allergensis not always the same as the contents of pollen inaerobiological samples (Madeja et al. 2005).

It is also a cult tree. On Corpus Christi day altars aredecorated with birch branches. The faithful oftenespecially in villages, take these branches to their housesin order to put them on the roof or at the house walls sothat they protect them against storm, hail and worms(Moszyński 1967: 728). Happiness was due to come ifgreen branches were brought home. Putting one of it onthe hat or clothes guaranteed success, if somebodysuffered from epilepsy, during the attack of the diseasetheir head was strapped with branches of this tree.

Birch also played a part in Polish funeral customs. Inthe area of Nałęczów people informed about death bycarrying birch branch, intertwined in the shape of agarland. It was allowed to enter with this branch into thehouse surroundings, to show it through the window, butnot to take it into the house, because it could pullsomebody alive with the dead into the grave(Ziółkowska 1983: 37). Often at soldiers’ graves or atthe places of road accidents birch crosses were placed.Birches were also planted at graves, with the Slavsalways at the northern side of the grave so that the deadpointing with their legs to the eastern direction couldalways see the Sun. Birch, being attracted to himcovered the grave with its branches. We know a lot ofcosmetics and also medicines based on brich.

In the times of romanticism in poetry plant symbolswere used to identify Polish landscape. Particular partwas played by typically Polish trees and birch wasincluded in them. Adam Mickiewicz in the poetic work“Pan Tadeusz” devotes a lot of places to describe nature.(Kmieć 2002, Polish fiction 1985, volume 1, 663-665,Mickiewicz 1957):

A pair is standing,raised over the whole forest with loftiness and beauty of colour, white birch, alover, with its spouse hornbeam.

The poet of 20th century Julian Tuwim (1894-1953)in the poem “Slaughter of birches” (Tuwim 1969: 49)shows poetic vision of drinking birch juice, where fromhe wants to get creative power:

Perhaps these medicines from alive tree, willteach me words that I need; for glory to birch, forglory to summer, insane lips, God’s world.

Poplar aspen (Populus tremula)

Poplar aspen (Populus tremula), a tree with shiveringleaves which were the reason for a few legends

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3. - “Forest’s Brook” by Ferdynand Ruszczyc.


concerning guilt associated with it. One of them says thatit gave Cain its branches to kill Abel, the second one thatit refused a shelter to the Holy Family during refuge toEgypt, that Christ’s Cross was made from aspen woodand finally that Judas hanged himself at aspen. Perhapsthese legends were the cause associating aspen withparticular power concerning its connections with life afterdeath. In south-eastern Poland, where those who hadcommitted suicide were buried at the parting roads, aspenbranch was put in the freshly made grave, over the chestof the suicider so that the unfortunate would not wanderall over the world as phantom. Aspen blocks used tohammer the cover of coffin, gave bigger guaranty thannails that the dead would not get out and haunt at nights.In Poland there was a superstition that aspen picked outby wind brought death (Ziółkowska 1993: 237).

At the same time aspen is a pioneer species, enteringin the first place into open areas. Its wood presents greatindustrial value. Leaves of aspen create a delicious snackfor sheep and capercaillies. A popular saying in thePolish language, ‘ they shiver as aspen’, brings picture oftiny leaves of aspen shivering at even lightest wind blow.A fragment of “Pan Tadeusz” by Adam Mickiewicz refersto this saying:

One shivering aspen, is shaking out white leaves.(Book X, line 23)

Pine (Pinus sylvestris)

Pine (Pinus sylvestris), present everywhere, growingeven at waste sands, on sunny days it smells with resin,spilling clouds of pollen, which does not have allergicqualities (fig. 4). In Oligocene at the Baltic sea, depositsof amber came into being thanks to it, which are calledPolish gold. Pine was for Slavs, just as for other peoples,a holy tree. In Spring people were going with the so-called princess. It was a green pine branch or a little pinetree decorated with flowers and trinkets. It was carriedwith singing and wishing people ‘happy new summer’(year). It was believed that chips from pine coffin, gratedinto flour and cooked with vodka and then poured intoempty stomach were to heal hernia. A pine coffin itselfwas to be without knots, it ensured not only eternal peaceto the dead but also to the alive and also certainty that thedead in the nearest time would not pull them into thegrave (Ziółkowska 1983: 245, 246).

Apart from obvious building value of pine wood,resin is used to produce turpentine and colophony andfrom needles eteric oils are extracted. Powder from pineneedles serves successfully as a food for carps.Extraordinary beauty of pine many times have inspiredpainters and has been praised in poetry. A fragment of apoem by Teofil Lenartowicz:

There was a sandy hill and on it every Spring goldencommon mulleins and pines where humming.

Adam Mickiewicz many times mentions pine in PanTadeusz as an important element of Polish landscape:

And the stork has already come to home pine andshowed white wings, early sign of Spring.

(Book XI, verse 23)

Oak (Ouercus)

Oak (Ouercus), broad, majestic, royal tree,worshipped for many ages, perhaps because ofenormous size, vital forces but mainly because of thefact that it attracts thunders and gives fire by striking twopieces of wood loaded with thunderbolt (fig. 5). In holywoods of Slavs oak was the most distinguished tree, itwas identified with a god of lightings, fire and the sky.In pure oak-wood or in a deciduous forest the largest treewas selected and given glory by dancing around it in acircle with singing and hitting everything that madenoise. It its feet people gave sacrifice from fruit, dairyproducts and honey and most of all holy fires were beingmade, where branches of other oaks were being burnt(Ziółkowska 1983: 72-73). In Poland it was quite earlythat oaks were taken care for legally. Status of the kingCasimirus the Great from 1347 in the chapter ‘deincidentibus sylvas’ bestows punishment for cuttingyoung oak trees in woods belonging to others. It orderedupon the guilty to give back equal value in nature, laterthe punishment was changed into monetary one. Eagerdefensor of woods and particularly oak-woods was JanOstroróg (1565-1622), Poznań foreman (Ziółkowska1983: 76). Power and long age oaks caused that those


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4. - “The Pines – a study to the picture” by Maksimilian Gierym-ski.



trees, more than other types, were monuments of nature.Growing near Zagnańsk oak ‘Bartek’ is, according toguides round Poland over 1000 years old, 27 meters ofheight, 9 meters of perimeter and the diameter of itscrown is 40 meters. However, dendrological researchshowed that it was ‘only’ 700 years old. Holiness of oakordered its protection and its damaging would be thesame as profanation. The tree was not allowed to be cutif it got dry because of age, it was left and allowed toscatter itself (Moszyński 1967: 253).

According to folk medicine practice oak may also beused in healing treatment, the core of which is purifyingfrom disease by contact with the tree. Oaks arementioned many times by Adam Mickiewicz in “PanTadeusz”. He describes among others a famous oak, theso called ‘Baublis’ which was, according to traditions,about 1000 years. On its rotten trunk, a lot of peoplecould stay:

Is great Baublis alive, in whose enormous sizesculptured by age, as if in a good house, twelvepeople could dine at the tabl.

(Book IV, verse 27)

Wincenty Pol (1807-1872) devoted the poem “RoyalOaks” to old oaks which he called alive monuments(Pol, without the year of publication, 99-100):

Royal trees! Ye monuments alive of past times,merciful oaks, […]

Each oak stands in its place as a hero and it thisstanding history of all ages and from this arches,ghostly spirit blows.

Linden (Tilia)

Linden (Tilia), full of warmth, delicacy, sweetness,friendly, regarded as a tree of gods of love, family life.Honey-giving flowers, their amizing scent and the fact,that from its trunks, bee-hives were made, enforceassociating linden with home fire and family (Moszyński1967: 529). Often it was linden that was planted tocommemorate child’s birth, baptism or wedding, whichwas the result of people’s belief in mysteriousconnection with vital force and utility of this tree. Justthe same lindens were planted as a memorial ofimportant events of families and even country.

In Slav burial customs linden was a coffin tree,perhaps because its soft logs were easy to carve. It wasbelieved that linden coffins ensured calm, blessed eternaldream. But it did not make superstitious people afraid tomake from linden wood cradles for babies. It wasconsidered that spoons were best from linden wood;food which was eaten by means of them couldn’t beharmful. And violin made from linden distinguishedthemselves with self-singing and self-crying. Fromlinden wood a lot of holy folk figures were sculpturedbecause it is lenient in artists’ hands, lenient in theirskilful fingers, inspirated eyes (fig. 6). Not by accidentWit Stwosz (about 1447-1533) sculptured St Mary’sAltar in linden wood. Basis of healing use of linden isqualities of its flowers: most often extract is drunk indiseases of breathing ways, colds and in fever. Theywere also used to control stomach ailments, heartailments and to purify blood (Paluch 1988: 29; Liberaand Paluch 1993: 49). If somebody was being thown bySt Valentine disease, epilepsis-their head was strippedwith fresh phloem of linden. Branches of linden,intertwined in garlands, blessed in the octave of CorpusChristi and put behind a picture kept peace at home(Ziółkowska 1983: 194). The most famous Polish poemdevoted to a plant, glorifies linden. It is the epigram ‘ToLinden’ (1584) written by ‘the father of Polish poetry’Jan Kochanowski (1530-1584) (Kolbuszewski 2000:1331):

My guest, sit down under my leave and rest! The sunwon’t get thee here, it’s sure. Even if it rises high andstraight rays will attract under the trees scatteredshadows. From my smelly flower, hardworking beesmake honey which later honorable noble tables.And I can wish thee that my low whisper make mandream sweetly (...).

The poet of the nineteenth century MariaKonopnicka (1842-1910) entitled one poem glorifyingbeauty of Polish nature: “Lindens are blooming”

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5. - “Strążyska Valley” by Alfred Schouppe.


(Konopnicka 1905). Here linden is a symbol of ancienthomeland tree which gives its power to people:

We are woken by misty dawn and the night is away.If from homeland linden We take eagerness and powerPower of life, eagerness of deed.

Spruce (Picea exelsa)

Spruce (Picea exelsa), majestic but sociable, eagerlyforming groups or at the upper forest limit aconcernation of a few specimens commonly fightingwith climatic obstacles. Hum of spruce forest duringfoehn wind in the mountains, gives melancholy but alsoawakes fear. Only in the fifties of 18th century in theforest near Zakopane a big spruce was growing, calledgenerally ‘holy spruce’, which was given sacrifices bypeople, which was worshipped by walking around it onknees. In the Pieniny Mts and in the Podhale region thereis a custom of planting spruce near houses, most of innear the courtyard or gate. This is a remnant of ancientbelief that in the shade of spruce, good tree, the way for

magic, diseases and all the evil is closed (Ziółkowska1983: 262). Garlands from spruce wood on CorpusChristi day decorate the entrance to church and altarsbuilt on the way of procession. According to earlierbelieves even the tiniest branch of spruce has magicpower of talking from man bad temptations and alsodiseases and all bad luck. Holiness associated withspruce was for many centuries a big protecting shieldagainst temptation for its precious wood. When peoplestopped believing in it, whole areas of forests were cut,because people realised that spruce wood was good forbuilding houses, bridges and was also good for makingvarious devices because it is long-lasting, light, soft,elastic and light in colour.

Fir (Abies alba)

Fir (Abies alba), beautiful, sophisticated, decoratedwith standing cones as if with candlesticks. In Poland itwas regarded as a tree with mystical, magic power. Itwas always kind, especially to mountaineers keepingtheir sheep in a mountain pasture. It was enough on the


203

6. - The Altarpiece of Wit Stwosz: 1. A piece of the main scene. 2. The face of Holy Mary. 3. The hands of Holy Mary. 4. A close-up ofthe main scene piece. Photographs taken by: P. Guzik (1,4); S. Kolowca (2,3).



first day after getting to mountain pasture to put firbranch in the place for sheep’ place, lead the herd threetimes around this branch and you were not afraid ofdiseases and other bad luck. A few fir needles scatteredin front of the entrance to a shack caused that bad spiritshad no access. Fir was considered as kind not only to thealive but also to the dead. Suiciders hanging themselveson fir did not cause three day winds, it wasn’t necessaryto hit them three times on the head with a rope so thatthey would not haunt. Earlier, when firs were morecommon than now, coffins were made out of them toensure calm dream. Tiny shavings from blocks withwhich fir coffins were made, were used in love magic. Itwas enough to press them in fingers and put a bit tovodka and the person who drank it became a victim ofuncontrolled passion (Ziółkowska 1983: 143).

Włodzimierz Wolski (1824-1882) the author of li -bret to to the opera by Stanisław Moniuszko ‘Halka’wrote:

Firs are humming on the mountain peak,they are humming across the landeven to a young man a sad lifeif he has sorrow in his heartfrom other people to nobodybut only to you, a poor thing.

All the trees mentioned here played a big part inhuman life. Most of them were regarded as kindly toman. They gave shield and friendly shadow to thepilgrims. Old, impressive oaks and limes protected thehouse, watching the welfare of its inhabitants. The onlyexception was a yew-tree shadow which – according tothe old beliefs – could even kill. Branches of trees wereused to heating, drying, enlightening the darkness.

Trees pleased humans’ eyes with their greenness andbeautiful shape. The ones shedding their leaves forwinter were touching humans’ souls with the charm oftheir buds parting during the springtime. Some of thetrees were important during the treatment of physicaland mental diseases. It is not possible in a quite shortarticle to describe all the aspects of this co-existence oftrees and people.

AcknowledgementsFinancial support from the Ministry of Science and

Higher Education (grant 787/Kultura 2007/2008/7).

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