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AbouttheAuthor

JournalistandauthorNigelCawthornegraduatedinphysicsfromUniversityCollege,London,England.Inthe1970sheworkedonScienceandMechanicsmagazinesinNewYorkwhereNikolaTeslahadworkeddecadesbefore.HehasworkedonscientifictitlessuchasTheUniverseExplained,Tomorrow’sTechnology,TheHistoryofAviation,TheHistoryofTechnologyandTheHistoryofOrdnance,andperiodicalsincludingElectronicsToday,SpaceFrontiers,QuestandNature.Hehasalsowrittenmanybiographies.HelivesinBloomsbury,London,England.

TESLA

THELIFEANDTIMESOFANELECTRICMESSIAHNigelCawthorne

©2014OxfordPublishingVenturesLtdThis2014editionpublishedbyCanaryPressAnimprintofOxfordPublishingVenturesLtdSpringHillHouse,SpringHillRoadBegbroke,OxfordOX51RX,UKAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopyingorotherwise,withoutthepriorpermission,inwriting,ofthepublisher.Theviewsexpressedinthisbookarethoseoftheauthorbuttheyaregeneralviewsonly,andreadersareurgedtoconsultarelevantandqualifiedspecialistforindividualadviceinparticularsituations.NigelCawthorneandOxfordPublishingVenturesLtdherebyexcludeanyliabilitytotheextentpermittedbylaw,foranyerrorsoromissionsinthisbookandforanyloss,damageandexpense(whetherdirectorindirect)sufferedbyathirdpartyrelyingonanyinformationcontainedinthisbook.Althougheveryefforthasbeenmadetotraceandcontactpeoplementionedinthetextfortheirapprovalintimeforpublication,thishasnotbeenpossibleinallcases.Ifnotified,wewillbepleasedtorectifyanyallegederrorsoromissions.ISBN978-1-908698-52-0

ContentsIntroduction

PartOne.StrangerfromaStrangeLand

1.BirthofaVisionary

2.ElectricBrainwaves

3.MeetingThomasEdison

4.TheWestinghouseCorporation

PartTwo.UnlimitedPowers

5.FatheroftheWireless

6.NiagaraFalls

7.Tesla’sExtremeScience

8.InColoradoSprings

PartThree.ImpossibleIdeas

9.TakingOnMarconi

10.FreshDreamsofFlying

11.TheNobelPrize

12.DestroyingtheDream

PartFour.DescentandRe-assessment

13.TalkingtoPigeons

14.ANewSourceofEnergy

15.TheFinalDays

16.PosthumousRecognition

Appendixes

17.ElectrifyingScienceFacts

18.Tesla’sFriendsandContemporaries

19.Tesla’sInventions

FurtherReading

IntroductionIfyoumeanthemanwhoreallyinvented,inotherwords,originatedanddiscovered–notmerelyimprovedwhathadalreadybeeninventedbyothers,thenwithoutashadeofdoubt,NikolaTeslaistheworld’sgreatestinventor,notonlyatpresent,butinallhistory.

HugoGernsback,FatherofModernScienceFiction,1919

NikolaTesla(1856–1943)isthetoweringgeniuswhomadethemodernworld.Alltheelectricaldevicesaroundusowesomethingtohim.Notonlydidheinventmanyofthegadgetswedependontoday,hehadavisionofthefuture,muchofwhichhasbecomerealitylongafterhisdeath.Aslongagoas1900,Teslawroteofaworldsystemofwirelesstransmission:

TheWorld-Systemhasresultedfromacombinationofseveraloriginaldiscoveriesmadebytheinventorinthecourseoflongcontinuedresearchandexperimentation.Itmakespossiblenotonlytheinstantaneousandprecisewirelesstransmissionofanykindofsignals,messagesorcharacters,toallpartsoftheworld,butalsotheinter-connectionoftheexistingtelegraph,telephone,andothersignalstationswithoutanychangeintheirpresentequipment.Byitsmeans,forinstance,atelephonesubscriberheremaycallupandtalktoanyothersubscriberontheglobe.

Thisissurelythemobilephonenetworkwehaveoveracenturylater.Andinhisautobiography,MyInventions,publishedin1919,heenvisagedthatinninemonths,withoutundueexpense,hecoulddeliver:

•Theinterconnectionofexistingtelegraphexchangesorofficesallovertheworld;

•Theestablishmentofasecretandnon-interferablegovernmenttelegraphservice;

•Theinterconnectionofallpresenttelephoneexchangesorofficesaroundthe

globe;

•Theuniversaldistributionofgeneralnewsbytelegraphortelephone,inconjunctionwiththepress;

•Theestablishmentofsucha‘WorldSystem’ofintelligencetransmissionforexclusiveprivateuse;

•Theinterconnectionandoperationofallstocktickersoftheworld;

•Theestablishmentofaworldsystemofmusicaldistribution,etc.;

•Theuniversalregistrationoftimebycheapclocksindicatingthehourwithastronomicalprecisionandrequiringnoattentionwhatever;

•Theworldtransmissionoftypedorhandwrittencharacters,letters,checks,etc.;

•Theestablishmentofauniversalmarineserviceenablingthenavigatorsofallshipstosteerperfectlywithoutcompass,todeterminetheexactlocation,hourandspeed;topreventcollisionsanddisasters,etc.;

•Theinaugurationofasystemofworldprintingonlandandsea;

•Theworldreproductionofphotographicpicturesandallkindsofdrawingsorrecords…

Herewehavetheinternet,GPSandSatnav.ButTeslawasnotjustavisionarywhodeliveredtheory.Hewasapracticalmanwhopioneeredalternatingcurrentthatmadeitpossibletotransmitelectricityoverlongdistances,allowingelectricalappliancestobepoweredbyremotepowerstations,ratherthanhaveapowerstationoneverystreetcornerastheearlierdirectcurrentsystemenvisaged.

HeisnowacknowledgedtohavebeatenGuglielmoMarconitotheinventionoftheradio.Indeed,hespokeofhisworldsystemofwirelesstransmissiontheyearbeforeMarconitransmittedthefirstradiosignalacrosstheAtlantic.HisTeslaCoil,inventedin1891,iswidelyusedinradioandtelevisionsets,andotherelectronicequipment.Hedevelopedelectricmotors,generators,X-rays,fluorescenttubes,remotecontrolandradar.However,manyofhisinventionsareunacknowledgedbecausehewassobusydevelopingnewideastobotherpatentingthem.

AlthoughhewasneverawardedaNobelPrize,threeNobellaureateslaudedhimas‘oneoftheoutstandingintellectsoftheworldwhopavedthewayformanyofthetechnologicaldevelopmentsofmoderntimes’.HeappearedonthecoverofTimemagazineandtheunitofmagneticinduction,aminorplanet,acrateronthemoon,anawardandanairportarenamedafterhim.HewasalsoplayedbyDavidBowieinthe2006movieThePrestige.

Otherwise,withhistalkofdeathraysandcommunicationfromotherplanets,hisimageenduresasthatofthemadscientist.Buthewasfarfrommad.Hewasoneoftheoutstandingfiguresofthe20thcentury,arguablymoreinfluentialthanEinstein,StravinskyorPicasso,and70yearsafterhisdeath,hedeservestobebetterknown.

PARTONE:STRANGERFROMASTRANGELAND

Chapter1–BirthofaVisionaryInmyboyhoodIsufferedfromapeculiarafflictionduetotheappearanceofimages,oftenaccompaniedbystrongflashesoflight,whichmarredthesightofrealobjectsandinterferedwithmythoughtandaction.TheywerepicturesofthingsandsceneswhichIhadreallyseen,neverofthoseIimagined.WhenawordwasspokentometheimageoftheobjectitdesignatedwouldpresentitselfvividlytomyvisionandsometimesIwasquiteunabletodistinguishwhetherwhatIsawwastangibleornot.Thiscausedmegreatdiscomfortandanxiety…

NikolaTesla

LegendhasitthatNikolaTesla–thepioneerwhobroughtelectriclighttonearlyeveryhomeontheplanet–wasborninadazzlingelectricalstorm.Sadly,themeteorologicalrecordsoftheBalkansinthe19thcenturyarenotreadilytohand.Butitwouldhavebeenafittingdebutforthemanwhomadehisownartificiallightningwithsparksupto1000ft(300m)longandthunderthatcouldbeheard15miles(24km)away.In1894,beforealargegatheringofpeopleinPhiladelphia,Teslaran250,000voltsthroughhisbodytodemonstratethesafetyofalternatingcurrent.Aneyewitnesstohisexperimentssaidthattherewas‘lightflamingateveryporeofhisskin,fromthetipsofhisfingersandfromtheendofeveryhaironhishead’.

Onthenightofhisbirth,hearingthethunder,accordingtofamilylore,thefearfulmidwifesaid:‘He’llbeachildofthestorm.’Hismotherresponded:‘No,oflight.’

BorninthedarkofthesmallCroatianvillageofSmiljanatmidnighton10July1856,TeslawasethnicallyaSerb.HisfamilyhadleftSerbia,thenundertheOttomanempire,forCatholicCroatiawhenitbecamepartoftheburgeoningAustrianEmpireinthe1700s.BothhisgrandfathershadfoughtinNapoleon’sIllyrianArmythataimedtokickouttheHapsburgsandtheOttomans,andunite

theBalkans.

Tesla’sfather,Milutin,wasanOrthodoxpriestandwantedNikolatofollowinhisfootsteps.MilutinwasapoetandpoliticalactivistwhowroteofaunitedYugoslavia,whichdidnotcomeaboutuntil1929.HismotherDjoukaneverlearnedtoread,butcouldmemorizeepicSerbianpoemsandlongpassagesoftheBible.Teslaattributedhisphenomenalmemorytoher.

ElectricPetTheoryItwastheTeslafamily’scat,Macak,thatintroducedthe3-year-oldTeslatoelectricity.‘AsIstrokedMacak’sback,Isawamiraclethatmademespeechlesswithamazement,’herecalled.‘Macak’sbackwasasheetoflightandmyhandproducedashowerofsparksloudenoughtobeheardalloverthehouse.’TheyoungTeslaaskedhisfatherwhathadcausedthesparks.Milutinreplied:‘Electricity,thesamethingyouseethroughthetreesinastorm.’ItledNikolatothinkthatnaturewasacatandGodwasstrokingit.

Thatnight,asitgrewdark,Nikolanoticedthatthecatwassurroundedbyahalofromthestaticelectricityinitsfur.In1939,lookingbackontheexperience,Teslasaid:‘Icannotexaggeratetheeffectofthismarvellousnightonmychildishimagination.DayafterdayIhaveaskedmyself“whatiselectricity?”andhavefoundnoanswer.80yearshavegonebysincethattimeandIstillaskthesamequestion,unabletoanswerit.’

MotherofInventionTeslainheritedhisflairforinventingfromhismotherwho,hesaid,‘descendedfromoneoftheoldestfamiliesinthecountryandalineofinventors.Bothherfatherandgrandfatheroriginatednumerousimplementsforhousehold,agriculturalandotheruses.’Butshestoodoutevenamongthisremarkablefamily.Hesaid:

Mymotherwasaninventorofthefirstorderandwould,Ibelieve,haveachievedgreatthingshadshenotbeensoremotefrommodernlifeanditsmulti-foldopportunities.Sheinventedandconstructedallkindsoftoolsanddevicesandwovethefinestdesignsfromthreadwhichwasspunbyher.Sheevenplantedthe

seeds,raisedtheplantsandseparatedthefibresherself.

Healsoinheritedhisimmenseappetiteforworkfromher.‘Sheworkedindefatigably,frombreakofdaytilllateatnight,’hesaid,‘andmostofthewearingapparelandfurnishingsofthehomewastheproductofherhands.Whenshewaspastsixty,herfingerswerestillnimbleenoughtotiethreeknotsinaneyelash.’Whilefamousforherembroidery,shealsodevisedamechanicaleggbeater.

InfamousFrogCatcherInhisautobiographyMyInventions,Teslarecalledhisfirstinvention.Oneofhisplaymateshadafishingrodandsetoutwithfriendstocatchfrogs.ButTeslawasleftoutbecausehehadhadaquarrelwiththeboy.Sohegotholdofapieceofsoftironwire,hammeredtheendintoapointbetweentwostones,bentitintoshapeandattachedittoastrongstring.Thenhecutabranchtomakearodand,armedwithsomebait,wenttothebrook.

However,hefoundthat,whilethefrogswouldnottakehisbait,theywouldbiteonthebarehook.Hekeptthissecretfromtheotherboyswhocaughtnothing,onlytellingthesecretatChristmas,inthegenerousspiritoftheseason.

Next,hemadeanearlyattempt‘toharnesstheenergiesofnaturetotheserviceofman,’hesaid.Heattachedarotortoaspindlewithadiscontheotherendinanattempttomakeaprimitivehelicopter.Topowerthedevice,heattachedfourJunebugs.

‘Thesecreatureswereremarkablyefficient,’hesaid,‘foroncetheywerestarted,theyhadnosensetostopandcontinuedwhirlingforhoursandhours,andthehotteritwas,thehardertheyworked.’ButthenanotherboycamealongandatetheJunebugsalive.Afterthat,Teslawasneverabletotouchanotherinsect.

Hetookclockstopiecesanddiscoveredhowdifficultitwastoputthembacktogetheragain.Healsomadehimselfawoodenswordand,imagininghimselfagreatSerbianwarrior,heslashedatcornstalks,ruiningthecropandearninghimselfaspankingfromhismother.

TragicDeathofDaneTeslapossessedapowerfulimagination,atthattime,filledwithsuperstitionandreligiousimages.Theywerealmosttangibleandoftenaccompaniedbyflashesoflightthatobscuredtherealworld.HedidnotthinkthispeculiarashiselderbrotherDanesawthesamethings.

TheyoungNikolawasovershadowedbyDanewho,hesaid,was‘giftedtoanextraordinarydegree’.But,whenNikolawas5,Danewasthrownbythefamily’sArabianhorseanddiedofhisinjuries.

‘Iwitnessedthetragicsceneand,althoughsomanyyearshaveelapsedsince,’hewrotein1919,‘myvisualimpressionofithaslostnoneofitsforce.’

However,therewasanotherversionofthisstory.InitDanewassaidtohavediedafterfallingdownthecellarstairs.HesufferedaheadinjuryandinhisdeliriumaccusedNikolaofpushinghim.Nearly70yearslaterhestillrecalledthenightofDane’sdeath:

Itwasadismalnightwithrainfallingintorrents.Mybrother,…anintellectualgiant,haddied.Mymothercametomyroom,tookmeinherarmsandwhisperedalmostinaudibly:‘ComeandkissDaniel.’Ipressedmymouthagainsttheice-coldlipsofmybrotherknowingonlythatsomethingdreadfulhadhappened.Mymotherputmeagaintobedandlingeringalittlesaidwithtearsstreaming:‘Godgavemeoneatmidnightandatmidnighthetookawaytheotherone.’

FollowingDane’sdeath,hisparentsrecalledhisachievements,makingNikola’sseemdullbycomparison.Thisunderminedhisconfidenceandheranaway,seekingrefugeinaninaccessiblemountainchapelthatwasonlyvisitedonceayear,remainingthere‘entombedforanight’.

ThetragedyofDane’sdeathneverlefthim.Fortherestofhislifehewouldhavenightmaresaboutit.AndafterDane’sdeath,Tesla’swakingfantasiesbecamemorerealandhebegantohaveout-of-bodyexperiences.

ChildhoodTraumasTherewereothertraumaticeventsinTesla’schildhood.Afterhavingabathona

summer’sday,hismotherputhimoutsidenakedtodryinthesunwherehewasattackedbyagoosethatseizedhimbythenavelwithitsbeakandalmostpulleditinsideout.Heoncefellheadlongintoahugevatofboilingmilk,riskeddrowningswimmingunderaraftandfoundhimselfalmostsweptoverawaterfallcreatedbyanearbydam.Aswellasbeinglost,frozenandentombed,heclaimedtohavehad‘hairbreadthescapesfrommaddogs,hogs,andotherwildanimals’.

Evenordinarythingsheldhiddenterrors.Hedevelopedastrangeaversiontowomen’searrings.Thesightofapearlwouldalmostgivehimafit,thoughhewasfascinatedbycrystals.Hewouldnottouchotherpeople’shair‘except,perhaps,atthepointofarevolver’.Hewouldgetafeverfromlookingatapeachandhatedhavingcamphoranywhereinthehouse.Droppinglittlesquaresofpaperintoadishfilledwithliquidproducedanawfultasteinhismouth.

Someofthesestrangequirkshelpedpreparehimfortheworldofscience.Hewouldcounthisstepsashewalkedandcalculatethevolumeofsoupplates,coffeecupsandpiecesoffood.Otherwisehedidnotenjoyhismeals.Everyrepeatedacthadtobedoneanumberoftimesthatwasdivisiblebythree.Ifnot,hewouldstartover.

UnsettlingTownLifeSoonafterDane’sdeath,Tesla’sfatherwaspromotedandmovedtoanonion-domedchurchinthetownofGospic.ThereNikolastartedschool.Hisfatherhadawellstockedlibrary,butflewintoaragewhenhediscoveredNikolareadingatnight.Fearingtheboy’seyesightwouldbestrained,hehidthecandles.UndeterredtheenterprisingNikolacasthisownandsealedupanycracksinhisroomsothelightcouldnotbeseenfromtheoutside.Thenhereaduntildawn.

Nikolamissedthecountrysideandfoundhimselfill-equippedforlifeinthetown.

‘InournewhouseIwasbutaprisoner,’hewrote,‘watchingthestrangepeopleIsawthroughmywindowblinds.MybashfulnesswassuchthatIwouldratherhavefacedaroaringlionthanoneofthecitydudeswhostrolledabout.’

Thenthisshyboymetwithanincident‘themerethoughtofwhichmademy

bloodcurdlelikesourmilkforyearsafterwards’.ComingdownfromthechurchbelfryoneSundayafterringingthebell,hesteppedonthetrainofoneofthetown’sgranddameswhich‘toreoffwitharippingnoisewhichsoundedlikeasalvoofmusketryfiredbyrawrecruits’.Hisfatherwaslividandslappedhimonthecheek.Thiswastheonlycorporalpunishmentheeveradministered.

DevelopingMindoverMatterUntiltheageof8,Teslaadmittedthathischaracterwas‘weakandvacillating’.ThenhecameuponanhistoricalnovelcalledAbafi–whichmeans‘SonofAba’–byHungarianwriterMiklósJósika.Init,theyoungrouéOlivérAbadirgraduallymendshiswaysandbecomesanationalheroinTransylvania’sfightagainsttheonslaughtoftheHungarians,TurksandAustrians.Followinghisexample,Teslasetaboutdevelopingwillpower.‘InalittlewhileIconqueredmyweaknessandfeltapleasureIneverknewbefore–thatofdoingasIwilled,’hesaid.

Followingtheincidentofthetorntrain,TeslahadbeenostracizedinGospic.Nowhemanagedtoredeemhimself.Thetownhadrecentlyorganizedafiredepartmentandwasshowingoffitsnewfireengine.Theentirepopulaceturnedoutfortheceremonyandspeeches.Withthehoseattheready,theorderwasgiventostartpumping,butnotadropofwatercameout.Whilethebigwigstriedinvaintolocatethetrouble,Teslafeltinstinctivelyforthesuctionhosethatrandownintotheriver.Hefounditcollapsed.Plainlytherewasablockage,sohewadedintotheriverandunblockedit.Suddenlyhewastheheroofthedayandfoundhimselfcarriedshoulderhigh.

Calculus,CoilsandTurbinesAt10yearsold,TeslaenteredthelocalRealGymnasium–theequivalentofaBritishprepschooloranAmericanjuniorhighschool.Ithadawell-equippedphysicsdepartment.

‘Iwasinterestedinelectricityalmostfromthebeginningofmyeducationalcareer,’hesaid.‘IreadallthatIcouldfindonthesubject…[and]experimentedwithbatteriesandinductioncoils.’

Hewasalsokeenonwaterwheelsandturbines,andexperimenteddesigningaflyingmachinewhich,herealizedlater,couldnotworkbecauseitdependedonperpetualmotion.Then,afterseeingapictureofNiagaraFalls,hetoldhisUncleJosifthatonedayhewouldgotoAmericaandputabigwheelunderthefallstoharnessitspower.

FinishingattheRealGymnasiumattheageof14,Teslafellill.Duringhisyouthheclaimedthatthreetimeshewasinsuchabadwaythathewas‘givenupbyphysicians’.Whilehewasrecuperating,thelocallibrarysentallthebooksithadnotcataloguedforNikolatoreadandclassify.Itwasthen,forthefirsttime,hecameacrosstheworksofMarkTwain,whomhewouldlaterbefriend.

Whenherecovered,hisfathersenthimtoKarlovac–alsoknownasKarlstadt–totheHigherRealGymnasiumtopreparehimfortheseminary.Nikola’sfatherwasstilldeterminedthathissonshouldfollowhimintothepriesthood,aprospectwhichfilledTeslawithdread.AttheHigherRealGymnasium,heshowedearlysignsofgenius,performingintegralcalculusinhishead,leadinghisteacherstothinkhewascheating.

AgaintheGymnasiumatKarlovachadagoodphysicsdepartment.TeslabecamefascinatedbytheCrookesradiometertheyhadthere.InventedbyBritishscientistWilliamCrookes,itconsistedoffourmetalvanes,polishedononeside,blackenedontheother,mountedonaverticalpivotinaglassbulb.Themechanismspunwhenbrightlightfellonit.ItwasalsoinKarlovac,in1870,hesaw,forthefirsttime,asteamtrain.

ContractingCholeraandRecuperatingWhenhehadcompletedhisstudiesatKarlovac,Teslagotamessagefromhisfathertellinghimtogointothemountainswithahuntingparty.Thispuzzledhimashisfatherdidnotapproveofhunting,soheignoredthemessageandreturnedtoGospictofinditinthegripofacholeraepidemic.Thatwaswhyhisfatherwantedhimtostayaway.Nikolasooncamedownwiththediseaseandwasconfinedtobedforninemonths.Whenhewasatdeath’sdoor,hisfathertriedtoencouragehiminthehopehewouldrally.Nikolaseizedtheopportunityandsaidtohisfather:‘PerhapsImaygetwellifyouwillletmestudyengineering.’Hisfatherreplied:‘Youwillgotothebesttechnicalinstitutionintheworld.’Afterthathepulledthrough.

Duringhisrecuperation,hewouldtakelongwalksintheforest.Alongthewayheconceivedawaytosendlettersandparcelsbetweencontinentsviatubesundertheoceans.Mailwouldbepackedinballsthatwouldbeforcedalongthepipesbywaterathighpressure.However,hedidnottakeintoaccounttheresistancetotheflowofwaterandthesystemwouldnothaveworked.

Healsothoughtupaschemetospeedupworldwidetravel.Astationaryringwouldbeerectedhighabovetheequator,withtheworldturningunderneathit.Peoplewouldtravelupontothering,thenwaitfortheirdestinationtoappearbelow.Heconcededthatitwouldbeimpossibletobuildsucharing,butthesethoughtexperimentspreparedhismindforlaterwork.Hesaid:

IobservedtomydelightthatIcouldvisualizewiththegreatestfacility.Ineedednomodels,drawingsorexperiments.Icouldpicturethemallasrealinmymind.ThusIhavebeenledunconsciouslytoevolvewhatIconsideranewmethodofmaterializinginventiveconceptsandideas,whichisradicallyoppositetothepurelyexperimentalandisinmyopinioneversomuchmoreexpeditiousandefficient.

Asgoodashisword,Tesla’sfathersecuredascholarshipforhimfromtheGrenzlandsverwaltungsbehoerde–theMilitaryFrontierAdministrationAuthority–paying420guldenayearforhimtoattendtheJoanneumPolytechnicinGraz,Austria.Whenhehasfinished,hewouldthenhavetoserve8yearsintheMilitaryAuthority.Teslaleftforcollegewithabagcoveredwiththeembroidereddesignshismotherwasfamousfor.Hetreasuredthatbagfortherestofhislife.

Chapter2–ElectricBrainwavesIthascostmeyearsofthoughttoarriveatcertainresults,bymanybelievedtobeunattainable,forwhichtherearenownumerousclaimants,andthenumberoftheseisrapidlyincreasing…

NikolaTesla

ArrivingatthePolytechnicin1875,Tesladidnotstudyengineeringinitially.Perhapsindeferencetohisfather,hestudiedphysicsandmathematicswiththeaimofbecomingaprofessorlikehisUncleJosif.ThePolytechnichadrecentlyboughtaGrammedynamowhichphysicsprofessorJacobPöschlusedtoteachhisstudentsaboutelectriccurrents.Duringhislectures,heconnectedthedynamotoabattery,soitwouldworkasamotor.

WhileProfessorPöschlwasmakingdemonstrations,runningthemachineasamotor,thebrushesgavetrouble,sparkingbadly,andIobservedthatitmightbepossibletooperateamotorwithouttheseappliances.Buthedeclaredthatitcouldnotbedoneanddidmethehonourofdeliveringalectureonthesubject,attheconclusionheremarked,‘MrTeslamayaccomplishgreatthings,buthecertainlywillneverdothis.Itwouldbeequivalenttoconvertingasteadilypullingforce,likethatofgravityintoarotaryeffort.Itisaperpetual-motionscheme,animpossibleidea.’Butinstinctissomethingwhichtranscendsknowledge.Wehave,undoubtedly,certainfinerfibresthatenableustoperceivetruthswhenlogicaldeduction,oranyotherwilfuleffortofthebrain,isfutile.

Teslawouldgoontomakeamotorthatdidwithouttroublesomebrushes.Itwashisfirstgreatinvention.

ExperimentingwithThoughtWhilesomewhatintimidatedbyhisprofessor’sauthority,Teslawasdeterminedtoprovethathewasrightand‘undertookthetaskwithallthefireandboundlessconfidenceofyouth’.Totakeupthechallengeofbuildingaspark-freemotor,

Teslaswitchedtotheengineeringcourse.However,electricalengineeringwasinitsinfancyandthecourseinGrazconcentratedoncivilengineering.Consequently,Teslareturnedtohisthoughtexperiments:

Istartedbyfirstpicturinginmymindadirect-currentmachine,runningitandfollowingthechangingflowofthecurrentsinthearmature.ThenIwouldimagineanalternatorandinvestigatetheprogressestakingplaceinasimilarmanner.NextIwouldvisualizesystemscomprisingmotorsandgeneratorsandoperatetheminvariousways.TheimagesIsawweretomeperfectlyrealandtangible.

Teslawasadiligentstudent–forthefirstyear.Heworkedfrom3amuntil11pm,7daysaweek,takingnoholidays.Hepassedhisexamswayaheadofhisfellowstudents.Butwhenhewenthomewithhisexemplaryexamcertificateshisfatherwasfurious.‘Thatalmostkilledmyambition,’hewrote.

Itwasonlylater,afterhisfatherhaddied,thathediscoveredlettersfromhisprofessorstellinghimtotakehissonawayfromthepolytechnic,otherwisehewouldkillhimselfwithoverwork.

CarousingandGamblingInhissecondyearatcollegeTeslagavehimselfovertocarousingand,inhisthirdyear,hegaveupgoingtolecturesaltogether.Thisledtohisscholarshipbeingcancelled.Hetriedtogetanotherscholarshipfromthepublishersofthepro-Serbiannewspaper,QueenBee,callinghimselfa‘technician’andsayinghecouldspeakItalian,FrenchandEnglish,aswellasSerbian,CroatianandGerman.Itwasrefusedandhewasthrownoutofschoolforgamblingand,itwassaid,‘womanizing’.HedisappearedfromGrazwithoutawordandfriendsfearedthathehaddrownedintheriver.

In1878,here-appearedinMaribor,whichwasthenintheAustrianprovinceofStyria,nowinSlovenia.Hefoundworkthereasadraftsmaninatoolanddieshop,thoughheseemstohavespentmuchofhistimeplayingcardsformoney.Hisfather,whodidnotapproveofgambling,foundoutwherehewasandcametobeghimtoreturntoschool,thistimeinPrague.

Afewweeksafterhisfather’svisit,Teslawasarrestedasavagrantanddeported

backtoGospic.Athisfather’schurch,hemetandfellinlovewithagirlcalledAnna.StrollingbytheriveroronlongwalksbacktohishometownofSmiljan,theydiscussedthefuture.Shewantedafamily;hewantedtobeanelectricalengineer.Thenhisfatherfellseriouslyill.Hediedsoonafter,aged60,andwasgivenafuneralfittingforasaint.

Teslacontinuedgambling.Onedayhismothercametohimandgavehimarollofnotes,saying:‘Thesooneryouloseallwepossessthebetteritwillbe.Iknowthatyouwillgetoverit.’

Hesaid:‘Iconqueredmypassionthenandthereandonlyregrettedthatithadnotbeenahundredtimesasstrong.Inotonlyvanquishedbuttoreitfrommyheartsoasnottoleaveevenatraceofdesire.EversincethattimeIhavebeenasindifferenttoanyformofgamblingastopickingteeth.’Hereportedgivingupexcessivesmokingandcoffeedrinkingwithsimilarease.AndheseemstohavegivenuphispassionforAnnatoo.

TheComingoftheTelephoneTeslathenhonouredhisdeadfather’swishes.Supportedbytwomaternaluncles,hewenttoPragueUniversityandsignedupforcoursesinmathematics,experimentalphysicsandphilosophy.ThisintroducedhimtotheScottishphilosopherDavidHume(1711–76)andtheideathathumanbeingswerebornablankslatethatwasshapedthroughlifebysensoryperceptions–ideasthatwouldcomeintoplaywhenhelaterworkedonrobotics.

TheintellectualfermentofPraguestimulatedTeslaand,again,heputhismindtobuildinganewtypeofelectricmotor,removingthecommutatortoeliminatethesparking.Eventually,themoneyfromhisunclesdriedup.TeslaneededajobandhesawinthenewspapersthatoneofThomasEdison’sagents,TivadarPuskás,wassettingupatelephoneexchangeinBudapest,havingalreadybuiltoneinParis.Puskás’ideawastobuildtelephoneexchangesinmajorEuropeancities.UntilthenAlexanderGrahamBellhadonlythoughtofinstallinghisinventiononprivatelineslinkingtwolocations.

However,inBudapest,noworkwasforthcoming,soTeslatookagovernmentjobasadraftsmanintheCentralTelegraphOffice.Thisboredhimandhequittodevotehimselffulltimetoinventing.Comingupwithnopracticalidea,hehada

nervousbreakdown.

AFlashofInspirationTeslawasonlyrescuedfromadeepdepressionbyhisnewfriendAnthonySzigeti.OneafternoontheywerewalkingintheCityParkrecitingpoetry.‘Atthatage,’hesaid,‘Iknewbooksbyheart,wordforword.’Asthesunwassetting,hebeganapassageinGermanfromGoethe’sFaust.Thequoteconcludes:

Alasthewingsthatliftthemindnoaid

Ofwingstoliftthebodycanbequeathme.

Teslasaid:

AsIutteredtheseinspiringwordstheideacamelikeaflashoflightningandinaninstantthetruthwasrevealed.IdrewwithastickonthesandthediagramshownsixyearslaterinmyaddressbeforetheAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers,andmycompanionunderstoodthemperfectly.TheimagesIsawwerewonderfullysharpandclearandhadthesolidityofmetalandstone,somuchsothatItoldhim,‘Seemymotorhere;watchmereverseit.’Icannotbegintodescribemyemotions.

TheideaTeslahadcomeupwithwasusingarotatingelectricfieldwithinthemotor.

AlthoughTesladescribedhis‘Eureka!’momentinhisautobiography,hedidnotpatentthealternatingcurrent(AC)motoruntil1903.Hedidfurtherexperimentsonitin1883and1887,andtheideawasstillnotfullyworkedoutwhenheaddressedtheAIEEin1888.

However,TeslahadsolvedtheproblemthatProfessorPöschlhadsaidwasimpossible.Hewasnowconvincedhewasaninventor,andhehadmadetheintellectualbreakthroughthatwouldmakehimrichandfamous.

TeslamayhavealsofoundinspirationattheworksofGanzandCompanyinBudapestwhereACelectricaldistributionwasbeingdeveloped.Electricitycanbetransmitteddownwireswithlesslossathighervoltages.WithACelectricity

youcanstepupthevoltage–andstepitdownagain–usingatransformer.IntheGanzworks,engineersfoundthatametalballplacedontopofatransformerwouldrevolve.Later,TeslawouldusethisinhisEggofColumbusdemonstrations.

PassporttoParisEventually,TeslawastakenonbyTivadarPuskás’brotherFerenctoworkonthenewtelephoneexchange.TivadarwastheninParis,helpingintroduceEdison’sincandescentlightingsystem.WhenthetelephoneexchangeinBudapestwasfinished,FerencsoldittoalocalbusinessmanandTivadarofferedTeslaandSzigetijobsintheEdisonorganizationinParis.Teslawasimmediatelystruckbythe‘CityofLight’.

Inevercanforgetthedeepimpressionthatmagiccityproducedonmymind.ForseveraldaysaftermyarrivalIroamedthroughthestreetsinutterbewildermentatthenewspectacle.Theattractionsweremanyandirresistible,but,alas,theincomewasspentassoonasreceived.WhenMrPuskásaskedmehowIwasgettingalong…I[replied]‘thelast29daysofthemontharethetoughest’

EmployedattheEdisonworksinthesuburbofIvry,Teslalearnedagreatdealaboutthepracticalbusinessofbuildinggeneratorsandmotors.Atthetime,littleofthebasicsciencehadbeendoneandprogresswasmadebytrialanderror.However,Teslahadtheadvantagethat,unliketheotherengineers,hehadstudiedphysicsandmathematics,andcouldmakecalculations.

Hisschedule,asusual,wasunrelenting.Hewouldgetupinthemorningat5amandswim27lapsofabathhouseontheSeine.Intheeveningshewouldplaybilliardswithhiscolleagues.Eventhen,hewouldexplainhisideaforanACmotor,againinthedirtwithastick.

Inhissparetime,heworkedonalternativedesignsforhisflyingmachineandoutlinedthespecificationsforhisACmotorinanotebook.Itwouldneedthreedifferentalternatingcurrentsdeliveredtothemotordownsixwiresat120°outofphase.Thiswouldproducearotatingmagneticfield.ButhecouldnotgetanyofEdison’smeninterested.Thebusinessmakingmoneyatthetimewasdeliveringelectriclightratherthanpoweringmotors.Theotherproblemwasthat,usingsixwires,ratherthanthethreeusedinEdison’ssystem,woulduse

muchmorecopperwhichwasamajorfactorinthecostofnewequipmentatthetime.

OnlyoneEdisonman,DavidCunningham,sawthepotentialinTesla’smotorandsuggestedthattheysetupastockcompany.ButTeslawasunfamiliarwiththeAmericanwayofdoingbusinessandnothingcameofit.

Hewasstillsufferingfromseeingflashinglights.OnenightinParis,hesaid:‘Ifeltthepositivesensationthatmybrainhadcaughtfire.Iwasalight,asthoughasmallsunwaslocatedinitandIpassedthewholenightapplyingcoldcompressionstomytorturedhead.’

However,thoughpainful,thesedidnotworryhim.Throughouthislife,hesaid,‘theseluminousphenomenastillmanifestthemselvesfromtimetotime,aswhenanewideaopeninguppossibilitiesstrikesme…’

SecretsinStrasbourgTeslawassentasatrouble-shootertolightingstationsinFranceandGermany.HeoversawtheilluminationofanoperahouseinParis,atheatreinBavariaandcafésinBerlin.AfterhelpingdevelopanautomaticregulatorforEdisondynamos,hewassenttofixtheilluminationsatthecentralrailwaystationinStrasbourg,which,intheFranco-PrussianWarof1870–71,hadbeentakenoverbyGermany.

Therehadbeenaproblemtherewhenthewiringhadshorted,blowingoutasectionofthewallduringavisitofKaiserWilhelmIandaGerman-speakingengineerwasneededtosortitout.Inthestation’spowerhouse,therewasaSiemensACgenerator.Intheirsparetime,TeslaandSzigetisecretlyexperimentedwiththeprototypeofoneofTesla’sACmotors.

‘ItwasthesimplestmotorIcouldconceiveof,’saidTesla.‘Ithadonlyonecircuit,andnowindingsonthearmatureorthefields.Itwasofmarvelloussimplicity.’

Theproblemwasitdidnotwork.Theinitialtroublewasthatitusedabrassringthatwouldnotmagnetize.Steelhadtobeaddedinvariouspositions.Then,saidTesla,‘Ifinallyhadthesatisfactionofseeingrotationeffectedbyalternating

currentofdifferentphase,andwithoutslidingcontactsorcommutator,asIhadconceivedayearbefore.Itwasanexquisitepleasure,butnottocomparewiththedeliriumofjoyfollowingthefirstrevelation.’HehadfinallyprovedProfessorPöschlwrong.

PassagetoNewYorkTeslatriedunsuccessfullytoraisemoneytobackhisinventioninStrasbourg.HereturnedtoParisexpectingabonusforhisworkinStrasbourgwhichdidnotmaterialize.Hetriedtofindfinancialbackingtheretoo,againunsuccessfully.However,hedidcatchtheeyeofCharlesBatchelorwhohadbeenheadoftheEdisonorganizationinParis.HewasreturningtoNewYorktoheadtheEdisonMachineWorksthereandaskedTeslatocomewithhim.TosmoothTesla’spassageintotheEdisonorganizationBatchelorgotaletterofintroductionfromTivadarPuskásaddressedtoEdison,saying:‘Iknowtwogreatmenandyouareoneofthem;theotheristhisyoungman.’

JustbeforeleavingforAmerica,Teslaspenttimewithscientistsstudyingmicroscopicorganismsindrinkingwater.Havingsufferedcholerabefore,henowshunnedunpurifiedwater,avoidedpoorqualityrestaurants,andscouredthecrockeryandcutlerybeforeeating.Laterhewrote:‘Ifyouwouldwatchonlyforafewminutesthehorriblecreatures,hairyanduglybeyondanythingyoucanconceive,tearingeachotherupwiththejuicesdiffusingthroughoutthewater–youwouldneveragaindrinkadropofunboiledorunsterilizedwater.’

Hisunclesagainpaidforthetrip.ThejourneytoNewYorkwasnotahappyone.Hismoneyandmostofhisbelongingswerestolen,andtherewassomesortofmutinyontheshipandTeslanearlygotpushedoverboard.On6June1884,TeslasailedintoNewYorkontheCityofRichmondjustasthefirststonesoftheStatueofLiberty’spedestalwerebeinghauledintoplace.Hewas28yearsold.

AlthoughhespokeEnglish,TeslahaddifficultymakinghimselfunderstoodasthecustomsofficerrecordedthathewasfromSweden.Teslathenrecalledtheclerkbarking:‘KisstheBible.Twentycents.’HisfirstimpressionsofAmericawerenotgood.Hewrote:

WhatIhadleftwasbeautiful,artistic,andfascinatingineveryway.WhatIsawherewasmachined,rough,andunattractive.Aburlypolicemanwastwirlinghis

stickwhichlookedtomeasbigasalog.Iapproachedhimpolitelywiththerequesttodirectme.‘Sixblocksdown,thentotheleft,’hesaid,withmurderinhiseyes.‘IsthisAmerica?’Iaskedmyselfinpainfulsurprise.‘ItisacenturybehindEuropeincivilization.’

Hewenttoworkimmediately.Passingamachineshop,hesawamechanicwhohadjustgivenupontryingtofixanelectricmachineandofferedtohelp.Inoneversionofthestory,Tesladidthis‘withoutthoughtofcompensation’;inanother,itwasoneofthemachineshehadhelpeddesignandhecharged$20.Ineithercase,legendhasthathesaid:‘Ihaditrunningperfectlyinanhour.’

Chapter3–MeetingThomasEdisonIwasthrilledtothemarrowbymeetingEdisonwhobeganmyAmericaneducationrightthenandthere.Iwantedtohavemyshoesshined,somethingIconsideredbelowmydignity.Edisonsaid:‘Tesla,youwillshinetheshoesyourselfandlikeit.’Heimpressedmetremendously.Ishinedmyshoesandlikedit.

NikolaTesla

TeslawassoontoobusytodwellontheshortcomingsoftheNewWorld.ThedynamostheEdisonorganizationhadinstalledontheSSOregon,thentheholderoftheBlueRibandforthefastesttransatlanticpassengercrossing,hadbrokendown,delayinghersailing.Teslaimmediatelyvolunteeredtomaketherepairs.HeandhiscrewworkedovernightandtheOregonsetsailthefollowingdayforanotherrecord-breakingrun.

ReturningtoEdison’sManhattanofficesat5am,TeslabumpedintoCharlesBatchelorandEdison,whowerejustgoinghome.AccordingtoTesla,Edisonsaid:‘HereisourParisianrunningaroundatnight.’TheyhadmetbeforeinParisandseemtohavegotonfamously.Edisonrecalled:

Oh,he’sagreattalker,and,say,he’sagreateatertoo.IrememberthefirsttimeIsawhim.WeweredoingsomeexperimentinginalittleplaceoutsideParis,andonedayalong,lankyladcameinandsaidhewantedajob.Weputhimtoworkthinkinghewouldsoontireofhisnewoccupationforwewereputtingintwentytotwenty-fourhoursadaythen,buthestuckrighttoitandafterthingseaseduponeofmymensaidtohim:‘Well,Tesla,you’veworkedprettyhard,nowI’mgoingtotakeyouintoParisandgiveyouasplendidsupper.’SohetookhimtothemostexpensivecaféinParis–aplacewheretheybroilanextrathicksteakbetweentwothinsteaks.Teslastowedawayoneofthosebigfellowswithoutanytroubleandmymansaidtohim:‘Anythingelse,myboy?I’mstandingyouatreat.’‘Well,ifyoudon’tmind,sir,’saidmyapprentice,‘I’lltryanothersteak.’Afterheleftmehewentintootherlinesandhasaccomplishedquitealittle.

AttheirfirstmeetinginNewYork,TeslaexplainedthathehadjustreturnedfromtheOregonandhadrepairedboththedynamos.Edisonsaidnothingandwalkedaway.Whenhewasalittledistanceaway,TeslasawhimturntoBatchelorandsay:‘Batchelor,thisisadamngoodman.’

EmulatingEdisonPlainlyTeslahadimpressedEdisonandbeganworkattheEdisonMachineWorkson8June1884,onlytwodaysafterarrivinginAmerica.Heworkedhard.‘Fornearlyayear,myregularhourswerefrom10.30amto5o’clockthenextmorningwithoutaday’sexception,’hesaid.

PossiblythinkingthatTeslacamefromTransylvania,EdisonaskedwhetherTeslahadevertastedhumanflesh.TeslawasalsoappalledatEdison’s‘utterdisregardofthemostelementaryrulesofhygiene’,butenquiredwhatthegreatman’sdietconsistedof.‘Youmeantomakemesoall-firedsmart?’saidEdison.Teslanodded.

Edisonreplied,perhapsinjest,thatheateadailyregimenofWelshRarebitas‘it’stheonlybreakfastguaranteedtorenewone’smentalfacultiesafterthelongvigilsoftoil’.Teslabegantodothesamedespiteaprotestingstomach.Buthisadmirationwasundiminished.Teslawroteinhisautobiography:

Iwasamazedatthiswonderfulmanwho,withoutearlyadvantagesandscientifictraining,hadaccomplishedsomuch.Ihadstudiedadozenlanguages,delvedinliteratureandart,spentmybestyearsinlibrariesreadingallsortsofstuffthatfellintomyhands,fromNewton’sPrincipiatothenovelsofPauldeKock,andfeltthatmostofmylifehadbeensquandered.

Theadmirationwasmutual.AccordingtoTesla,Edisontoldhim:‘Ihavehadmanyhard-workingassistants,butyoutakethecake.’

However,Teslastilltookthetimetoenjoyagoodmeal–thetabled’hôteatarestaurantinGreenwichVillagewithabottleofredwine–andplaybilliards,agamehehadmasteredasastudent.AccordingtoEdison’spersonalsecretaryAlfredO.Tate:‘Heplayedabeautifulgame.Hewasnotahighscorerbuthiscushionshotsdisplayedaskillequaltothatofaprofessionalexponentofthisart.’

AvoidingtheACSubjectTeslasetaboutredesigningEdison’sdynamos,replacingtheirlongmagnetswithmoreefficientshortcores,claimingthattheygavethreetimestheoutputforthesameamountofiron.HekeptquietabouthisACmotorthough,perhapsrecallingtheindifferenceofEdison’smeninParis.Once,though,hewastemptedtobringupthesubjectwithEdisonhimself.

‘ItwasonConeyIsland,’hesaid,‘andjustaboutasIwasgoingtoexplainittohim,someonecameandshookhandswithEdison.Thatevening,whenIcamehome,Ihadafeverandmyresolveroseupagainnottospeakfreelyaboutittootherpeople.’OtherwiseTeslaandEdisongotonwellenough.TeslatoldthetaleofvisitingEdison’sofficeat65FifthAvenue,whenthegreatmanwasplayingagameguessingweights.

‘Edisonfeltmealloverandsaid:“Teslaweighs152poundstotheounce”–andheguesseditexactly,’Teslarecalled.HeaskedhowEdisoncouldguesshisweightsoaccuratelyandwastold:‘HewasemployedforalongtimeinaChicagoslaughterhousewhereheweighedthousandsofhogseveryday.’

TeslawouldoccasionallydinewithEdison,Batchelorandothersofthecompany’stopbrassinarestaurantacrosstheroadfromtheshowroomat65FifthAvenuewheretheywouldswapstoriesandtelljokes.AfterwardstheywouldgotoabilliardroomwhereTeslawouldimpressthemwithhisbankshotsandhisvisionofthefuture.

ArcLightingCompaniesthathadgrownupmakingarclightswerenowmovingintoincandescentlighting,robbingEdisonofvaluablecontracts.Hestruckbackbygoingintoarclightingwhichwasmoresuitableforstreetlightingorilluminatinglargespaces.Hefiledanarc-lamppatentinJune1884andleftTeslatoworkoutthedetails.Teslacompletedthejob,buthissystemwasshelvedwhenEdisonmadeadealwithadedicatedarc-lightingcompanyand,bythen,largerincandescentbulbssuitableforlightinglargerspaceshadbeendeveloped.Teslafeltcheated.

‘Themanagerhadpromisedme$50,000,’hewrote,‘butwhenIdemandedpayment,hemerelylaughed,saying“YouarestillaParisian!Whenyoubecomeafully-fledgedAmerican,youwillappreciateanAmericanjoke.”’

Asitwas,Teslacouldnotevengethissalaryof$18aweekincreasedtoamodest$25.Thiswasapainfulshockandheresigned.Laterinlife,Teslare-assessedhisopinionofEdison.WhentheWizardofMenloParkdiedin1931,Teslasaid:

Ifhehadaneedletofindinahaystackhewouldnotstoptoreasonwhereitwasmostlikelytobe,butwouldproceedatoncewiththefeverishdiligenceofabee,toexaminestrawafterstrawuntilhefoundtheobjectofhissearch…Iwasalmostasorrywitnessofhisdoings,knowingjustalittletheoryandcalculationwouldhavesavedhimninetypercentofthelabour…Trustinghimselfentirelytohisinventor’sinstinctandpracticalAmericansense…thetrulyprodigiousamountofhisactualaccomplishmentsislittleshortofamiracle.

IndebtedtoEdisonDespitetheriftbetweenthetwomen,TeslawasindebtedtoEdison.WithEdison’sformerpatentattorneyLemuelSerrell,Teslabeganpatentingimprovementstoarclightsanddynamos.

InSerrell’soffice,TeslametB.A.VailandRobertLane.TheysetuptheTeslaElectricLightandManufacturingCompany.TeslatriedtointeresttheminhisACmotor,buttheywereonlyinterestedinarclighting.TogethertheysetaboutlightingthestreetsandfactoriesinRahway,NewJersey,Vail’shometown.MeanwhileTeslausedthepatentshehadbeengrantedtobuyshares.

WhentheelectrificationofRahwaywascompleted,ElectricalReviewfeatureditonthefrontpageofits14August1886issue.ItwassosuccessfulthatVailandLanedecidedtoruntheutility,leavingnoroleforTesla.Hewasbouncedfromthecompanyleavinghimwithnothingbut‘abeautifullyengravedcertificateofstockofhypotheticalvalue’.Hecouldnotevenusehisowninventionsaspatentshadbeenassignedtothecompany.Itwasthe‘hardestblowIeverreceived,’hesaid.Inthewinterof1886–87,hewasforcedtodigditches.

Ilivedthoughayearofterribleheartachesandbittertears,mysufferingbeing

intensifiedbymymaterialwant.Myhigheducationinvariousbranchesofscience,mechanicsandliteratureseemedtomelikeamockery.

RescuedbyaPatentIn1884,Edisonhadbeenexperimentingwithwaysofproducingelectricityfromburningcoalorgas.Itendedwhenanexplosionblewthelaboratory’swindowsout.However,Teslafiguredoutasimpler–andsafer–waytodoit,andinMarch1886,heappliedforapatentforhisthermo-magneticmotor.

WhileTeslawasdiggingditches,hetoldhisforemanabouthisinventions.ItseemsthattheforemanhadbeendiggingtheditchesfortheundergroundcablesthatconnectedWesternUnion’sheadofficewiththestockandcommodityexchanges,andknewAlfredS.Brown(1836–1906)whowassuperintendentofWesternUnion’sNewYorkMetropolitanDistrict.

BrownprobablyknewofTeslafromthearticleinElectricalReviewandwasimpressedbyhisthermoelectricmotorandhisACinventions.

TheEggofColumbusEagertoexploitTesla’sideas,BrowncontactedCharlesF.Peck,awealthylawyerfromNewJersey.However,PeckknewofthegeneralprejudiceagainstACandrefusedeventowitnesssometests.

‘Iwasdiscouraged,’Teslasaid.Butthenherememberedthe‘EggofColumbus’.ThestorygoesthatColumbuswashavingdinnerwithsomeSpanishnobleswhomockedhim.Sohechallengedthemtostandaneggonitsend.Theyalltriedandfailed.Thenhetooktheegg,tappeditlightlyononeend,crackingtheshellanddentingit,soitwouldstandupright.AsaresulthewasgrantedanaudiencewithQueenIsabellaandwonhersupportforhisvoyage.

TeslatoldPeckthathecouldgoonebetter.Hewouldmakeaneggstandonitsendwithoutcrackingtheshell.IfhecouldtrounceColumbus,Teslaasked,couldhecountonPeck’ssupport?Pecksaidhehadnocrownjewelstopawn,buthewouldhelp.

Afterthemeeting,Teslatookahard-boiledeggtoablacksmithandgothimto

castoneincopper.Thenheplacedfourcoilsunderthetopofawoodentabletocreateamagneticrotatingfield.Whenheturnedonthecurrent,theeggbegantospin.Growingfaster,itceasedtowobbleandstoodonitsend.Peckwasimpressed.NotonlyhadTeslagoneonebetterthanColumbus,hehaddemonstratedtheprincipleofhisACmotor.

TeslaElectricCompanyTogetherTesla,BrownandPeckformedtheTeslaElectricCompanyinApril1887.Teslawouldgetathirdshareofanymoneygenerated.BrownandPeckwouldsplitanotherthird,andathirdwouldbereinvested.Teslaalsoreceivedasalaryof$250amonth,whileBrownandPeckwouldcoverthecostofthepatents.Thefollowingmonth,SzigeticametoNewYorktoworkasTesla’sassistant.

Theysetupalaboratoryat89LibertyStreetaboveaprintingcompany.Duringthedaytheprintingshopusedasteamenginetopoweritspresses.AtnightitprovidedpowerforTesla’sexperiments.

FirstTesladevelopedhisthermomagneticmotorintothepyromagneticgenerator,usingthesameprinciples.Teslabelievedthiswasagreatinvention,butitdidnotworkverywellandhispatentapplicationwasdenied.Nevertheless,PeckencouragedhimtocontinueinventingandhismindturnedbacktotheACmotorhebuiltinStrasbourg.

Thistime,insteadofasinglecoil,heusedfourcoilswoundaroundalaminatedring.TwoseparateACcurrentswerefedtothepairsofcoilsonoppositesides.Ifthesetwocurrentswere90°outofphase–thatis,whenonewasatitsmaximumpositivevalue,theotherwasatitsmaximumnegativevalue–arotatingelectricalfieldwasproduced.ToTesla’sdelight,therotor–initiallyashoepolishtinbalancedonapin–begantospin.

Fromthisprototype,TeslaandSzigetiproducedtwofull-scalemotors.Theywere,Teslasaid,‘exactlyasIhadimaginedthem.Imadenoattempttoimprovethedesign,butmerelyreproducethepicturesastheyappearedtomyvisionandtheoperationwasasIexpected.’

Patentswereappliedforandissuedon1May1888.ThemotorswerethentestedfortheirefficiencybyProfessorWilliamAnthony(1835–1908)ofCornell

Universityand,on15May,Tesladeliveredhisground-breakingpaperANewAlternatingCurrentMotortotheAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers(AIEE).

Chapter4–TheWestinghouseCorporationThereweremanydayswhen[I]didnotknowwheremynextmealwascomingfrom.ButIwasneverafraidtowork,Iwentwheresomemenwerediggingaditch…[and]saidIwantedtowork.Thebosslookedatmygoodclothesandwhitehandsandlaughedtotheothers…buthesaid,‘Allright.Spitonyourhands.Getintheditch.’AndIworkedharderthananybody.AttheendofthedayIhad$2.

NikolaTesla

PowerstationshadsprungupacrossAmericaandEuropetoprovideelectriclightatnight.Inthe1880stheownerssawelectricmotorsasawaytosellpowertofactoriesandstreetcarlinesduringtheday.However,mostofthepowerstationsproducedDCandBrownandPeckwerealittledubiousofTesla’sfixationwithAC.

OtherinventorshadusedACtopowerarclights.ThiswasparticularlypopularinEuropewhereexperimentersfoundtheycouldraiseorlowerthevoltageofanalternatingcurrentusingprimitivetransformers.EngineersattheGanzCompanyfoundthat,atahighvoltage,electricitycouldbedistributedoverlongdistancesusingthincopperwires.Then,tomakeitsafetouseinthehome,itwouldbesteppeddownusingatransformer.

WestinghouseandACIn1884,GeorgeWestinghousebecameinterestedinelectriclightingandhiredtheinventorWilliamStanleyJr(1858–1916),whohadinventedanincandescentlampandaself-regulatingdynamo.Atfirst,WestinghousethoughtofdevelopingaDCsystem,butabandoneditasthemarketwasalreadyovercrowded.

ForaDCsystemtobeprofitable,numeroussmallpowerstationshadtobesituatedneartothehomesandfactoriestheyserved.Westinghousesawthatan

ACsystemcouldprovidepowertotownsandcitieswherethepopulationwasspreadout,reachingamarketthatDCsystemscouldnotserve.TherewouldalsobeconsiderableeconomiesofscalebyusinganACsystemwherethevoltagecouldbesteppedupanddistributedoverawiderarea,servingmorecustomers.Thedisadvantagewasthatnoonehadyetdevelopedametertomeasurehowmucheachindividualconsumerused,norhadaserviceableACmotorbeendevelopedtoprovidepowerforfactoriesandstreetcars.Besides,EdisonhaddismissedACas‘notworththeattentionofpracticalmen’.

In1885,WestinghouseimportedatransformermadebyLucienGaulardandJohnGibbsinLondonwhichStanleybeganexperimentingwith.BythetimeTeslapresentedhispapertotheAIEEinMay1888,WestinghousehadalreadysoldmoreACpowerstationsthanalltheothercompaniesprovidingDCpowerputtogether.Inresponse,EdisonbeganwarningthatACpowerwasdangerous.

TeslaDemonstratesACInhispapertotheAIEE,TeslasoughttodemonstratethesuperiorityofAConceandforall.HetoldtheaudiencegatheredinthelecturehallatColumbiaUniversity:

ThesubjectwhichInowhavethepleasureofbringingtoyournoticeisanovelsystemofelectricdistributionandtransmissionofpowerbymeansofalternatecurrents,affordingpeculiaradvantages,particularlyinthewayofmotors,whichIamconfidentwillatonceestablishthesuperioradaptabilityofthesecurrentstothetransmissionofpowerandwillshowthatmanyresultsheretoforeunattainablecanbereachedbytheiruse;resultswhichareverymuchdesiredinthepracticaloperationofsuchsystemsandwhichcannotbeaccomplishedbymeansofcontinuouscurrents…

Inourdynamomachines,itiswellknown,wegeneratealternatecurrentswhichwedirectbymeansofacommutator,acomplicateddeviceand,itmaybejustlysaid,thesourceofmostofthetroublesexperiencedintheoperationofthemachines.Now,thecurrentssodirectedcannotbeutilizedinthemotor,buttheymust–againbymeansofasimilarunreliabledevice–bereconvertedintotheiroriginalstateofalternatecurrents.Thefunctionofthecommutatorisentirelyexternal,andinnowaydoesitaffecttheinternalworkingofthemachines.Inreality,therefore,allmachinesarealternatecurrentmachines,thecurrents

appearingascontinuousonlyintheexternalcircuitduringtheirtransitfromgeneratortomotor.

Afterthelecture,TeslademonstratedthathisACmotorcouldbeinstantlyreversed.Heprovidedprecisecalculationsonhowthespeedandpowerofthemotorcouldbedetermined,andheshowedhowhissystemcouldbemarrieduptoDCapparatus.

ProfessorAnthonysaidthat,inhistest,hehadfoundTesla’smotors50–60percentmoreefficientthanDCmodels.Thenarc-lightingpioneerElihuThomson(1853–1937)steppedforwardtosaythathehadalreadydevelopedanACmotor.However,hisstillusedacommutatorandwasconsequentlyinefficient.Teslapointedthisoutandearnedhimselfalife-longenemy,whilehehimselfwascatapultedtofame.

SellingtheACMotorPatentsBrownandPecknowinvitedbidsonTesla’spatents.Westinghouseexpressedaninterest,onlytobetoldthataCaliforniansyndicatehadoffered$200,000plus$2.50perhorsepowerforeachmotorinstalled.Thetermsweremonstrous,butwithoutthepatentsitwouldbeimpossibleforWestinghousetodevelopamotorofhisown.

‘Thepriceseemsratherhigh,butifitistheonlymethodforoperatingamotorbyalternatingcurrent,andifitisapplicabletoastreetcarwork,’Westinghousewrote,‘wecanunquestionablyeasilygetfromtheusersoftheapparatuswhatevertaxisputuponitbytheinventors.’

On7July1888,Westinghouseagreedtopay$25,000incash,$50,000innotesandaroyaltyof$2.50perhorsepowerforeachmotor.Westinghousealsoguaranteedthattheroyaltieswouldbeatleast$5,000inthefirstyear,$10,000inthesecondyearand$15,000ayearfromthenon.BrownandPeckwerealsoreimbursedthemoneytheyhadpaidoutonthedevelopmentofthemotors.Over10yearsTesla,BrownandPeckstoodtomake$200,000and$315,000overthe17-yearlifetimeofthepatents.

AsBrownandPeckhadnegotiatedthisshrewddeal,aswellasbearingthefinancialriskofdevelopingthemotors,Teslagavethemfive-ninthsofthedeal,

keepingfour-ninthsforhimself.

MovingtoPittsburghLaterthatmonth,TeslatookthetraintoPittsburghtoputhismotorsintoproductionatWestinghouse’sfactory,wherehemetthegreatmanhimself.LaterTeslapaidtributetoGeorgeWestinghouse,sayingonhisdeath:

Thefirstimpressionsarethosetowhichweclingmostinlaterlife.IliketothinkofGeorgeWestinghouseasheappearedtomein1888,whenIsawhimforthefirsttime.Thetremendouspotentialenergyofthemanhadonlyinparttakenkineticform,buteventoasuperficialobserverthelatentforcewasmanifest.Apowerfulframe,wellproportioned,witheveryjointinworkingorder,aneyeasclearasacrystal,aquickandspringystep–hepresentedarareexampleofhealthandstrength.Likealioninaforest,hebreatheddeepandwithdelightthesmokyairofhisfactories.Thoughpast40then,hestillhadtheenthusiasmofyouth.Alwayssmiling,affableandpolite,hestoodinmarkedcontrasttotheroughandreadymenImet.Notonewordwhichwouldhavebeenobjectionable,notagesturewhichmighthaveoffended–onecouldimaginehimasmovingintheatmosphereofacourt,soperfectwashisbearinginmannerandspeech.AndyetnofierceradversarythanWestinghousecouldhavebeenfoundwhenhewasaroused.Anathleteinordinarylife,hewastransformedintoagiantwhenconfrontedwithdifficultieswhichseemedinsurmountable.Heenjoyedthestruggleandneverlostconfidence.Whenotherswouldgiveupindespairhetriumphed.Hadhebeentransferredtoanotherplanetwitheverythingagainsthimhewouldhaveworkedouthissalvation.Hisequipmentwassuchastomakehimeasilyapositionofcaptainamongcaptains,leaderamongleaders.Hiswasawonderfulcareerfilledwithremarkableachievements.Hegavetotheworldanumberofvaluableinventionsandimprovements,creatednewindustries,advancedthemechanicalandelectricalartsandimprovedinmanywaystheconditionsofmodernlife.Hewasagreatpioneerandbuilderwhoseworkwasoffar-reachingeffectonhistimeandwhosenamewilllivelonginthememoryofmen.

Tesla’sTask

Foundedin1886,theWestinghouseElectricCompanymade$800,000in1887andover$3millionin1888,despiteexpensivelegalbattleswithEdison.Evenso,Teslatooknosalarywhileheworkedthere.Hedidthisonprinciple,hesaid.Sincehedevotedhimselftoscientificresearch,hewouldneveracceptfeesorcompensationsforhisprofessionalservices.However,afterayear,hewasgivena150sharesofcapitalstockandhewasgiven$10,000whenhediscoveredthatBessemersteelmadeabettertransformercorethansoftiron.

InNewYork,hehadlivedinagardenapartment.InPittsburgh,hegothisfirsttasteoflivingingrandhotels.

Tesla’staskinPittsburghwastoadapthismotors,whichranbestat50or60cyclespersecond,tothe133cyclespersecondusedbytheGaulard-Gibbstransformeratthe120powerstationsWestinghousehadalreadysetup.Theyusedthishigherfrequencytopreventthelightsflickering.SinceWestinghouse’schiefelectrician,OliverB.Shallenberger(1860–98),hadadaptedanelectricalmetertorunatthisfrequency,itwasreasonabletobelievethatTesla’smotorscouldbeadaptedtoo.Teslaalsohadtheproblemofadaptinghismotorstorunonthetwo-wiresystemusedbyWestinghousepowerstations,ratherthanthefourorsixwiresusedtoprovideout-of-phaseACcurrenttohisprototypes.

EncounteringNikolaTeslaAtWestinghouse,Tesla’sassistant,wastobeCharlesScott(1864–1944)whoadmittedthathehadonlylearnedthattherewassuchathingasalternatingcurrentin1887afterreadinganarticlewrittenbyWilliamStanleyinElectricalWorld.

‘Ihadgraduatedfromcollegetwoyearsearlier,andIwonderedwhyIhadnotheardofsuchthingsfrommyprofessors,’saidScott.Now,ayearlater,hewastomeetTeslahimself.‘Therehecame,marchingdowntheaislewithheadandshoulderserectandwithatwinkleinhiseye.Itwasagreatmomentforme,’hesaid.ScottwouldlaterbecomeaProfessorofEngineeringatYale,butinPittsburghhewas‘Tesla’swireman…preparingandmakingtests’.Herecalled:

Itwasasplendidopportunityforabeginner,thiscomingincontactwithamanofsucheminence,richinideas,kindlyandfriendlyindisposition.Tesla’sfertileimaginationoftenconstructedaircastleswhichseemedprodigious.But,Idoubt

whetherevenhisextravagantexpectationsforthetoymotorofthosedaysmeasureduptoactualrealization…forthepolyphasesystemwhichitinaugurated…exceededthewildestdreamsoftheearlydays.

TheWaroftheCurrentsWiththesuccessfulintroductionofWestinghouse’sACsystem,Edison,whowasstillweddedtoDC,wasonthebackfootandafull-scaleindustrialwarbrokeout.Helaunchedanall-outpropagandaonslaughtonthedangersofalternatingcurrent.Westinghouse,whowouldbetheeventualvictor,said:

IrememberTom[Edison]tellingthemthatdirectcurrentwaslikeariverflowingpeacefullytothesea,whilealternatingcurrentwaslikeatorrentrushingviolentlyoveraprecipice.Imaginethat!WhytheyevenhadaprofessornamedHaroldBrownwhowentaroundtalkingtoaudiences...andelectrocutingdogsandoldhorsesrightonstage,toshowhowdangerousalternatingcurrentwas.

ReplacingtheHangmanHavingcollectedalistofover80casualties,HaroldP.Brownwasconcernedoverthesafetyofelectricity.AttheSchoolofMines,partofColumbiaUniversityinNewYorkCity,hebeganexperimentingwithanimalstoshowthatACwasmoredangerousthanDC.InDecember1888,EdisonbroughtBrownouttoMenloParktoelectrocuteanimalswithACaspartofhispropagandawar.

Anumberofcitiesbeganusingelectricitytocleartheirdogpounds.NewYorkwentastepfurtherandsetupacommission,undertheauspicesoftheMedico-LegalSocietyofNewYorktoseewhetherelectricitycouldbeusedforcapitalpunishment.Brownbecametheofficialstateelectricalexecutionexpert.TheguineapigwastobeWilliamKemmler,a30-year-oldalcoholicwhohadkilledhiscommon-lawwifewithahatchet.Edisontestifiedtothecommittee.ThefollowingdaytheNew-YorkDailyTribunecarriedtheheadline:‘EdisonSaysItWillKill,TheWizardTestifiesAsAnExpertInTheKemmlerCase,HeThinksAnArtificialCurrentCanBeGeneratedWhichWillProduceDeathInstantlyAndPainlesslyInEveryCase–OneThousandVoltsOfAnAlternatingCurrentWouldBeSufficient.’TheElectricalReviewdetailedEdison’sproposedmethod:

Heproposestomanaclethewrists,withchainconnections,place…theculprit’shandinajarofwaterdilutedwithcausticpotashandconnecttherein…toathousandvoltsofalternatingcurrent…placetheblackcaponthecondemned,andatapropertimeclosethecircuit.Theshockpassesthroughbotharms,theheartandthebaseofthebrain,anddeathisinstantaneousandpainless.

BrownsurreptitiouslyboughtsomeWestinghousemotorsandbeganexperimentingwithlargeranimals.InEdison’slaboratoryhe‘Westinghoused’24dogs,boughtfromlocalchildrenat25centseach,whileEdisonhimself‘Westinghoused’twocalvesandahorse.Afterthisdemonstration,TheNewYorkTimesreported:‘Theexperimentsprovedthealternatingcurrenttobethemostdeadlyforceknowntoscience,andthatlessthanhalfthepressureusedinthiscityforelectriclightingbythissystemissufficienttocauseinstantdeath.AfterJan.1thealternatingcurrentwillundoubtedlydrivethehangmanoutofbusinessinthisState.’

ElectricalChallengeGeorgeWestinghousewrotetoTheNewYorkTimesinprotest.BrownrespondedbyusingtheletterspagetodrawattentiontoWestinghouse’s‘pecuniaryinterests’in‘death-dealingalternatingcurrent’andissuedachallenge:

IthereforechallengeMrWestinghousetomeetmeinthepresenceofcompetentelectricalexpertsandtakethroughhisbodythealternatingcurrentwhileItakethroughmineacontinuouscurrent.Thealternatingcurrentmusthavenotlessthan300alternationspersecond(asrecommendedbytheMedico-LegalSociety).Wewillcommencewith100volts,andwillgraduallyincreasethepressureby50voltsatatime,witheachincrease,untileitheroneortheotherhascriedenough,andpubliclyadmitshiserror.

Westinghousedidnotreply,thoughBrownwaslaterdenouncedbytheNewYorkSun.Undertheheadline‘ForShame,Brown’,thenewspaperrevealedthathehadbeen‘paidbyoneelectriccompanytoinjureanother’.Brownprotested:‘IamexposingtheWestinghousesystemasanyright-mindedmanwouldexposeabuncostarterorthegrocerwhosellspoisonwherehepretendshesellssugar.’Buthisprotestsdidnogood.

FacingTheElectricChairWilliamKemmler’sexecutionwentaheadon6August1890.Itwasneitherinstantaneousnorpainless.‘Tothehorrorofallpresent,thechestbegantoheave,foamissuedfromthemouth,andthemangaveeveryevidenceofreviving,’saidElectricalReview.

AdoctorpresenttoldTheNewYorkTimeshewouldratherhaveseentenhangings.Westinghousesaidtheywouldhavedonebetterwithanaxe,whileEdisonblamedthedoctors.Theyhadappliedthecurrenttothetopofthehead,thoughhairwasnotconductive,andtheyhadnotputhishandinajarofwater.However,nexttimetheywouldgetitright,hesaid.Brownwasnotablebyhisabsence.

Butthedamagehadbeendone.BackersbegantopulltheirmoneyoutofWestinghouseandworkonTesla’sinductionmotorwasabandoned.ButTeslastillhadfaithinhisinventionandagreedtoremovetheroyaltyclausefromthecontractifworkresumed.

‘GeorgeWestinghousewas,inmyopinion,theonlymanontheglobewhocouldtakemyalternatingcurrentsystemunderthecircumstancesthenexistingandwinthebattleagainstprejudiceandmoneypower,’Teslasaid.‘Hewasapioneerofimposingstatureandoneoftheworld’snoblemen.’

After2years,workonTesla’smotorsresumed.TheyoungengineerBenjaminLammeexaminedthepatentsandtheprototypes,andconcludedthatTeslahadexhaustedallthepossibilitiesofadaptingthemtorunathigherfrequencies.Hemanagedtotalkhissuperiorsround.Westinghousehadtogooverto60cyclespersecond–thefrequencyofalternatingcurrentusedtothisdayintheUS–andthecompanysimplyannouncedthatayoungengineernamedLammehaddiscoveredtheefficienciesoflowerfrequencies.

TeslaTravelstheWorldIn1889,TeslaleftPittsburghandwenttoParisfortheUniversalExpositionof1889wheretheEiffelTowermadeitsfirstappearance.Edisonwastheretoo.Hehadbeengivenaone-acresitetodisplayhisinventionsandthelatest–thephonograph–wascausingasensation.Withhisnewwife,24-year-oldMina,EdisonhadlunchwithAlexanderEiffelinhisapartmentatthetopofthetower.

HealsovisitedLouisPasteurinhislaboratoryandreceivedtheGrandCrossoftheLégiond’Honneurforhisachievements.

MeanwhileTeslametNorwegianscientistVilhelmBjerknes(1862–1951)whosestudyofelectricalresonancewasvitalinthedevelopmentofradio.WhilediningoutinPariswithFrenchengineerandphysicistAndréBlondel,healsoranacrossthefamousFrenchactressSarahBernhardt(1844–1923)whenshedroppedherlacehandkerchiefnearhisdiningtableandTeslarushedtohanditbacktoher.Legendhasitthattheireyesmetwithaburningintensity.TheElectricalReviewremarkedthathemaybe‘invulnerabletoCupid’sshafts’,butSarahBernhardtmayhavebeenanexception.Teslasaidmuchlater,thatitwasascarfhehadpickedup,notahandkerchiefandhedidnotreturnit.Hekeptit,withoutwashingit,fortherestofhislife.

WhileEdisoncontinuedhistourofEurope,beingfetedeverywherehewent,Teslapaidashortvisittohisfamily,thenreturnedtoNewYork,whereheopenedalaboratoryonGrandStreet.Therehebeganworkonlightingandradiotransmission.‘IwasnotfreeinPittsburgh,’hesaid.‘Iwasdependentandcouldnotwork…WhenI[left]thatsituation,ideasandinventionsrushedthroughmybrainlikeNiagara.’

MakingOutlandishClaimsWhenEdisonwasinLondon,visitinghispowerstations,anengineernamedSebastianZianideFerranti(1864–1930)wasbuildinganACpowerstationinDeptford,southLondon,thatwasabletotransmitelectricityat11,000voltstocentralLondon,sevenmilesaway.Meanwhile,Teslaclaimedthathehadasystemthatcould‘placea100,000horsepoweronawireandsendit450milesinonedirectiontoNewYorkCity,themetropolisoftheEast,and500milesintheotherdirectiontoChicago,themetropolisoftheWest’.

ThisoutlandishclaimwasgreetedlikethoseofthecurrentconmenJohnErnstWorrellKeely(1837–98),whowasjailedin1888forcontemptofcourtafterhavingclaimedtohaveinventedaperpetual-motionmachine,andWalterHonenau,whotriedtosellpillsthat,hesaid,turnedwaterintopetrol.However,Tesla’sclaimturnedout,justafewyearslater,tobetrue.

TeslaalsocontinuedhelpingWestinghousewiththeirdevelopmentofhismotor,

againtakingnopaymentapartfromtheequipmentWestinghouseprovidedtofurnishhisnewlab.

Teslastayedintouchwiththemeninhisfamilybyletter,butusuallyonlysentchequestohissisters.Healsomadeanefforttopaybackallthemoneyhisuncleshadspentonhim.UnclePetarhadrisentobecomeaMetropolitan–theOrthodoxequivalentofaCardinal–whileUnclePajorespondedbysendingfinewinesasTeslaoftencomplainedofthepoorqualityofwineintheUS.Hehadlittletimetoenjoythemthough.Hewasworkingsevendaysaweek,stoppingonlytofreshenupinthehotelthathadnowbecomehishome,ortokeepsomepressingappointment.

ExperimentalPhysicsRatherthanworkingasanengineer,Teslawasnowmoreofanexperimentalphysicist.Hisclosefriend,electricalengineerThomasCommerfordMartin(1856–1924),presidentoftheAIEE1887–88andeditorofElectricalWorld,waswritinganarticleonTesla.Duringtheirinterviews,TeslawouldinterspersehisdiatribesonhowhisSerbianfamilyhadfoughtoffthediabolicalTurkswithnewtheoriesonelectromagnetismandthestructureoflight.

AfterMartin’sarticlewaspublishedinFebruary1890,ameetingoftheAIEEwasdevotedtoTesla’sACsystem.Experimentsinthelong-distancetransmissionofACcurrentwerethenbeingconductedinGermanyandSwitzerland.WestinghousewasopeningahydroelectricplantataminingcampinTelluride,Colorado,usingTesla’sACsystemandtheInternationalNiagaraCommissionannouncedthatitwaslookingatthebestwaytoexploittheNiagaraFalls.

WhirlingthroughEndlessSpaceTeslaagreedtopresenthisworkonhigh-frequencyphenomenatotheAIEE.ThemeetingwouldbeopentothepublicandthejournalistcoveringthesymposiumforElectricalWorldalsomanagedtosellapiecetotheprestigiousmainstreammagazineHarper’sWeekly.ItsaidthatTeslahadgonebeyondnotedEuropeanphysicistssuchasProfessorHeinrichHertzinhisunderstandingoftheelectromagnetictheoryoflight.

Healsoputonanumberofspectaculardemonstrations.Inone,lightstreamedfromawireattachedatoneendtoacoil.Inanother,afinethreadofplatinumwireinsideaglassbulbspan,formingafunneloflight.Heproducedlightbulbsthatworkedwithjustonewireattached,orwithnoneatall,andgeneratedhugesparksandelectricflames.Electricity,heshowed,wouldruntoearth.

Asafinale,TeslarantensofthousandsofvoltsofACthroughhisbodytolightuplightbulbsandshootsparksfromhisfingertipstoshowthatalternatingcurrentwasnotakillerwhenhandledproperly.ElectricalWorldsaid:‘Exhaustedtubes…heldinthehandofMrTesla…appearedlikealuminousswordinthehandofanarchangelrepresentingjustice.’Teslaconcludedhislecture,saying:

Wearewhirlingthroughendlessspacewithaninconceivablespeed.Allarounduseverythingisspinning,everythingismoving,everywhereisenergy.Theremustbesomewayofavailingourselvesofthisenergymoredirectly.Then,withthelightobtainedfromthemedium,withthepowerderivedfromit,witheveryformofenergyobtainedwithouteffort,fromthestoreforeverinexhaustible,humanitywilladvancewithgiantstrides.Themerecontemplationofthesemagnificentpossibilitiesexpandsourminds,strengthensourhopesandfillsourheartswithsupremedelight.

IntheaudiencewasRobertMillikan(1868–1953),whowontheNobelPrizein1923forhisworkoncosmicrays.Hesaid:‘IhavedonenosmallfractionofmyresearchworkwithprinciplesIlearnedthatnight.’

TheLondonLecturesTeslathentookhisshowtoLondonin1892,wherehegavetwolecturesattheRoyalInstitution.There,Teslasaid,JamesDewar(1842–1923),theInstitution’sProfessorofChemistry,‘pushedmeintoachairandpouredouthalfaglassofawonderfulbrownfluidwhichsparkledinallsortsofiridescentcoloursandtastedlikenectar.“Now,”hesaid,“youaresittinginFaraday’schairandyouareenjoyingthewhiskyheusedtodrink.”’

ItwasnotlostonTeslathathewaslecturingonthesamestagewhereFaradayhadoutlinedthefundamentalprinciplesofelectromagneticinductioninthe1830s.Againheputonashowofsparks,glowingwires,no-wiremotorsand

colouredlightsthatspeltoutthenameWilliamThomson,theleadingengineer,mathematicianandphysicistwhowasintheaudience,andwhothatyear,hadbecomeLordKelvin.Againheranhigh-voltACcurrentthroughhisbody,totheamazementofhisaudienceofdistinguishedscientists.

Healsomeltedandvaporizedtinfoilinacoilandproducedanewtypeoflampthatwoulddisintegratezirconiaanddiamonds,thehardestknownsubstances.Thenhedescribedtherubylaserwhichwouldnotbebuiltuntil1960.Mostofthesedemonstrationswerebrandnew,notrepeatsofoneshehadgiveninAmerica.

Healsodemonstratedthefirstvacuumtube.Thiswouldlaterbeusedtoamplifyweakradiosignals.Andheconcludedthelecturewithspeculationthatimprovementscouldbemadetothetransatlantictelegraphcablessothattheycouldcarrytelephonecalls,andthepossibilityofwirelesstransmission.TheElectricalReviewsaid:

ThelecturegivenbyMrTesla…willlongliveintheimaginationofeveryperson…thatheardhim,openingasitdid,tomanyofthem,forthefirsttime,apparentlylimitlesspossibilitiesintheapplicationsandcontrolofelectricity.Seldomhastherebeensuchagatheringofalltheforemostelectricalauthoritiesoftheday,onthetiptoeofexpectation.

Attheend,hetantalizinglyinformedhislistenersthathehadshowedthem‘butone-thirdofwhathewaspreparedtodo’.Consequently,theaudienceremainedintheirseatsandhehadtodeliverasupplementarylecture.HethenpresentedLordKelvinwithoneofhisearlyexperimentalTeslaCoilswhichwouldbecrucialinthedevelopmentofwirelesstransmission.

TeslawentontowowFrenchacademicianswithalectureinParis,beforeheadinghometoGospicwherehefoundhismothergravelyill.Shediedsoonafter.Helaterwrote:‘Themother’slossgripsone’sheadmorepowerfullythananyothersadexperienceinlife.’

PARTTWO:UNLIMITEDPOWERS

Chapter5–FatheroftheWirelessAmassinmovementresistschangeofdirection.Sodoestheworldopposeanewidea.Ittakestimetomakeupthemindstoitsvalueandimportance.Ignorance,prejudiceandinertiaoftheoldretarditsearlyprogress.Itisdiscreditedbyinsincereexponentsandselfishexploiters.Itisattackedandcondemnedbyitsenemies.Eventually,though,allbarriersarethrowndown,anditspreadslikefire.Thiswillalsoprovetrueofthewirelessart.

NikolaTesla

WhileinEurope,TeslavisitedtheGanzworksinBudapesttoseea1000-voltalternatortheywerebuilding.HealsovisitedBelgradewheretheSerbianKingAlexanderIconferredthespecialtitleofGrandOfficeroftheOrderofStSavaonhimandtheSerbianpoetJovanJovanovicZmajwroteapoemintributetohim.

OnthereturnlegofhisjourneyhewenttoBerlintovisitHermannvonHelmholtz,whodevelopedthemathematicsofelectrodynamics,thenwentontoBonntoseeHeinrichHertz,whowasthefirstmantotransmitandreceiveradiowaves.Hertzhadconductedhisexperimentswithasimplesparkingapparatusthatcouldtransmitradiowavesacrosshislab.However,HertzwasatheoreticalphysicistwhosimplywantedtoinvestigatethetheoriesofJamesClerkMaxwell,notanelectricalengineerwhowantedtoputthemtoapracticaluse.TeslahadalreadyduplicatedHertz’sexperimentsand,fromthem,developedtheTeslaCoilwhichwascapableoftransmittingwirelesslyoverlongdistances.

Hertzhadsoughttodemonstratethatspacewasfilledwithasubstancecalledether,whichwasbothinconceivablytenuous,yetextremelyrigid.Thereasoningwasthat,iflightandotherelectromagneticphenomenaarewaves,theymusthavesomethingtopropagatethrough.Teslamaintainedthatsuchasubstancecouldnotexistandthetwomendidnotgeton.Infact,theexistenceofHertz’setherhadalreadybeendisprovedexperimentallybyA.A.Michelson(1852–

1931)inGermanyin1881and,again,incollaborationwithEdwardMorley(1838–1923)intheUSin1887.

OnboardshiponthewaybacktotheUS,Teslahadoneofhisepiphanies.HewasthinkingaboutanexperiencehehadwhilewalkingintheAlps.Observinganoncomingthunderstorm,henoticedthatrainheldoffuntilthefirstflashesoflightningandwonderedwhetherhecoulduseelectricitytocontroltheweather.

WhenTeslaarrivedbackinNewYorkafterhistriumphaltrip,hewasgreetedwithaphotographofEdisonsigned:‘ToTeslafromEdison.’ThenWestinghousedroppedbywiththenewsthattheyhadwonthecontracttoprovidethepowerfortheforthcoming1893World’sFairinChicago.

TheWirelessTransmissionofPowerHertzhadconductedhisexperimentswithabatteryandasimplecircuitinterrupter,likeaMorsekey,connectedtoaninductioncoil–asmalltransformer–toproduceahigh-voltagespark.Thiscouldbedetectedusingacopperloopwithasparkgap.

Teslaquicklyrealizedthat,insteadofabatterywithacircuitinterrupter,itwouldbebettertouseanACcurrent.Whileacircuitinterrupterwouldonlygiveafrequencyof,atbest,afewhundredcyclespersecond,analternatorcouldgive10,000or20,000cyclespersecond.However,onceanalternatorreachedthatspeeditbegantoflyapart,buthigherfrequenciescouldbegeneratedelectrically.

Hehadalreadyusedinductioncoilsandcapacitors–electricalstoragedevicessuchasaLeydenjar–togivesplit-phaseACcurrentstorunhismotors.Thesecouldalsobeusedtoincreasethefrequencyevenhigher.Puttingaconnectingcapacitoracrosstheterminalsofacoilproducedacircuitthatresonated,givingaspikeinoutput.Hecalledthistheoscillatingtransformer,thoughotherexperimentersbegancallingittheTeslaCoil.Acoilcoupledtoacapacitorthatresonatesataspecificfrequencyisthebasisofallwirelesstransmission.

Refininghisoscillatingtransformers,heearthedoneterminaltothecity’swatermain,hemovedaroundNewYorkdetectingtheelectromagneticwavesgeneratedatvariousfrequencies.AbandoningHertz’sprimitivesparkgaps,heusedothertunedcircuitsandvacuumtubesasdetectors.HoweverTesla’saim

wasnottotransmitanintelligiblesignalasweuseradiowavesnow.Hisgoalwasthewirelesstransmissionofpower.

TheSkinEffectEarlyintheseexperiments,Teslaaccidentallytouchedahigh-voltageterminaland,tohissurprise,wasunhurt.Athighfrequencies,electricityexhibitswhatisknownasthe‘skineffect’.Themagneticfieldcreatedpushesthecurrenttotheoutsideofaconductor,soitdoesnotrunthroughthebody,damagingthenervesandmuscles.Insteadittravelsacrossthesurface,leavingtheinternalstructureundamaged.Inhispublicdemonstrations,hetouchedoneterminalofahigh-frequencyapparatusgeneratingtensofthousandsofvoltsandilluminatedabulbortubeheldintheotherhand.Thisalsoshowedthatalternatingcurrent,ifatasufficientlyhighfrequency,wassaferthandirectcurrent.

OntheRoadTeslaandhislectureshittheroadin1893,andpulledinhugeaudienceswithhisdazzlingdemonstrationsandnovelideas.InPhiladelphia,heoutlinedamethodoftransmittingpictures–thatis,television.Thesecretofwirelesstransmission,hesaid,wasresonance.Wiresbecomeunnecessaryaselectricalimpulsesjumpfromasendingdevicetoareceiveriftheyaretunedtothesamefrequency,andhepresentedadiagramshowingaerials,transmitters,receiversandearthconnections,alltheelementsofamodernbroadcastsystem.

Thiswasnotjusttheory.Hegavepracticaldemonstrations.Ononesideofthestagehehadahigh-voltagetransformerconnectedtoabankofLeydenjars,asparkinggap,acoilandalengthofwirehangingfromtheceiling.OntheothersidewasanidenticallengthofwireandanidenticalcoilandbankofLeydenjars.ButinsteadofthesparkinggaptherewasaGeissler,ordischargetubethatglowedwhenelectricitywaspassedthroughit,likeaprimitiveneonlight.

Notonlywasthedemonstrationdazzling,itwasfullofstrangesounds.Whenelectricitywasfedtothetransformer,thecorestrained,makingoddgroaningsounds.CoronasizzledaroundtheedgesofthefoilontheLeydenjarsandsparkscrackedacrossthesparkinggap.ButtheradiowavestravellednoisilyfromoneantennatotheotherandtheGeisslertubelitup.

Teslawasadvisedtoplaydownthepossibilitiesofhiswirelesssystem.Itseemedsofancifulitmightdeterconservativebusinessmenwhomightotherwisebeinterestedinhismotorsorhislightingsystems.Nevertheless,hesaid,itearnedhimthetitleof‘FatheroftheWireless’amongfellowresearchers.Othershadinvestigatedthephenomenonofwirelesstransmissionbeforehim,butTeslahadpioneeredtheuseofthetunedcircuit,theaerialandthegroundconnection.HewasgivingthesedemonstrationsofwirelesstransmissionafullyearbeforeGuglielmoMarconievenbeganexperimenting.

In1896,TeslareceivedaletterfromSirWilliamPreece(1834–1913)oftheImperialPostOfficeinLondon,askingTeslafortwowirelesssetsfortrial.ButMarconiwasinLondonbythen.Heintervened,tellingPreecethathehadtriedtheTeslasystemandithadnotworked.Nevertheless,TeslafiledapatentforwirelesstransmissioninSeptember1897.

ConspiringwiththeDevilInStLouis,Missouri,4,000copiesofasmall-circulationelectricaljournalweresoldbecauseitcarriedanarticleaboutTesla.WhenTeslacametotown,80electricalutilitywagonsparadeddownthestreet.The4,000-seatGrandMusicEntertainmentHallwasfilledtoovercapacityasseveralthousandmorepackedin.Ticketswerebeingsoldbyscalpersforbetween$3and$5($80and$130attoday’sprices).Tesladidnotdisappoint,passing200,000voltsthroughhisbody.Hedescribedtheexperimentinhispublishedlecture:

Inowsetthecoiltoworkandapproachthefreeterminalwithametallicobjectheldinmyhand,thissimplytoavoidburns.AsIapproachthemetallicobjecttoadistanceof8or10inches,atorrentoffurioussparksbreaksforthfromtheendofthesecondarywire,whichpassesthroughtherubbercolumn.Thesparksceasewhenthemetalinmyhandtouchesthewire.Myarmisnowtraversedbyapowerfulelectriccurrent,vibratingatabouttherateofonemilliontimesasecond.Allaroundmetheelectrostaticforcemakesitselffelt,andtheairmoleculesandparticlesofdustflyingaboutareacteduponandarehammeringviolentlyagainstmybody.

Sogreatisthisagitationoftheparticles,thatwhenthelightsareturnedout,youmayseestreamsoffeeblelightappearonsomepartsofmybody.Whensuchastreamerbreaksoutonanypartofthebody,itproducesasensationlikethe

prickingofaneedle.Werethepotentialssufficientlyhighandthefrequencyofthevibrationratherlow,theskinwouldprobablyberupturedunderthetremendousstrain,andthebloodwouldrushoutwithgreatforceintheformoffinesprayorjetsothinastobeinvisible,justasoilwillwhenplacedonthepositiveterminalofaHoltzmachine[electrostaticgenerator].Thebreakingthroughoftheskinthoughitmayseemimpossibleatfirst,wouldperhapsoccur,byreasonofthetissuesundertheskinbeingincomparablybetteratconducting.This,atleast,appearsplausible,judgingfromsomeobservations.

Icanmakethesestreamsoflightvisibletoall,bytouchingwiththemetallicobjectoneoftheterminalsasbefore,andapproachingmyfreehandtothebrasssphere,whichisconnectedtothesecondterminalofthecoil.Asthehandisapproached,theairbetweenitandthesphere,orintheimmediateneighbourhood,ismoreviolentlyagitated,andyouseestreamsoflightnowbreakforthfrommyfingertipsandfromthewholehand.WereItoapproachthehandcloser,powerfulsparkswouldjumpfromthebrassspheretomyhand,whichmightbeinjurious.Thestreamersoffernoparticularinconvenience,exceptthatintheendsofthefingertipsaburningsensationisfelt…

Thestreamsoflightwhichyouhaveobservedissuingfrommyhandareduetoapotentialofabout200,000volts,alternatinginratherirregularintervals,sometimeslikeamilliontimesasecond.Avibrationofthesameamplitude,butfourtimesasfast,tomaintainwhichoverthreemillionvoltswouldberequired,wouldbemorethansufficienttoenvelopmybodyinacompletesheetofflame.Butthisflamewouldnotburnmeup;quitecontrarily,theprobabilityis,thatIwouldnotbeinjuredintheleast.Yetahundredthpartofthatenergy,otherwisedirected;wouldbeamplysufficienttokillaperson…

Wavingvariousshapedtubesinthepowerfulelectromagneticfieldhisoscillatingtransformerhadproduced,Teslacreatedbeautifuleffectslikethe‘spokesofawheelofglowingmoonbeams’,theElectricalEngineersaid.

Towardstheendoftheperformance,Teslahelduponeofhisphosphorescentlamps,theprecursoryoffluorescentlights,andannouncedthathewouldilluminateitbytouchingtheterminalofhisoscillatingtransformerwithhisotherhand.Whenhedid,thelamplitup.

‘Therewasastampedeinthetwouppergalleriesandtheyallrushedout,’saidTesla.‘Theythoughtitwassomepartofthedevil’swork.’

AnAll-AmericanJokeReturningtoNewYork,TeslaacquiredhisUScitizenship.TogetbackatEdisonforhisjibeyearsearlierof‘YouarestillaParisian’,Tesladecided,nowthathewasafully-fledgedAmerican,tofindoutifEdisoncouldtakeanall-Americanjoke.Hesetupanexperimentpittingacarbon-filamentincandescentlightthatEdisonhadinventedagainstanidenticalbulbthatwasempty.

Applyingacurrentatafrequencyofaroundonemillioncyclespersecond,theemptybulbglowedbrightly–morebrightlythanEdison’sbulbwhichwasbeingrunondirectcurrent.What’smore,theemptybulbstayedcooltothetouch.Edisonwasfarfromamusedand,onceagain,Teslahadshotdownhisformermentorinthepopularpress.

Anincandescentlightbulbisonly5percentefficient.Theother95percentislostintheformofheat.Thiswaste,Teslasaid,was‘onaparwiththewantondestructionofwholeforestsforthesakeofafewsticksoflumber’.

TeslaKeepsInventingHowever,toTesla,theattentionofthepresswasadistraction.Hewenttoworkincreasingthepowerofhisoscillatorsuntilhereachedonemillionvolts.Thenheimmersedahigh-frequencyoscillatorinavatofoil.Bymodulatingthefrequencyhecouldgettheoiltorotateatdifferentrates.

Teslatheninventedanewsteam-drivengeneratorthatproducedasmuchpowerasone40timesitssize.Insteadofusingthepistonactionofthesteamenginetoturnacrankshaftandflywheel,whichthenturnthegenerator,heputthecylinderinsidethecoilsofthegeneratorsothatthemetalpistonsmovingupanddowngeneratedelectricity.

ChicagoWorld’sFair1893WestinghousehadwonthecontracttolighttheWorld’sColumbianExposition,akatheChicagoWorld’sFair,inMay1893byputtinginabidmuchlowerthanthatofGeneralElectric,whichnowownedEdison’spatents.Thebuildingsatthe

fairweretobeilluminatedwith200,000bulbs,sothiswasanidealopportunitytodemonstratehowTesla’sACsystemcouldbeusedtolightanentirecity.

GEhadinitiallyestimatedthatitwouldcost$1.8milliontolightthefair.Whenthiswasrejected,theyreviseditdownto$554,000.Westinghousecameinat$399,000.Atthatprice,Westinghousehadtodeviseamoreeconomicalsystem.Inlessthansixmonths,theydesignedandbuiltbiggergeneratorsthanhadeverbeenbuiltbefore.UsingACathigh-voltage,theycoulddistributethisthroughoutthefaironthinwires,savinghundredsofthousandsofdollarsworthofcopper.ThefairsitewouldbeablazeoflightandconsumethreetimestheamountofelectricitythenbeingutilizedbythewholeofthecityofChicago.

WestinghousealsohadcomeupwithanewdesignforanincandescentlamptoavoidinfringingEdison’spatentsandmanufactured250,000ofthem.ConsequentlywhenWestinghousewenttoseeTeslawhenhearrivedbackinNewYork,hehadnotputmuchthoughttopromotinghismotorsorhispolyphasesystem.ButrealizingtheimportanceoftheWorld’sFairasashowcase,TeslawenttoPittsburgh,hesaid,‘tobringthemotortohighperfection’.

WordsAreNotEnoughTheColumbianExpositioncoveredalmost700acres(283Hectares)andattractedsome28millionvisitorsfromallovertheworld.Thecentre-piecewasaFerriswheelstanding264ft(80m)highthatcouldcarryover2,000people.Itrevolvedonthelargestone-pieceaxleeverforged.ButitwasWestinghouse’silluminationsthattookthebreathaway.FormergovernorofIllinois,WillE.Cameronsaid:

InadequatewordshavebeenfoundtoconveyarealizingideaofthebeautyandgrandeurofthespectaclewhichtheExpositionoffersbyday,theyareinfinitelylesscapableofaffordingtheslightestconceptionofthedazzlingspectaclewhichgreetstheeyeofthevisitoratnight…Indescribablebylanguagearetheelectricfountains.Oneofthem,called‘TheGreatGeyser’,risestoaheightto150ft[45m],aboveabandof‘LittleGeysers’…sobewilderingnoeyescanfindtheloveliest,theirvagariesofmotionsoentrancingnoheartcankeepitssteadybeating.

VisitingtheElectricityPavilionAttheChicagoWorld’sFair,theElectricityPavilionroseto169ft(52m)andcovered3.5acres(1.4Hectares)–thesizeoftwosoccerfields.Init,AEGexhibitedtheequipmenttheyhadusedtotransmitACtherecord-breaking109miles(175km)fromLauffentoFrankfurtinGermany.GEalsodemonstratedtheirnewACsystem.BothweretechnicallyinfringingTesla’spatents,butWestinghousemadenoobjectionasithelpeddemonstratethesuperiorityofAC.Instead,theyerecteda45-ft(14m)highmonumenttothe‘WestinghouseElectric&ManufacturingCo.TeslaPolyphaseSystem’.

Nottobeoutshone,GEerecteda82-ft(25m)TowerofLightinthecentreoftheElectricityPavilion,with18,000bulbsaroundthepedestal,whichwastoppedbyahugeEdisonlightbulb.

Otherstandsshowedelectricbodyinvigorators,chargedbeltsandelectricityhairbrushes.Itwasthenthoughtthatelectricitycouldcureallills.ElihuThomsonexhibitedahigh-frequencycoilthatcouldproduceaspark5ft(1.5m)long.AlexanderGrahamBelllaunchedatelephonethattransmittedsoundonabeamoflight,whileElishaGray(1835–1901)unveiledaprototypefaxmachinecalledtheteleautography–forafewcents,youcouldhaveyoursignaturereproducedelectronicallyatadistance.Edisonhimselfexhibitedhisphonograph,themultiplextelegraphandhiskinetescope,whichproducedmovingpicturesforanindividualviewer.

OntheWestinghousestand,TeslaexhibitedACmotorsandgenerators,andhadthenamesoffamouselectricalpioneers–Franklin,Helmholtz,Faraday,MaxwellandHenry–allspeltoutinphosphorescenttubes,alongwiththatofJovanJovanovicZmaj(hisoldfriend,theSerbianpoet).HugeflashingneonsignssayingWestinghouseandWelcomeElectricianswerelitbydischargesofartificiallightningthatmadeadeafeningsound.Amongtheflashingsparksandthetubes,litwirelessly,wasalargeEggofColumbusspinningfuriously.

TheWizardofPhysicsTeslavisitedtheWorld’sFairinAugusttoputonaweekofdemonstrationsandtoattendtheInternationalElectricalCongressbeingheldthere.Itshonorary

chairmanwasHelmholtz,whoTeslashowedhispersonalexhibit.Athousandelectricalengineersattended,includingmostoftheleadersinthefield.TendollarswereofferedforseatstoseeTesla,whowasintroducedasthe‘WizardofPhysics’.However,entrancewaslimitedtothosewhocouldproducetheappropriatecredentials.

Teslademonstratedmechanicaloscillatorsandsteamgeneratorsthatweresosmallitwassaidtheycouldfitinthecrownofahat.Heproducedmotorsthatcouldrunsopreciselytheycouldbeusedaselectricclocksandacontinuous-waveradiotransmitter,theimplicationsofwhichwerelostonmostofhisdistinguishedaudience.HealsoexhibitedaversionofhisEggofColumbuswhichdemonstratedhistheoryofplanetarymotion.TheElectricalExperimentersaid:

Inthisexperimentonelarge,andseveralsmallbrassballswereusuallyemployed.Whenthefieldwasenergizedalltheballswouldbesetspinning,thelargeoneremaininginthecentrewhilethesmallonesrevolvedaroundit,likemoonsaboutaplanet,graduallyrecedinguntiltheyreachedtheouterguardandracedalongthesamefield.

Butthedemonstrationwhichmostimpressedtheaudienceswasthesimultaneousoperationofnumerousballs,pivoteddiscsandotherdevicesplacedinallsortsofpositionsandatconsiderabledistancesfromtherotatingfield.Whenthecurrentswereturnedonandthewholeanimatedwithmotion,itpresentedanunforgettablespectacle.MrTeslahadmanyvacuumbulbsinwhichsmall,lightmetaldiscswerepivotallyarrangedonjewelsandthesewouldspinanywhereinthehallwhentheironringwasenergized.

TheColumbianExpositionhadprovedtoits28millionvisitorsthatACwassafe.Fromthenon,over80percentofallelectricaldevicesboughtintheUSworkedonalternatingcurrent.

Tesla’sFamousFriendsAsaresult,Teslawasproclaimed‘OurForemostElectrician’andhailedasthe‘NewEdison’.ButTesla’shealthwasfailingagain,duetooverwork.Tesla’sfriend,ThomasCommerfordMartinintroducedhimtosocialitesRobertandKatherineUnderwoodJohnsonwhotookhimundertheirwing.Teslabegan

callingthem‘theFilipovs’afteraSerbianpoem,LukaFilipov,hehadtranslatedforthem.RobertJohnsonwasassociateeditoroftheprestigiousCenturymagazinethatrananewprofileofTesla.

HisregulardinnerswiththeJohnsons,particularlythoseatThanksgivingandChristmas,becametheclosestthingheknewtohomelife.Hewouldarriveinahansomcab,whichwouldhavetowaitoutsideforhourstotakehimbacktohishotelwhichwasonlyafewblocksaway.TheJohnsonsweretheonlypeoplewithwhomhewasonfirst-nameterms,exceptfortherailroad-heirWilliam‘Willie’K.Vanderbilt(1849–1920)whowouldletTeslausetheVanderbiltboxattheMetropolitanOperaHouse.Apartfromopera,Teslaenjoyedtheatricalcomedies,particularlythosefeaturingactressElsieFergusonwho,hesaid,‘knewhowtodressandwasthemostgracefulwomanhehadeverseenonthestage’.Gradually,hestoppedgoingtotheoperaandthetheatre,goingtothemoviesinstead.

ItwasthroughtheJohnsonsthatTeslametthewriterMarkTwain,whowasanadmirer.TeslatoldTwainthathisbookshadsavedhislifewhenhewasaboyof12,struckdownwithaboutofmalaria.This,apparently,broughttearstotheauthor’seyes.

VisitingTesla’slaboratory,Twainaskedwhethertheinventorcouldcomeupwithahigh-frequencyelectrotherapymachinethathecouldselltorichwidowsinEuropeonhisnextvisit.Teslasaidhealreadyhadamachinethatwouldaidtheirdigestion.Itvibratedinsympathywiththeperistalticwavesthatmovedfoodthroughthegut.Enthusiastic,Twaininsistedthathetrieditout.Itworked–toowell–andsentthegreatwriterdashingforthelavatory.

‘IthinkIwillstartwiththeelectrotherapymachine,’saidTwainwhenhereturned.‘Iwouldn’twantthewidowstogettoohealthyallinoneshot.’

TheJohnsonsalsointroducedTeslatotheherooftheSpanish-AmericanWar,RichmondPearsonHobson,whobecamealife-longfriend,naturalistJohnMuir,whoinvitedhimouttoYosemiteValley,andwriterRudyardKipling,whohadcometoliveinVermont.Afterdiningwiththeauthorin1901,TeslawrotetoMrsJohnson:‘Whatisthematterwithink-spillerKipling?HeactuallydaredtoinvitemetodineinanobscurehotelwhereIwouldbesuretogethairandcockroachesinthesoup.’

WithTwainandothernotablesinthelaboratory,thefirstphotographsunderphosphorescentlightweretaken.However,despitehisoverwork,TeslarefusedtoaccepttheJohnsons’invitationtotakeaholidaywiththemattheirhomeattheHamptonsonLongIsland.

Fame,ButNoFortuneWithTesla’shelp,ThomasMartinpublishedTheInventions,ResearchesandWritingsofNikolaTeslain1894.ButTeslakeptgivingcopiesawayfree.BothMartinandtheJohnsonswereworriedthatTeslamadenoefforttomakemoneyoutofhisworkandsuggestedthatheshould,atleast,tellthenewspapersabouttakingphotographsunderphosphorescentlightsohewouldgetthecredit.Meanwhile,MartinhadtolendTeslamoneyfromhisshareofthebook–moneythatTeslawouldneverrepay.

TheUniversityofNebraskaofferedTeslaanhonorarydoctorate,butthiswasconsideredtootriflinganaccoladeforthegreatinventor.Instead,JohnsonorganizedanhonorarydoctoratefromColumbia.OnefromYalesoonfollowed.

Toboosthisfame,MartinarrangedforTeslatohavehisvoicerecordedonaphonograph,anhonouralreadybestowedontheAustralianoperasingerNellieMelba(1861–1931)andSarahBernhardt.HealsogotTeslatositforasculptoranddointerviewswiththemainstreammedia.Journalistsflockedaround.JosephPulitzer(1847–1911)–wholaterestablishedthePulitzerprizesbutwasthenpublisheroftheNewYorkWorld–sentayoungreporternamedArthurBrisbane(1864–1936)tointerviewTeslainoneofhisfavouritehaunts,Delmonico’sRestaurantwhere,formanyyears,heateeverynight.BrisbanenotedthefamousrestaurateurloweredhisvoiceatthementionofTesla’sname.AccordingtoBrisbane,CharlesDelmonicosaidinhushedtones:

ThatTeslacandoanything.Wemanagedtomakehimplaypoolonenight.Hehadneverplayed,buthehadwatchedusforalittlewhile.Hewasveryindignantwhenhefoundthatwemeanttogivehim15points.Butitdidn’tmattermuch,forhebeatusallevenandgotallthemoney.Therearejustafewofuswhoplayfor25cents,soitwasn’tthemoneywecaredabout,butthewayhestudiedoutpoolinhishead,andthenbeatus,afterwehadpractisedforyears,surprisedus.

BrisbanesaidhefoundthatTesla‘stoops–mostmendowhentheyhavenopeacockbloodinthem.Helivesinsideofhimself.Hetakesaprofoundinterestinhisownwork.’However,theengravingthataccompaniedthearticlefamouslyshowedTeslaerectandunbowed.

Whenaskedwhatitwasliketosubjecthimselftosuchhugevoltages,Teslasaid:‘IadmitthatIwassomewhatalarmedwhenIbegantheseexperiments,butafterIunderstoodtheprinciples,Icouldproceedinanunalarmedmanner.’

LaterheexplainedthespectaclepresentedwhenhewasconnectedtoanACvoltageoftwo-and-a-halfmillionvolts.Itwas,Teslasaid:

…asightmarvellousandunforgettable.Oneseestheexperimenterstandingonabigsheetoffierce,blindingflame,hiswholebodyenvelopedinamassofphosphorescentwrigglingstreamerslikethetentaclesofanoctopus.Bundlesoflightstickoutfromhisspine.Ashestretchesoutthearms,thusforcingtheelectricfluidoutwardly,roaringtonguesoffireleapfromhisfingertips.Objectsinhisvicinitybristlewithrays,emitmusicalnotes,glow,growhot.Heisthecentreofstillmorecuriousactions,whichareinvisible.Ateachthroboftheelectricforcemyriadsofminuteprojectilesareshotofffromhimwithsuchvelocitiesastopassthroughtheadjoiningwalls.Heisinturnbeingviolentlybombardedbythesurroundingairanddust.Heexperiencessensationswhichareindescribable.

VowofChastityTeslaalsobecameaclosefriendofsocietyarchitectStanfordWhite,designerofMadisonSquareGarden,theWashingtonMemorialArchandtheNewYorkHeraldBuilding.Theymetin1891whenpianovirtuosoIgnacyPaderewski(1860–1941)playedatMadisonSquareGardenforfivenights.WhiteevenputTeslaupathisclub,ThePlayers,whichbecameoneoftheinventor’sfavouritehaunts.Butitwasastrangefriendship.WhileTeslawasthoughttobechaste,White,thoughmarried,invitedhimtooneofhispartieswherenakedgirlsemergedfrompies.WhitewaslatershotdeadbyHarryThaw,thejealoushusbandofWhite’smistressshowgirlEvelynNesbit.

ItseemsfromtheircorrespondencethatKatherineJohnsontooksomeamorousinterestinTesla.Hewasalsoseendiningoutwithwomen.However,hehad

becomeinterestedinBuddhismandseemstohaveswornavowofchastityaftermeetingSwamiVivekananda(1863–1902)atadinnerwithSarahBernhardt.SwamiwasinAmericafortheCongressofWorldReligionsheldattheChicagoWorld’sFairandpreachedchastityasapathtoenlightenment.

BothBernhardtandVivekanandavisitedTesla’slaboratoryinNewYork.TeslaalsostudiedthetheosophicaltheoriesofthespiritualistMadameBlavatsky(1831–91),nowwidelyseenasacharlatan.

Chapter6–NiagaraFallsIntheschoolroomtherewereafewmechanicalmodelswhichinterestedmeandturnedmyattentiontowaterturbines.Iconstructedmanyoftheseandfoundgreatpleasureinoperatingthem.Howextraordinarywasmylifeanincidentmayillustrate.Myunclehadnouseforthiskindofpastimeandmorethanoncerebukedme.IwasfascinatedbyadescriptionofNiagaraFallsIhadperused,andpicturedinmyimaginationabigwheelrunbytheFalls.ItoldmyunclethatIwouldgotoAmericaandcarryoutthisscheme.ThirtyyearslaterIsawmyideascarriedoutatNiagaraandmarvelledattheunfathomablemysteryofthemind.

NikolaTesla

In1886,civilengineerThomasEvershed,whohadworkedontheErieCanal,proposeddiggingaseriesofcanalsandtunnelstocarrywaterfromNiagaraFallstowaterwheelsthatwouldbeusedtopowerindustrialmillsandfactories.Threeyearslater,EdisondrewupaplantoelectrifythecityofBuffalo,NY,whichwas20miles(32km)away.However,DChadneverbeentransmittedmorethanoneortwomiles.

EvenWestinghouse,atthattime,wasdubiousthatelectricitycouldbetransmittedsofarandsuggestedacomplexsystemofcompressedairtubesandcablestoconveythepower.PlansweredrawnupfortheconstructionofanindustrialcomplexnexttotheFalls,butthencamethenewsthatACpowerhadbeentransmittedthe109miles(175km)fromLauffentoFrankfurtbyAEGinGermany.

TheInternationalNiagaraCommission,headedbyLordKelvin,offered$20,000forthebestplantoharnessthepoweroftheFalls.LikeEdison,KelvinwasopposedtoAC–untilhesawitinactionattheColumbianExposition.Thenhebecameanenthusiasticconvert.Westinghouserefusedtoenteratfirstashefeltthat,towin,hewouldbehandingover$100,000-worthofadvice.Ofthetwenty

schemessubmitted,fourteenusedhydraulicsorcompressedair.FourinvolvedDCpower,oneofwhichwasendorsedbyEdison.TwousedAC.Oneofthemwasnotfullyworkedout;theotherusedtheTeslasystemmanufacturedbyWestinghouse.

ClosingtheDealGEthoughttheywerestillintherunningandwhenblueprintswentmissingfromtheWestinghouseworkstheywereaccusedofindustrialespionage.HoweverthesuccessofthehydroelectricplantatTelluridefollowedbyWestinghouse’striumphattheChicagoWorld’sFairleftnooneindoubtaboutwhoshouldbeawardedthecontract.ThomasMartin’sarticleonTeslainCenturyclosedthedeal.Thefollowingyear,TheNewYorkTimeswrote:‘ToTeslabelongstheundisputedhonorofbeingthemanwhoseworkmadethisNiagaraenterprisepossible…Therecouldbenobetterevidenceofthepracticalqualitiesofhisinventivegenius.’

MeanwhilethepresidentoftheCataractConstructionCompany,EdwardDeanAdams,visitedTeslainNewYorkandofferedhim$100,000foracontrollinginterestinfourteenUSandforeignpatents,alongwithanyfutureinventionsTeslamaycomeupwith.TeslaacceptedandinFebruary1895theNikolaTeslaCompanywassetup.NotonlywasTeslaworkingonwirelessandremotecontrol,hewasputtinghismindtocheaprefrigeration,theproductionofliquidair,themanufactureoffertilizersandnitricacidfromtheair,andartificialintelligence.

ElectrifyingBuffaloConstructionofthefirstpowerstationatNiagaratook5years.Itwasaheadacheforinvestorsthroughout.TheoutlaywashugeandnooneknewwhetheritwouldworkastheplanslayprincipallyinTesla’sthree-dimensionalimagination.HowevertheirworriesevaporatedwhentheswitchwasthrownandthefirstpowerreachedBuffaloatmidnighton16November1896.TheNiagaraGazettereported:‘TheturningofaswitchinthebigpowerhouseatNiagaracompletedacircuitwhichcausedtheNiagaraRivertoflowuphill.’Thefirst1,000horsepowerofelectricityreachingBuffalowastakenbythestreetrailway

company,butalreadythelocalpowercompanyhadordersfromresidentsfor5,000more.WithinafewyearsthenumberofACgeneratorsatNiagaraFallsreachedtheplannedten,andpowerlinesranasfarasNewYorkCity.Broadwaywasablazewithlights.Itpoweredstreetcarsandthesubwaysystem.EvenThomasEdison’snetworksconvertedtoalternatingcurrent.

MesmerizedbyMarsWhilethesedevelopmentsweregoingon,Teslawasdoingmoreexperimentswithwirelesstransmission.Hesetupatransmitterontheroofofhislaboratoryandusinganaerialstrungfromaballoon,hecoulddetectasignalontopoftheHotelGerlach,thirtyblocksaway.

Asalways,Teslawasavisionary.WalkingupFifthAvenueonefineSundayafternoonin1894,hesaidtohisyoungassistantD.McFarlanMoore:‘AfterwehavesignalledfromanypointtoanypointontheEarth,thenextstepwewillbesignallingotherplanets.’

AmericawasinthegripofMartianfeveratthetime.ThenotedastronomerPercivalLowell(1855–1916)wasstudyingthe‘canals’onMarsandJohnJacobAstor(1864–1912)–therichestmantodieontheTitanic–hadjustpublishedAJourneytoOtherWorlds.HegaveacopytoTesla.

Forthetimebeing,TeslawasplanningtoseeifhecouldreceivesignalsfromaferryontheHudsonRiver,buton13March1895hislaboratoryburntdown.WhileTeslawaswrestlingwithdepression,WestinghousewasfightingoverthepatentsforTesla’sACinductionmotorsagainstGEandothers.GE,ofcourse,promulgatedthetheorythatthefireatTesla’slabhadbeencausedbythesparksemanatingfromoneofhismotors.Infact,ithadstartedonthefloorbelow.

Teslasetaboutfindinganewlab.Inthemeantime,EdisonlethimuseaworkshopinLlewellynPark,NewJersey,and,althoughuninsured,TeslawasconfidentthatWestinghousewouldpayforanynewequipmentheneeded.However,Westinghousewasahard-headedbusinessmanandbilledTesla.Meanwhile,heannouncedthathewasplanningtouseTesla’smotors,whosepatentsheowned,topowerlocomotives.

Thefollowingyear,1896,Teslatoldthepressthathewaslookingintothe

‘possibilityofbeckoningMartians’and,whenLordKelvinarrivedinAmericain1897,hesuggestedusingthelightsofNewYorktoflashasignaltotheMartians.MeanwhileEdisonwasworkingonsomethingevenmoreoutlandish–atelephonetocontactthedead.

ButforTeslacontactingMarswasjustan‘extremeapplicationof[my]principleofpropagationofelectricwaves’.ItwasmerelyanextensionofamoreEarthlygoal.Hepointedout:‘ThesameprinciplemaybeemployedwithgoodeffectsforthetransmissionofnewstoallpartsoftheEarth…Everycityontheglobecouldbeonanimmensecircuit…amessagesentfromNewYorkwouldbeinEngland,AfricaandAustraliainaninstant.Whatagrandthingthatwouldbe.’

ElectricDemonDuoArthurBrisbaneinTheWorldnewspaperhadannouncedthatTeslawas‘greatereventhanEdison’,butNewYork’sTroyPressasked:‘Whoiselectricking,EdisonorTesla?’Meanwhile,thetwomen,nowbilledasthe‘TwinWizardsofElectricity’,wereappearingattheNationalElectricalExpositioninPhiladelphia.TeslawasthenontheascendantasAChadbeentransmittedalongtelephonelinesforarecord-breaking500miles(800km).TeslawasdisappointedthoughasthepowerattheExpositionwasrestrictedduetothefearoffire.

Bythistime,Edisonwasconceding:‘ThemostamazingthingaboutthisExpositionisthedemonstrationoftheabilitytodeliverhereanelectriccurrentgeneratedatNiagaraFalls.Tomyminditsolvesoneofthemostimportantquestionsassociatedwithelectricaldevelopment.’Bellconcurred,stating,‘Thislongdistancetransmissionofelectricpowerwasthemostimportantdiscoveryofelectricsciencethathadbeenmadeformanyyears.’

TeslatoldthePhiladelphiaPress:‘Iamnowconvincedbeyondanyquestionthatitispossibletotransmitelectricity…tocommercialadvantageoveradistanceof500milesathalfthecostofgenerationbysteam…Iamwillingtostakemyreputationandmylifeonthisdeclaration.’

ThePowerofElectricalHealingFollowingonfromMarkTwain’sidea,Teslabegantoexperimentonthehealing

propertiesofelectricityinhisnewlaboratoryonHoustonStreetinGreenwichVillage.Atthetime,doctorswerepromotingelectricityasa‘vitalitybooster’anda‘universalhealingagent’.Someevensaidthatitcouldcuretuberculosis,whichwasrifeatthetime.ItwasreportedthatTeslatookdailydosestodealwithhisdepressionafterhislabburntdown.Hesaidthathigh-frequencies‘produceananti-germicidalaction’.Aspartofhisdailyroutine,hewouldstripoffandclimbonboardhisapparatusandcrankupthejuice.

Hewasalsosaidtobeworkingonanelectricweedingtooltoclearrailroadtracksofunwantedundergrowth.HepaidashortvisittoColorado,whereheclaimedtohavetransmittedasignalthroughPike’sPeak,usingtheenergyoftheEarth,ratherthanhisoscillators.AnnouncingthesuccessofthisexperimentinArthurBrisbane’snewspaperTheWorldon8March1896,hesaid:‘Electricitywouldbeasfreeastheair.Theendhascometotelegraph,telephonecompanies,andothermonopolies…withacrash.’

X-Rays,ShadowgraphsandCosmicRaysWhilerunningacurrentthroughpartiallyevacuatedglasstubes,Teslahadalsonoticedaspecialradiationwasgivenoffthatcouldbedetectedbyphosphorescentandfluorescentsubstances.In1892,hegavelecturesonwhathecalled‘blacklightandveryspecialradiation’.Experimentingwithhisradiationhenoticethathecouldproducewhathecalled‘Shadowgraphs’onplatesinsidemetalcontainers.Unfortunately,thesewerelostwhenhislaboratoryburneddown.

WhenhereadofRöntgen’sdiscoveryofX-rays,herealizedthatthesewerethesamethingashis‘veryspecialradiation’.HeproducedmoreshadowgraphsandsentthemtoRöntgenwhoaskedhowtheyhadbeenmade.

TeslaquicklyrealizedthathecouldgetbetterresultswithaTeslaCoilthatdeveloped4millionvolts.WhileotherswereX-rayingthinstructuressuchashandsandfeet,hewastakingphotographsthroughtheskullatadistanceof40ft(12m)fromthetube.

Whileexperimenting,Teslanoticedthattheenergyhadbothparticleandwave-likeattributes,somethinglaterrecognizedbyAlbertEinstein.Healsospeculatedthatthetinylumpsofmatterinvolved,laterknownaselectrons,mightbebroken

upintoevensmallerpiecesandsaidthat‘similarstreamsmustbeemittedbytheSun’–whatwenowknowascosmicrays.

TeslaX-rayedbirdsandanimals,himselfandhisassistants,quiteoblivioustothefactthatthismightbedangerous.Hereasonedthattheamountofmaterialinvolvedwassosmallthatitwouldtakecenturiestobuildupenoughtobepoisonous.HehimselfsufferedfrombadheadacheswhenexperimentingwithX-raysandanassistantsufferedblisteringandinflammationofexposedskin.

EdisonwasalsoexperimentingwithX-raysandnotedthattheycausedsensationsintheeyesoftheblind.HebelievedthateyesightmightberestoredbytheapplicationofX-rays.Tesladisagreedandtherewasanotherfallingout.

TheriftwasmendedwhentheKentuckySchoolofMedicinecombineddevicesmadebyTeslaandEdisontoremovebirdshotfromthefootofavoterwhohadbeenshotduringanelectionscuffle.ThomasMartinthentookTesla,EdisonandotherelectriciansonafishingtripoffSandyHook.Ironically,Teslacaughtalargeflounder;Edisonahugefluke.

HeadingforTheFallsInJuly1896,Tesla,Westinghouse,AdamsandothersinvolvedintheNiagaraproject,travelleduptotheFalls.Ontheirarrival,theNiagaraGazettereported:

Teslaisanidealist,andanyonewhohascreatedanidealofhimfromthefamethathehaswonwillnotbedisappointedinseeinghimforthefirsttime.Heisfullysixfeettall,verydarkofcomplexion,nervous,andwiry.Impressionablemaidenswouldfallinlovewithhimatfirstsight,buthehasnotimetothinkofimpressionablemaidens.Infact,hehasgivenashisopinionthatinventorsshouldnevermarry.Dayandnightheisworkingawayatsomedeepproblemsthatfascinatehim,andanyonethattalkswithhimforonlyafewminuteswillgettheimpressionthatscienceishisonlymistress,andthathecaresmoreforherthanformoneyandfame.

TeslawasovercomeatthesightoftheFallsandthefirstofthehydroelectricpowerstationsdesignedbyStanfordWhitebuiltthere.ItwouldhousesometengiganticTeslaturbinesgeneratingover35,000kilowatts.

AfterwardshereturnedtoNewYorkCity,wherehethrewhimselfbackintoresearchintothewirelesstransmission,fearingthatMarconimaystealamarch.AgainherefusedtoholidaywiththeJohnsons,thoughhedidhaveChristmasdinnerwiththem.

Respect,AcclaimandKudosThecelebrationfortheinaugurationoftheNiagaraFallspowerstationwasheldinJanuary1897intheEllicottClubinBuffalo,NY.Thetop350ofAmerica’smostprominentbusinessmenmadethetrekthere.Anotableno-showwasThomasEdison.

Teslawasintroducedasthe‘greatestelectricianonEarth’andreceivedastandingovation.However,Teslamadearambling,self-deprecatingspeech,sayingithadbeenamistaketoinvitehim.Heheapedpraiseonthosewhohadhelped.Runningoutoftime,themasterofceremoniesintervenedandcutofftheendofhisspeech.Justaswell,asablissfullyunawareTeslawasabouttoenlightenthedistinguishedaudiencebytellingthemthattheyhadwastedalltheirtimeandmoneybuildingapowerlinefromNiagaratoBuffalo–hewouldsoonbetransmittingtheelectricitywirelessly…

Hiscontinualself-deprecationdidhimnofavours.OtherswereclaimingtohaveinventedtheinductionmotorandtheTeslaCoil,andtheywerepiratinghisinventions.MeanwhileheturneddownseveralapplicationstobehisassistantfromatopYalestudent,LeeDeForest(1873–1961),whoeventuallywentontorivalMarconiinthedevelopmentofradio.

Chapter7–Tesla’sExtremeScienceSupposethewholeearthtobelikeahollowrubberballfilledwithwater,andatoneplaceIhaveatubeattachedtothis,withaplungerinthetube.IfIpressupontheplungerthewaterinthetubewillbedrivenintotherubberball,andasthewaterispracticallyincompressible,everypartofthesurfaceoftheballwillbeexpanded.IfIwithdrawtheplunger,thewaterfollowsitandeverypartoftheballwillcontract.Now,ifIpiercethesurfaceoftheballseveraltimesandsettubesandplungersateachplacetheplungersinthesewillvibrateupanddowninanswertoeverymovementwhichImayproduceintheplungerofthefirsttube.IfIweretoproduceanexplosioninthecentreofthebodyofwaterintheball,thiswouldsetupaseriesofvibrationsinthewholebody.IfIcouldthensettheplungerinoneofthetubestovibratinginconsonance…inalittlewhileandwiththeuseofaverylittleenergyIcouldburstthewholethingasunder.

NikolaTesla,explainingaglobaltelegraphsystem

BackinNewYork,TeslabegandevelopingElishaGray’steleautographyintotelephotography.Edisonthenannouncedthatheplannedtolaunchtheautographictelegraph,whichwouldallowjournaliststofiletheirstorieseffortlessly,alongwithsketchesandpictures.Teslaclaimedhissystemcouldalsoworkwirelessly,atatimewhensendingaMorsesignalstillhadtobeperfected.

Teslahadstudiedasystemdevelopedin1846byScottishphysicistAlexanderBain(1810–77).Ittransmittedpicturesusingagridofwiresimbeddedinwaxunderasheetofchemicallytreatedpaper.Thereceiverusedthesamegridwhereanelectricstylusdrewtheshape.Teslafoundthatitwasbettertobreakdowntheelementsofthepictureusingonewireandaspinningdisc.DrArthurKornoftheUniversityofMunich,whotransmittedaphotographin1902,citedhisdebt

toTesla.Theseexperimentswerethebasisofthefaxmachineandthetelevision.

ConnectingtotheEarth’sEnergyFromwhatheread,TeslabegantosuspectthatMarconiwasusingclonesofTesla’sequipmentinhisexperiments.AfterSirWilliamPreecehadcancelledthetestofTesla’sequipment,LloydsofLondoncontactedTeslaandaskedifhewouldrigupaship-to-shoresystemforaninternationalyachtracein1896.Teslahigh-handedlyrefused,fearingthathisworkwouldbeconfusedwiththeamateurisheffortsofothersinthefield.

Hethenbegansecretexperimentsthathedidnoteventellhislabassistantsabout.HewouldsetuphistransmitterinEastHoustonStreet,thentakeabattery-poweredreceiveruptheHudsonRivertoWestPoint,adistanceofsome50miles.Fromthere,hecouldtuneintothesignalfromthetransmitter.Hedidthistwoorthreetimes,hetoldacourtin1915.

Atthesametime,heconsideredharnessingwindpower,tidalpower,solarenergyandgeothermalenergy.Electricitycouldbeusedtoelectrolyzewater,separatingitintohydrogenandoxygen,whoseexplosiverecombinationwouldproduceheatandsteam.Hepatentedamachinetoproduceozoneandworkedouthowtoseparatenitrogenoutofairelectrically.Thefarmerwouldsimplyshovelearthintothemachineandswitchiton.Thecurrentwoulddriveouttheoxygenandhydrogen,leavingthenitrogentobeabsorbedinthesoilwhichwouldemergeready-fertilized.

Over4,000peopleturnedouttoseehislectureontheadvanceshehadmadeinthefieldofX-raysattheNewYorkAcademyofScience,thoughitisthoughtthattheyhadhopedtoseehimhurlingthunderboltsagain.TheninanarticleinScribner’sMagazineonMarconi’ssuccessfultransmissionofaradiosignal8miles(13km),heoutlinedasystemfortransmittingmessagesinstantlyaroundtheworldusingthetelluriccurrentsthatrunbelowthesurfaceoftheEarth.Healsohadplanstotransmitsignalsthroughtheionizedlayersthoughttoexistintheupperatmosphere.

WhileTeslahaddonealltheearlydevelopmentinradio,MarconiwaspreparingtotransmitasignalacrosstheEnglishChannel.OnceagainTeslahadfailedtoexploithisowninvention.Withoutthemoneytopursuehisbiggerprojects,his

pronouncementsmadehimsoundlikeamadscientist.BrownandPeckwerestillearningthousandsfromhispatents,whileWestinghousehadjoinedforceswithGE.Tesla’sinductionmotorsandpolyphasesystemwereabouttopowersubwaytrainswithoutapennygoingtotheinventor.

TeslawasfurthersidelinedatanelectricalexhibitioninNewYorkorganizedbyStanfordWhite.TheMarconicompanywasrepresentedbyEdison’sson,TomEdisonJr.MarconihadneededsomewirelesspatentsthatEdisonhadtakenout,andtheWizardofMenloParkwashappytodobusiness.

MakingtheEarthMoveTeslaplacedoneofhisoscillatorsinthecentralsupportbeaminthebasementofthebuildingofhisHoustonStreetlabandadjustedthefrequencyuntilthebeambegantohum.Whilehewasdistractedmomentarily,thebuildingbegantoshake,alongwiththeearthandallthebuildingsaroundit.AccordingtotheBrooklynEagle:‘TheFireDepartmentrespondedtoanalarmfranticallyturnedin;fourtonsofmachineryflewacrossthebasementandtheonlythingwhichsavedthebuildingfromuttercollapsewasthequickactionofDrTeslainseizingasledgehammeranddestroyinghismachine.’

Teslacalledthedevicea‘Frankenstein’smonster’,andpointedoutthatnobuildingcouldstandthestrokesofa5-poundhammer,deliveredatitsresonantfrequency.Onanotheroccasion,TeslaclaimedtohavegonedowntoWallStreetwheretherewasaten-storeysteelframeofabuildingunderconstruction,clampedanoscillatorthesizeofanalarm-clocktoitandtuneditin.

Inafewminutes,Icouldfeelthebeamtrembling.Graduallythetremblingincreasedinintensityandextendedthroughoutthewholegreatmassofsteel.Finally,thestructurebegantocreakandweave,andthesteelworkerscametothegroundpanic-stricken,believingthattherehadbeenanearthquake.Rumoursspreadthatthebuildingwasabouttofall,andthepolicereserveswerecalledout.Beforeanythingserioushappened,Itookoffthevibrator,putitinmypocket,andwentaway.ButifIhadkepton10minutesmore,Icouldhavelaidthatbuildingflatinthestreet.And,withthesamevibrator,IcoulddroptheBrooklynBridgeinlessthananhour.

HetoldreportersthathecouldhavesplittheEarththesameway,destroying

mankind.HehadworkedoutthattheresonantfrequencyoftheEarthhasaperiodicityof1hour,49minutes.Ifheweretoexplodeatonofdynamiteevery1hour,49minutes,theshockwaveswouldkeepreinforcingoneanother.Heestimatedthatitwouldtakeayeartosmashtheworldtopieces,‘butinafewweeksIcouldsettheearth’scrustintosuchastateofvibrationthatitwouldriseandfallhundredsoffeet,throwingriversoutoftheirbeds,wreckingbuildingsandpracticallydestroyingcivilization.Theprinciplecannotfail.’

ResearchingRemoteControlIn1898,theUnitedStateswenttowarwithSpainafterthebattleship,theUSSMaine,wassunkinHavanaharbour.CubawasstillaSpanishcolonyatthetime.ItwasthoughtthatTeslawasonJohnJacobAstor’syachtwhen,toaidthewareffort,heproposedtheideaofaguidedtorpedo.

WhileAstorandhisyachtwenttowar,Teslabeganmakingpreliminaryexperimentswitharemote-controlledboat.TeslahadalargetankintheauditoriumoftheElectricalExhibitionin1898.Initwasa4ft(1.2m)boat.Bymeansoftransmittersworkingatvariousfrequencies,hecouldstartandstoptheboat,steeritandswitchitslightsonandoff.Hehadalsoplannedtobuildasubmersible,perhapstostagemockbattlesbetweenSpanishshipsandtheAmericanfleet.ButhewasupstagedbytheMarconicompanywhoweredemonstratingremotelycontrolledmines,detonatedwirelessly.ThepressgotparticularlyexcitedwhenTomEdisonJraccidentallyblewuphisdeskwhereothermineswerestored.

Crew-lessDevilAutomataTesla’sinventionseemedallthemorecrazywhenheproposedaTorpedoBoatWithoutaCrew:

Mysubmarineboat,loadedwithitstorpedoes,canstartoutfromaprotectedbayorbedroppedoveraship’sside,makeitsdeviouswaybelowthesurface,throughdangerouschannelsofminebeds,intoprotectedharboursandattackafleetatanchor,orgoouttoseaandcircleabout,watchingforitsprey,thendartuponitatafavourablemoment,rushuptowithinahundredfeetifneedbe,dischargeitsdeadlyweaponandreturntothehandthatsentit.Yetthroughall

thesewonderfulevolutionsitwillbeundertheabsoluteandinstantcontrolofadistanthumanhandonafar-offheadland,oronawarshipwhosehullisbelowthehorizonandinvisibletotheenemy.

IamawarethatthissoundsalmostincredibleandIhaverefrainedfrommakingthisinventionpublictillIhadworkedouteverypracticaldetailofit.InmylaboratoryInowhavesuchamodel,andmyplansanddescriptionatthePatentOfficeatWashingtonshowthefullspecificationsofit.

EventheElectricalEngineer,editedbyhisfriendThomasMartin,complainedthatTeslawasalwayspromisinggreatthingsandfailingtodeliver,saying:‘MrTeslafoolshimself,ifhefoolsanybody,whenhelaunchesforthintothedazzlingtheoriesandspeculationsassociatedwithhisname.’

Hewouldtetherupaloftballoonsinthosestrataanddelivertothemlargequantitiesofcurrentatsuchhighpotentialthatitwouldtraveleconomicallyacrossthespacewithoutwires,sayfromNiagaraFallstoParis.Bythisfaciledistributionofwaterpower,coalandsteamwouldbecomeunnecessarytoindustry.ThenewplanmayexplainwhyMrTeslahasabandonedhisoldsteamoscillator.Itisearnestlytobehopedthatthisnovelideawillproveworkable.Balloonswereadismalfailureinourlatewar,butthatisnocriterion,andMrTeslamayhavesomesuperiorgasforinflationandsustentationpurposes.ItwillberememberedthatMrMarconihasalreadytelegraphedfromballoontoballoon,withoutwires,adistanceofover20miles,thusprovinginadvancethetenabilityofMrTesla’sproposition.

PerhapsTeslawascaughtupinwarfeverbuthewasconvincedhis‘DevilAutomata’wasthewayofthefuture.‘Thecontinuousdevelopmentinthisdirectionmustultimatelymakewaramerecontestofmachineswithoutmenandwithoutlossoflife,’hewrote,‘aconditionwhichwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutthisnewdeparture,andwhich,inmyopinion,mustbereachedaspreliminarytopermanentpeace.’

Othersagreedwithhim.OneofthemwasMarkTwainwhowantedtosellpatentstoEuropeangovernments.TeslahimselfenteredintonegotiationswithCzarNicholasII(1868–1918)ofRussia.Nevertheless,somebegantowritehimoff.ThejournalPublicOpinioncomparedhisremote-controlboattothemysterious‘motivepower’ofJohnWorrellKeely(1837–98)whohadjustdied,andsaid:‘ThefactsofMrTesla’sinventionsarefewandsimpleasthefancies

whichhavebeenwovenarounditaremanyandextravagant.Theprincipleoftheinventionarenotnew,norwasTeslatheoriginaldiscoverer.’

BeautifulbutIncompleteInventionsTeslawasupsetbyThomasMartin’sattackandwrotearesponsethatElectricalEngineerwasforcedtopublish.Itsaid:‘BeingabearerofhighhonoursfromanumberofAmericanuniversities,itismyduty,inviewofthisslur,toexactfromyouacompleteandhumbleapology…OnthisconditionIwillagainforgiveyou,butIwouldadviseyoutolimityourselfinyourfutureattackstostatementsforwhichyouarenotliabletobepunishedbylaw.’

Martinstruckback,sayingdirectlyafterTesla’sletter:‘OurforemostelectricalinventorhasbeenkindenoughtosaythattheElectricalEngineermadeMrTesla.’Theimplication,ofcourse,beingthatTeslawasnotAmerica’sforemostelectricalengineer.Anditwastruethatbetween1890and1898,ElectricalEngineerhadpublished167articlesbyoraboutTesla.Inthattime,ElectricalReviewhadpublished127andElectricalWorldjust97.

Therebuttalwasheaded‘HisFriendstoMrTesla’andurgedhimtocompletealonglistof‘beautifulbutunfinishedinventions’,butheshouldstopmakingstatementsaboutsuchfantasticthingsasremote-controlaircraftthatwould‘explodeatwill…[and]nevermakeamiss’.TheworldwasnotreadyatthatpointintimeforthecruisemissilethatTeslawasdescribing.

ButMartinhadapoint.Tesla’soscillatorwasnotacommercialsuccess.Hisfluorescenttubesneverwentonthemarket.Andhiswirelesstransmissionofpowerwasneverrealized.Teslawassanguine.Hewrotelater:‘I’mgladthatIamlivinginaplaceinwhich,thoughtheycanroastmeinthepapers,theycannotburnmeatthestake.’

AsafinalshotatMartinandtheElectricalEngineer,hepublishedanarticleinElectricalReviewwithpicturesshowinghim,holdingaglowingwirelessvacuumlampthesizeofabasketballlitbymillionsofvoltsconductedbyhisbody.

I,Robot…AreporterfromTheNewYorkTimeswatchinghisremotecontrolboatsaidhecouldenvisionawirelesstorpedo.Teslahadabiggervision.‘Youdonotseethereawirelesstorpedo,’hesaid,‘youseetherethefirstofaraceofrobots,mechanicalmenwhichwilldothelaboriousworkofthehumanrace.’ForTeslaitwasashortleapfromaremote-controlledmachinetoonethatcouldthinkforitself.InCenturymagazineinJune1900,hewrote:‘Iamanautomatonendowedwithpowerofmovement,whichmerelyrespondstoexternalstimulibeatinguponmysenseorgans,andthinksandactsandmovesaccordingly.IrememberonlyoneortwocasesinallmylifeinwhichIwasunabletolocatethefirstimpressionwhichpromptedamovementorathought,orevenadream.’Consequently,asentientbeingcouldbemanufactured.

Longago,Iconceivedtheideaofconstructinganautomatonwhichwouldmechanicallyrepresentme,andwhichwouldrespond,asIdomyself,but,ofcourse,inamuchmoreprimitivemanner,toexternalinfluences.Suchanautomatonevidentlyhastohavemotivepower,organsforlocomotion,directiveorgans,andoneormoresensitiveorganssoadaptedastobeexcitedbyexternalstimuli…Whethertheautomatonbeoffleshandbone,orofwoodandsteel,itmatterslittle,provideditcanperformallthedutiesrequiredofitlikeanintelligentbeing.

However,peoplefoundithardtotakehisideasseriously.Teslacalledhisremotelycontrolledboat‘TheFirstTelautomaton’,buttheexaminer-in-chiefofpatentsfoundtheconceptsounbelievablethathehadtocomeandseeitforhimself.Andwhenhethoughtofofferingittothegovernment,theofficialinWashingtonhespoketoburstoutlaughing.

DuringtheSpanish-Americanwar,theSecretaryoftheNavyalsoturneddownTesla’sofferofwirelesstransmitterstohelpcoordinateshipandtroopmovementsforfearofthesparksthattheymightgiveoff.Teslaassuredhimthathehadovercomethisproblem,butthepersistentimageofTeslawithlightingboltspouringfromhisfingerswastoovivid.

IgnitedbyCosmicForcesTeslaalsobelievedthatweareshapedbycosmicforces‘notinthevagueand

delusivesenseofastrology,butintherigidandpositivemeaningofphysicalscience’.Afterall,science‘admitsthatthesuns,planets,andmoonsofaconstellationareonebody,andtherecanbenodoubtthatitwillbeexperimentallyconfirmedintimestocome,whenourmeansandmethodsforinvestigatingpsychicalandotherstatesandphenomenashallhavebeenbroughttogreatperfection’.

Thesparkoflifewaspresentineveryinanimateobjecttoo.‘Evenmattercalledinorganic,believedtobedead,respondstoirritantsandgivesunmistakableevidenceofalivingprinciplewithin,’hesaid.‘Thus,everythingthatexists,organicorinorganic,animatedorinert,issusceptibletostimulusfromtheoutside…Whatisitthatcausesinorganicmattertorunintoorganicforms?…ItistheSun’sheatandlight.Wherevertheyarethereislife.’

NotMadAtAllSomepeoplestillhadfaith.Teslaboastedthathehadproducedalampthatwasfarsuperiortotheincandescentbulb,usingone-thirdoftheenergy.

Asmylampswilllastforever,thecostofmaintenancewillbeminute.Thecostofcopper,whichintheoldsystemisamostimportantitem,isinminereducedtoameretrifle,forIcanrunonawiresufficientforoneincandescentlampmorethanathousandofmyownlamps,givingfullyfivethousandtimesasmuchlight.

Onthestrengthofthis,Tesla’sfriendJohnJacobAstorinvested$100,000intheTeslaElectricCompanyandTeslamovedintotheWaldorf-Astoria.

Chapter8–InColoradoSpringsNikolaTesla,theSerbianscientist,whoseelectricaldiscoveriesarenotofonenation,buttheprideoftheworld,hastakenuphisabodeinColoradoSprings…OnEastPike’sPeakavenue,withlimitlessplainsstretchingtotheeastward,andapanoramaofmightymountainssweepingawaynorthandsouth,tothewest–Teslahascausedtobeconstructeda[wireless]stationforscientificresearch.

DesireStanton,ColoradoSprings,1899

WithTesla’scoilsnowgeneratingupto4millionvoltswithsparksjumpingfromthewallstotheceilings,Tesla’sHoustonStreetlaboratorywasbecomingafirehazard.NorwasitsecureagainstthesnoopingofEdison’sspies.AndTeslahadexperimentsthathewantedtoconduct,hesaid,insecret.

HehadbeenouttoPike’sPeakoutsideColoradoSpringsin1896attheinvitationofWestinghousepatentattorneyLeonardE.Curtis.Forhisnewexperiments,heneededhugeamountsofpower,buthewouldbeworkingmostlylateatnightwhentheloadwouldbeleastandCurtisarrangedforhimtogetfreepowerfromthelocalutility,theElPasoPowerCompany.

AfterstoppingtoshowoffhisTelautomatoninChicago,hearrivedinColoradoSpringson18May1899andimmediatelybreachedhisownsecrecy.Whenareporteraskedhimwhathisplanswere,hesaid:‘IproposetosendamessagefromPike’sPeaktoParis,France.IseenoreasonwhyIshouldkeepthethingasecretanylonger.’Hewaswelcomedwithabanquet.MiningcampsintheareahadadoptedhisACsystem,sohewasalreadyacelebrityoutWest.

WithalocalcarpenternamedJosephDozier,hebuiltanexperimentalstationonanemptyfieldknownasKnobHill,whichhadaviewoverPike’sPeaktothewestandrollingplainstotheeast.Itwasessentiallyawoodenbarnmeasuring60ftby70ft(18mby21m).Itconsistedofonelargeroomwitharoofthatopened,twosmallofficesatthefrontandabalcony.

Againintentonkeepingtheexactnatureofhisexperimentssecret,TeslahadtheonlywindowthatDozierhadprovided,boardedup.Afenceringedthestationwithnumeroussignsonitsaying:KEEPOUT,GREATDANGER.AbovethedoorwasaphrasefromDante’sInfernosaidtobetheinscriptionabovetheentrancetoHell:Abandonhope,allyewhoenterhere.

TheMagnifyingTransmitterColoradoSpringswas6,000ft(1,800m)abovesealevelandTeslaplannedtotapintotherarefiedair5,000ft(1,500m)abovetheEarth.Hesoondiscoveredthatthe10ft(3m)heliumballoonshehadboughtfromGermanycouldnotliftthehundredsoffeetofwire,sohedevisedatelescopicmastthatraisedacopperballtoaheightof142ft(43m).Tosteadythemast,Teslabuilta25ft(8m)towerontheroofofhislaboratory.

Underit,hebuilta‘magnifyingtransmitter’,whichwasessentiallyahugeTeslaCoil.Ontopofa6ft(1.8m)wall,helaidtwoturnsofthickcable.Thiswasfed500voltsfromtheendofastreetcarlinethatstoppedjustshortofKnobHill.Currentwaspassedthougha50-kilowattWestinghousetransformer,steppingthevoltageupto20,000or40,000volts.

Inthecentreoftheroom,wasasecondarycoilcomprisinghundredsofturnsoffinerwire.Oneendwasconnectedtoaroundterminalinsidethelaboratoryorthecopperballontopofthemast.Theotherendwasearthed.Theapparatuswascompletedbyabankofcapacitorsthatcouldbedischargedbyamotorizedbrake-wheel,whileotherlargecoilsmovedinandoutofthemagneticfield.

Teslabeganexperimentingwithwirelesstelephones,reportingtoAstor:‘Thereisnothingnovelabouttelephoningwithoutwirestoadistanceof5or6miles[8or9km],sincethishasbeendoneoftenbefore…Inthisconnection,Ihaveobtainedtwopatents.’

TakingthePulseofthePlanetTeslaalsoexperimentedsendingelectricalsignalsthroughtheearth.Thenon4July1899ahugeelectricalstormarrived.Herecorded‘nolessthan10,000to12,000dischargesbeingwitnessedinsideof2hours.Theflashingwasalmost

continuousand,evenlaterinthenight,whenthestormhadabated,some15to20dischargesperminutewerewitnessed.Someofthedischargeswereofawonderfulbrilliancyandshowedoftentenortwiceasmanybranches.’

Hecouldtrackthesedischargeswithhissensitivedetectingequipmentandhenotedthattheyregistered,periodically,evenwhenthestormhadmovedoutofsight.Theyseemedtostartandstopeveryhalfanhour.Teslaconcludedthatthelightningstrikeshadcreatedelectromagneticwavesintheearth’scrustwhich,reflectedbackonthemselves,setupstationarywaves.Thesemovedpastthereceiverasthestormreceded.

WhileMarconicouldsendradiowavesacrosstheEnglishChannel,Teslabelievedthatbyharnessingthesewaves‘notonlywoulditbepracticabletosendtelegraphicmessagestoanydistancewithoutwires,butalsotoimpressupontheentireglobethefaintmodulationsofthehumanvoice,farmorestill,totransmitpower,inunlimitedamounts,toanyterrestrialdistancewithoutloss’.

‘Withthesestupendouspossibilitiesinsight,’wroteTesla,‘Iattackedvigorouslythedevelopmentofmymagnifyingtransmitter,now,however,notsomuchwiththeoriginalintentionofproducingoneofgreatpower,aswiththeobjectoflearninghowtoconstructthebestone.’

MarsontheHorizonImprovinghisinstruments,Teslafoundhecoulddetectelectricaldisturbances1,100miles(1,770km)away.Thedetectorwasa‘coherer’–aglasstubefilledwithironfillings–connectedviaacapacitortotheground.Thiswasplacedwithinthesecondarycoilofthemagnifyingtransmitter.Whenasignalwasappliedtotheelectrode,theironfillingswouldalign,allowingcurrentinasecondarycircuittopassthoughit.

Teslaconnectedatelephonereceiveracrossthecohererwhichwouldbeepeachtimeasignalwasdetected.Aloneinthelaboratoryonenight,hewassurprisedtohearregularbeeps–firstone,thentwo,thenthree.

‘Myfirstobservationspositivelyterrifiedme,’saidTesla,‘astherewaspresentinthemsomethingmysterious,nottosaysupernatural…IfeltasthoughIwerepresentatthebirthofanewknowledgeortherevelationofagreatertruth.’

Hequicklydiscountedthatasignalwith‘suchaclearsuggestionofnumberandorder’couldhavecomefromdisturbancesintheSun,theauroraborealisorcurrentsintheEarth.Theycouldnotbeentirelyaccidentalandthethoughtflashedthroughhismindthattheymightbeunderintelligentcontrol.Hecouldnotdecipherthem,butoverthenextyear‘thefeelingwasconstantlygrowingonmethatIhavebeenthefirsttohearthegreetingofoneplanettoanother’.

AtChristmas1900,thelocalRedCrossSocietyaskedhimwhatthegreatestachievementofthenexthundredyearswouldbe.Inhisanswer,hesaid:‘Brethren!Wehaveamessagefromanotherworld,unknownandremote.Itreads:one…two…three…’

Ininterviews,Teslamaintainedonlythatthesignalswereofanextraterrestrialorigin,butjournalistsquicklyconcludedtheywerefromMars.ThankstoPercivalLowell,everyonethoughtthatMarswasinhabited.InhisbookMars(1895),LowellconcludedthattherehadbeenadroughtonMarsandtheMartianshadbuiltcanalstocarrywaterfromthepolaricecaps.

BiographerMarcSeiferconcludedthatTeslahadpickedupsignalsfromthetestsMarconiwasdoingwiththeBritishandFrenchfleets.But,atthattime,thetransmittersMarconiwasusingwouldnothavehadthepowertotransmitasignalhalfwayroundtheworld.Moreover,Marconiwasusingthehighfrequenciesneededtocarryradiowavesthroughtheair,whileTesla’sequipmentwastunedtotheverylowfrequenciesthathebelievedweretransmittedbetterthroughtheEarth’scrust.

AnothertheorywasadvancedbyKennethandJamesCorumwhopointedoutthatIo,amoonofJupiter,emitsasignalinthe10kHzrangeusedbyTesla.In1996,theybuiltaTeslareceiverandrecordedaseriesofbleepslikethoseTesladescribedin1899.StudyingastronomicalchartstheyalsodiscoveredthatbothJupiterandMarswouldhavebeeninthenightskyoverColoradointhesummerof1899.What’smore,onseveralnightsinJuly,thesignalfromIowouldhavebrokenoffjustasMarswassetting.IfTeslahadwalkedoutofhislabwhenthebeepingstopped,hewouldhaveseenMarsdisappearingoverthehorizon.

ThepressbegantospeculatehowTeslawouldreplytotheMartians,whileothersdismissedTeslaasamanwhowoulddoanythingtoattractself-publicity.

WonderfulWhiteLightningTeslacontinuedexperimentingwithhismagnifyingtransmitter,boostingthevoltageuntilitproducedstreamsofartificiallightning16ft(5m)longwhichsetfiretothebuildingmorethanonce.Teslawascontinuallyfindinghimselfclosetodanger.

Forhandlingtheheavycurrents,Ihadaspecialswitch.Itwashardtopull,andIhadaspringarrangedsothatIcouldjusttouchthehandleanditwouldsnapin.Isentoneofmyassistantsdowntownandwasexperimentingalone.Ithrewuptheswitchandwentbehindthecoiltoexaminesomething.WhileIwastheretheswitchsnappedin,whensuddenlythewholeroomwasfilledwithstreamers,andIhadnowayofgettingout.ItriedtobreakthroughthewindowbutinvainasIhadnotools,andtherewasnothingelsetodothantothrowmyselfonmystomachandpassunder.Theprimarycarried500,000volts,andIhadtocrawlthroughthenarrowplace…withthestreamersgoing.ThenitrousacidwassostrongIcouldhardlybreathe.Thesestreamersrapidlyoxidizenitrogenbecauseoftheirenormoussurface,whichmakesupforwhattheylackinintensity.WhenIcametothenarrowspacetheyclosedonmyback.Igotawayandbarelymanagedtoopentheswitchwhenthebuildingbegantoburn.Igrabbedafireextinguisherandsucceededinsmotheringthefire.

Frighteningthoughthisexperiencewas,Teslawasthrilled.‘Ihavehadwonderfulexperienceshere,’hewrote,‘amongotherthings,Itamedawildcatandamnothingbutamassofbleedingscratches.Butinthescratches,thereliesamind.’

AlthoughthefamouspicturesofTeslashowhimsurroundedbylightning,theywerenotdischargedduringthenormalrunningofthemachine.Theywouldhavebeenawasteofenergy.Whenthemagnifyingtransmitterwasrunatnight,abluebeamwouldbeseenrisingstraightupoverthestationintothenightsky,causedbyacoronaoffinestreamerssurroundingthemastandsphere.

‘Atnight,’Teslasaid,‘thisantenna,whenIturnedontothefullcurrent,wasmarvelloussight.’

MissingtheBoatwiththeNavyWhileinColorado,TeslawascontactedbytheUSLighthouseBoardwho

wantedtoinstallawirelessonboardtheNantucketLightshipsothatitcouldgiveadvancedwarningofincomingshipstoNewYorkandothereast-coastports.Teslainitiallyagreedtosupplysomeexperimentalequipmenttotestonthelightship.ButhisrelationswiththeLighthouseBoardquicklysouredwhenhediscoveredthathisequipmentwasgoingtobetestedagainstMarconi’s.TheLighthouseBoardthensaidthattheywouldprefer‘hometoforeigntalent’.Teslawasfurious,insistingthathewasthepioneerwhohadlaiddowntheprinciplesofwirelesstelegraphyandwasnotpreparedtocompetewiththeupstartMarconi.

ButMarconiwasarrivinginNewYorkfortheAmerica’sCupinSeptember1899andsomethingmustbedonequickly.Teslawasadamant.HehadimportantworktodoinColoradoandwouldnotbreakoffunlesstheboardputinanorderforatleast12wirelesssets.Theyrefused.SoTeslamissedanopportunitytodemonstratetheeffectivenessofhisequipmentand,whentheUSNavyboughtitsfirstwirelessequipment,itwasorderedfromFrenchandGermancompanies.

TurningUptheJuiceAsTeslacontinuedtoincreasethepowerofhismagnifyingtransmitter,hebecameadangertoallaroundhim.Inthearticle‘CanRadioIgniteBalloons?’hesaid:

Referringtoelectricalorradiowaveactionatadistance,Iknowfromexperiencethatifproperprecautionsarenottaken,firesofallkindsandexplosionscanbeproducedbywirelesstransmitters.InmyexperimentsinColorado,whentheplantwaspowerfullyexcited,thelightningarrestersfor12milesaroundwerebridgedwithcontinuousarcs,muchstrongerandmorepersistentthanthosewhichordinarilytookplaceduringanelectricstorm.Ihaveexcitedloops(coilaerials)andlightedincandescentlampsataconsiderabledistancefromthelaboratorywithoutevenusingmorethan5or10percentofthecapacityofthetransmitter.Whentheoscillatorwasexcitedtoabout4millionvoltsandanincandescentlampwasheldinthehandabout50or60feetfromthelaboratory,thefilamentwasoftenbrokenbythevibrationsetup,givingsomeideaofthemagnitudeoftheelectromotiveforcesgeneratedinthespace.TheaccompanyingillustrationshowsoneofmyexperimentsinwhichIlightedseverallampsatadistanceof100feet[30m]fromthelaboratory,purelyby

wirelessenergy.Suchinducedcurrentsmighteasilyfireagasballoonundertheproperconditions.

Arrivingforworkonedayinmid-autumn,hisassistant,KolmanCzito,foundTeslatheinventorwateringthegroundaroundthemetalplatehehadburiednearthelabasanearth.‘IfIcouldonlyinsulatethesewireswithliquidoxygen,’hesaid,‘Icouldreducelossesanothermagnitude.’

HegaveCzitoapairofrubbersoledshoesandputonapairhimself.‘Allthewaytoday,sir?’askedCzito.‘Tothelimit,myfriend,’saidTesla.‘Nowremember,keeponehandbehindyourbackatalltimes.’Thiswastopreventacircuitbeingcreatedbetweenhistwoarmsthatwouldsendalethalcurrentthroughtheheart.

‘WhenIgiveyouthesignalIwantyoutoclosetheswitchandleaveitcloseduntilIgiveyouthesignaltoopenit,’saidTesla.Usually,hetoldCzitotoclosetheswitchforasecond,nolonger.ThenTeslatotteredoutofthelabonhishighshoes,pastthetestingequipmentandcoldlampsplantedinthegroundatvariousplaces,andpositionedhimselfonaknollaboutamileawaywherehecouldseethetopofthemast.Eventhoughinsulated,sparksjumpedfromthegroundtohisfeetashecrunchedalongthepath.

TotalBlackOutItwasalreadyeveningandthelightsweregoingoninColoradoSpringsasTeslagavethesignalandCzitoclosedtheswitch.Therewasacracklingsoundfromthecoils.Theroomwasfilledwithaneeriebluelight.Thecoilsandthebuildingitselfsproutedneedlesofflamesastheplacefilledwiththesmellofozone.

Alowrumblebuilttoaroarofthunderthatwassostrongitcouldbeheard15miles(24km)away.Butterfliescircledasifcaughtinawhirlpoolandahorsehalf-a-mileawaybolted.‘Isupposethecapacityofthebodywassufficientlygreattoderivearatherstrongcurrentthroughthelegswhichwouldfrightentheanimal,’saidTesla.

Streamersoflightningshroudedthemasthighabovetheroofofthelab.Fromthetopcamesparksafull135ft(41m)inlength.Suddenlytherewassilence.Below,ColoradoSpringshadbeenplungedintodarkness.Teslaracedbackto

thelabtoberateCzito‘Whydidyoudothat?’heshouted.‘Ididnottellyoutoopentheswitch.Closeitagainimmediately.’

Czitopointedtothemetersontheswitchboard.Thewirescarryingpowertothelabweredead.Whentheyphonedthepowerstation,Teslagrabbedthephone.

‘ThisisNikolaTesla,’hesaid.‘Youhavecutoffmypower!Youmustgivemebackmypowerimmediately!Youmustnotcutoffmypower.’

ThepowerstationworkerontheotherendofthephoneexplainedthatTeslahadshort-circuitedtheirgeneratorandhadtotallywreckedthepowerstation.Thegeneratorwasonfire,butfortunatelythepowerhousehadasecond,standbygeneratorwhichwasstartedupsoonafter.Teslainsistedthathebesuppliedwithcurrentfromthereservegeneratorassoonasitwasupandrunning.Thiswasrefused.Inthefuture,hewastold,hewouldbesuppliedbyageneratoroperatingindependentlyfromtheonesupplyingtheElPasoElectricCompany’sothercustomers.ThegeneratorwouldbetheoneTeslahadjustburntout.Itwasuptohimtofixit.

TeslaleftColoradoSprings–withoutpayinghiselectricitybill–convincedthathisexperimentshadbeenasuccess.

WhatHappenedinColoradoSprings?TeslaconductedexperimentsatColoradoSpringsforninemonthsandthoughhekeptadailydiary,itisnotclearwhattheresultsofhisexperimentswere.HehadpromisedtotransmitawirelesssignalfromPike’sPeaktoParis.Healsoaimedtotransmitelectricitywithoutwiresathighaltitudeswheretheairwasthinnerandmoreconductive.Hedidsucceedinlightingupthesky.

Hetransmittedextra-low-frequencysignalsfromthesurfaceoftheearthtotheionosphere.Teslathencalculatedthattheresonantfrequencyofthisareawasapproximately8Hz.Itwasnotuntilthe1950sthatthisideawastakenseriouslyandresearchersweresurprisedtodiscoverthattheresonantfrequencyofthisspacewasindeedaround8Hz.

Healsofoundtheearthtobe‘literallyalivewithelectricalvibrations’andcametobelievethatlightningstrikingthegroundsetuppowerfulwavesthatmoved

fromonesideoftheearthtotheother.IftheEarthwasagreatconductor,Teslathoughtthathecouldtransmitunlimitedamountsofpowerthroughitwithvirtuallynoloss.Totestthistheory,hehadattemptedtobecomethefirstmantocreateelectricaleffectsonthescaleoflightning.Andthereweresomereportsthathetransmittedasignalpowerfulenoughtoilluminatevacuumtubesplantedinthegroundseveralmilesaway.ButthismaybeattributedtoconductivepropertiesofthegroundlocallyatColoradoSprings.

PARTTHREE:IMPOSSIBLEIDEAS

Chapter9–TakingonMarconiWhenIsentelectricalwavesfrommylaboratoryinColoradoaroundtheworld,MrMarconiwasexperimentingwithmyapparatusunsuccessfullyatsea.Afterward,MrMarconicametoAmericatolectureonthesubject,statingthatitwashewhosentthosesignalsaroundtheglobe.Iwenttohearhim,andwhenhelearnedthatIwaspresenthebecamesick,postponedthelecture,anduptothepresenttimehasnotdeliveredit.

NikolaTesla

MarconiwasintownwhenTeslareturnedtoNewYorktothecomfortoftheWaldorf-Astoria.Hepaidhimavisit.‘Irememberhimwhenhewascomingtomeaskingmetoexplainthefunctionofmytransformerfortransmissionofpowertogreatdistances,’saidTesla.‘MrMarconisaid,afterallmyexplanationsoftheapplicationofmyprinciple,thatitisimpossible.’

‘Timewilltell,MrMarconi,’Teslareplied.TeslawasstilltryingtogetinterestinhisTelautomatons.Heproposeda‘dirigiblewirelesstorpedo’orsmallremote-controlledairships.

‘Ihaveconstructedsuchmachines,andshowntheminoperationonfrequentoccasions,’saidTesla.‘Theyhaveworkedperfectlyandeverybodywhosawthemwasamazedattheirperformance.’

HewenttoWashingtonDC,wherehewasagainrebuffed.HestillhopedthattheUSNavyorCoastGuardmightbuyhiswirelesstransmitters,andplannedtoprovehissystembytransmittingasignalacrosstheAtlantic.Westinghouse,thoughnowinfinancialdifficulties,frontedthemoneyandanagentwassenttoBritaintofindasuitablesiteforareceivingstation.

In1900,Teslafiledthreepatentsonwirelesscommunicationandreworkedhisplansforatransoceanicbroadcastingsystem.HealsosettoworkonanarticleforCenturymagazine.Atthetimehewasundertheinfluenceofthe

philosophersFriedrichNietzsche(1844–1900)andArthurSchopenhauer(1788–1860).RobertJohnsonbeggedhimnottomakethearticletoometaphysical.Teslatooknonotice.

LifeonMarsAswellashisscientificintereststhearticlecoveredsucharcanesubjectsastheevolutionoftherace,artificialintelligence,thepossibilityoffuturehumanbeingslivingwithouteating,inorganiclifeformsandlifeonMars.However,themagazinedecidedtheyhadnoalternativebuttopublishitanyway.Itwasasensation,amonghisfriends,atleast.However,anonymousreviewsinPopularScienceMonthlyandSciencedismisseditas‘scienceandfiction’.

Oblivioustocriticism,TeslafollowedupwithanarticleinCollier’smagazinecalledTalkingWiththePlanetswherehediscussesthepossibilityofcommunicatingwithMartians.Thisbroughtrenewedcriticism,especiallyfromthosewhohadaxestogrind.MeanwhileTeslatriedtogetfreshfundsoutofAstor.Theywerenotforthcoming.AstorwasangrywithTesla.Insteadofusingthemoneyhehadgivenhimbeforetoperfecthisfluorescenttube,TeslahadrunofftoColoradoSpringsandspentitonhiswirelessexperiments.

Therewereotherproblemsontheemotionalfront.Thesonofhisfirst–and,probably,only–loveAnnaturnedupinNewYork,sayinghewantedtobeaboxer.Tesla,aboxingfan,encouragedhim.StanfordWhitesetupabout,buttheboywasknockeddownanddiedsoonafter.Tesla,itwassaid,grievedforhimasifhewerehisownson.

FindingaNewBackerTeslamovedinhighcircles.Intheautumnof1900,hewasinvitedtoattendtheweddingofLouisa,thedaughterofWallStreetmagnetJ.Pierpont‘J.P.’Morgan(1837–1913),alongwiththeAstorsandTeddyRoosevelt(1858–1919)whobecameUSpresidentthefollowingyear.Heturnedoutwithatophat,whiteglovesandcane.Teslaalwayspridedhimselfonhisappearanceandclaimedtobeoneofthebest-dressedmenonFifthAvenue.Atthewedding,Louisa’syoungersisterAnnetookafancytoTesla.SheinvitedhimtotheThanksgivingdinnerattheMorgans’homewhereTeslaputonashowinvolvingcoloured

lights,lightningandvariouswirelessdevices.

MorganwasayachtsmanandcommodoreoftheNewYorkYachtClub.DuringtheAmerica’sCup,heofferedMarconi$200,000forhisAmericanpatents,includingthe‘OceanRights…ifeverwirelesstelegraphycouldcommunicatefromEnglandtoNewYork’.ButthedealfellthroughandMorganopenednegotiationswithTesla.

However,whentheymet,Morganwasnotimpressed.Alreadymiredincontroversy,Teslawasboastfuland,asidefromhisearlydealwithWestinghouse,hehadyettoshowaprofitonanyofhisinventions.NeverthelessMorganagreedtogiveTesla$150,000tobuildatransatlantictransmitterwitha90-ft(27-m)towerinreturnfor51percentofthecompanyandthepatents.ThelightingpatentsthatAstorhadaninterestinwereaddedtothislater.TeslatooktheopportunitytopayWestinghousebackthemoneyheowedhimforre-equippinghislaboratoryandthenewventurewascelebratedwithabanquetattheWaldorf-Astoria.

WorldTelegraphyCentreTeslaboughta200-acre(81-hectare)tractoflandatShorehamonLongIslandSound.ItwasnamedWardenclyffe,afterJamesS.Warden,thebusinessmanwhohandledthedeal.Theplanwastoexpandfromtherean1800-acre(728-hectare)‘RadioCity’whichStanfordWhitesetaboutdesigning.Travellingouttothesitebytrainonemorning,TeslareadanarticleinElectricalReviewwhereMarconiadmittedusingaTeslaCoilinhiswirelessexperiments.

Enraged,Teslaimmediatelyscrappedplanstobuildamodest90-ft(27-m)towerandstarteddesigninga600-ft(183-m)edifice.Whenhegrewtiredofcommutingfromthecity,TeslawouldstayoutonStanfordWhite’sestatenearShoreham.WhenWhite’swifeaskedTeslawhyhewanderedaroundthegardenatnight,Teslareplied:‘Ineversleep.’

WhenMorgangotwindofTesla’sgrandioseplanshefulminated.Whitequicklyscaledthingsdown.

Marconi’sMiracleTesla’swirelessambitionswereabouttosufferanothersetback.Marconihadinstalledapowertransmitterwitha200-foot(60m)mastatPoldhuinCornwallandwassendingtesttransmissionstoCrookhaveninIreland,200miles(320km)away,whilethesisterstationwasbeingbuiltonCapeCod,MA.BothwereflattenedbystormsinSeptember1901.

ThePoldhustationwasrebuilt,buttheaerialontheothersideoftheAtlanticwastobecarriedaloftbyakitefromSignalHill,Newfoundland.On12December1901,itpickedupasignal–threedots,theMorsecodefortheletterS,fromPoldhu.Theageofglobalcommunicationhadbegun.

Atfirstnoonebelievedit.AccordingtoTesla,Marconihadoncetoldhimthat,becauseofthecurvatureoftheEarth‘wirelesscommunicationacrosstheAtlanticwasimpossiblebecausetherewasawallofwaterseveralmileshighbetweenthetwocontinents,whichtherayscouldnottraverse’.

Onhearingthenews,OtisPond,anengineerthenworkingforTesla,said,‘LooksasifMarconigotthejumponyou.’Teslareplied,‘Marconiisagoodfellow.Lethimcontinue.Heisusingseventeenofmypatents.’

ThomasMartinwasdoubtfulaboutMarconi’sachievement,butafterconsultingwithcolleagues,hebookedabanquetinghallintheWaldorf-Astoriafor13January1902andinvited300gueststocelebrateMarconi’sachievement.Tesladidnotattend,havingduckedoutofthehotelbeforeMarconiarrived.Thedinnerexacerbatedtheill-willbetweenMartinandTesla,whowasnowpreparinganeweditionofTheInventions,ResearchesandWritingsofNikolaTesla,thistimewithoutMartin’snameonit.

AccordingtoTheNewYorkTimesatthedinner:TherewerecheerswhenthetoastmastercametoaletterfromNikolaTesla,whosaidhefeltthat‘hecouldnotrisetotheoccasion’.Theletterwenton:

Iregretnotbeingabletocontributetothepleasureoftheevening,butIwishtojointhemembersinheartilycongratulatingMrMarconionhisbrilliantresults.Heisasplendidworker,fullofrareandsubtleenergies.Mayheprovetobeoneofthosewhosepowersincreaseandwhosemindfeelersreachoutfartherwithadvancingyearsforthegoodoftheworldandhonourofhiscountry.

Inhisspeech,Marconipointedoutthathiswirelesswasalreadyinstalledonover70ships–37intheBritishRoyalNavy,12intheItalianNavyandtherestonlinersbelongingtoCunard,NorthGermanLloydandothers.Therewerealready20stationsinoperationonlandinGreatBritainandmoreinconstruction.Heconcludedbysaying:‘Ihavebuiltverylargelyontheworkofothers…Imaymissafewofthem,butIwouldliketomentionClerkMaxwell,LordKelvin,ProfessorHenryandProfessorHertz.’

TherewasnomentionofTesla,buthewasnotcowed.HewrotetoMorgansayingthathehaddevelopedamachinethatwouldproduce‘anelectricaldisturbanceofsufficientintensitytobeperceptibleoverthewholeoftheEarth…whenIthrowaswitch,IshallsendagreetingtothewholeworldandforthisgreattriumphIshalleverbegratefultoyou.’

Notonlywouldhetakeonthetelegraphcompanies,buthethreatenedtodestroynewspapers.EverycustomerofTesla’swirelesssystemwouldbeabletoprinttheirown.However,TeslawasalreadyrunningoutofmoneyandthiswouldbehislastcommunicationwithMorganfor9months.

TheWardenclyffeTowerThoughTesla’sexperimentalstationwasimpressive,itwasnotasgrandashehadplanned.Morganhadonlygivenhim$150,000whenamorerealisticsumwouldhavebeen$1million.Thetowerrosejust187ft(57m)intheair.Onthetopwasa57-tonsteelsphere.Underthetowerwasashaftthatplunged120ft(36m)intotheground.Sixteenironpipesweredrivendownanother300ft(91m)sothatcurrentscouldpassdeepintotheEarth.‘InthissystemthatIhaveinvented,’Teslasaid,‘itisnecessaryforthemachinetogetagripoftheEarth,otherwiseitcannotshaketheEarth.Ithastohaveagrip...sothatthewholeofthisglobecanquiver.’

WhileMarconiwassendinghismessagesthroughcurvedair,saidthePortJeffersonEcho,TeslaproposedtosendthemthroughtheEarthaswell.ButconstructionwasalreadygrindingtoahaltwhenMarconisenthistransatlanticsignal.HemayhavebeenusingTesla’spatents,buthisequipmentwasinexpensivebycomparison.ThenthestockmarketcrashedandthecostofmaterialsTeslaneededtocompleteWardenclyffedoubled.Morganwouldnotstumpupanymoremoney,soTeslawentbacktothemanufactureofhis

oscillatorsthathadprovedsopopularamonghisrivals,andtoperfectingfluorescentlights.MoneybegantotrickleinandhecompletedthecupolacrowningthetoweratWardenclyffe.

AttheendofJuly1903,Teslafinallycrankeduphismagnifyingtransformer.Themushroom-shapedcupolabecamefullycharged.LocalvillagersheardtherumbleofthunderandastrangelightappearedaboveTesla’stower.ThiscouldbeseenontheshoresofConnecticutontheothersideofLongIslandSound.

Soonafter,creditorsfromWestinghousecametocartawaytheheavyequipmentandTesla’stowerfellsilent.Unbowed,TeslaraisedmoneyfromhisunclesintheBalkans,thendidtheroundsofWallStreetfinanciers.InOctober1903,ThomasFortuneRyan(1851–1928)promised$100,000,butMorganscuttledtheventure.ItseemsthatTesla’sboastofbeingabletotransmitunlimitedamountsofpoweroveranydistancewasseenasathreattothemogulsofWallStreet.Howweretheygoingtochargefortheelectricityitgenerated?Teslaclearlyintendedtogivepowerawayforfree.Evendistributinginformationfreelywasachallengetothosewhocontrolledmajorcorporations.TeslarespondedwithanarticlepublishedsimultaneouslyinElectricalWorldandScientificAmerican:

Theresultsattainedbymehavemademyschemeofintelligencetransmission,forwhichthenameof‘WorldTelegraphy’hasbeensuggested,easilyrealizable.Itconstitutesaradicalandfruitfuldeparturefromwhathasbeendoneheretofore…Itinvolvestheemploymentofanumberofplants,allofwhicharecapableoftransmittingindividualizedsignalstotheuttermostconfinesoftheearth.Eachofthemwillbepreferablylocatednearsomeimportantcentreofcivilizationandthenewsitreceivesthroughanychannelwillbeflashedtoallpointsoftheglobe.Acheapandsimpledevice,whichmightbecarriedinone’spocket,maythenbesetupsomewhereonseaorland,anditwillrecordtheworld’snewsorsuchspecialmessagesasmaybeintendedforit.Thustheentireearthwillbeconvertedintoahugebrain,asitwere,capableofresponseineveryoneofitsparts.Sinceasingleplantofbutonehundredhorsepowercanoperatehundredsofmillionsofinstruments,thesystemwillhaveavirtuallyinfiniteworkingcapacity,anditmustneedsimmenselyfacilitateandcheapenthetransmissionofintelligence.Thefirstofthesecentralplantswouldhavebeenalreadycompletedhaditnotbeenforunforeseendelays…

Hesaidelsewherethat,ifonlyMorganwouldfundit,hewouldbringabout

worldpeace.ButMorganwasadamantandTeslasoughtrefugeinWardenclyffe,onlyventuringouttoattendthefuneralofStanfordWhitewhich,duetothescandalouscircumstances,wasshunnedbymostotherNewYorksocialites.

MoreRivalsEmergeMarconiwasnotTesla’sonlyrival.LeeDeForesthadnowcompletedhisdoctorateinelectricalengineeringatYale.In1901,hesentwirelessmessagesacrosstheHudsonRiver.Hespeededuptransmissionto30wordsaminute,whichwasaboutasfastasaMorse-codeoperatorcouldsendthem.By1904,hecouldsendasignalfromBuffalotoCleveland,adistanceof180miles(290km).Thenin1908,hesucceededinbridgingtheAtlantic.

WhileMarconiandDeForestconcentratedonsendingmessagesinMorsecode,sendingbriefburstsofsignals,Canadian-bornReginaldFessendenrealizedthatitwaspossibletomodulateacontinuoussignaltofollowtheirregularitiesofsound.Atthereceivingstation,itwouldthenbepossibletounscramblethesignalandreconvertittosound.ThisiswhatwenowknowasAM(amplitudemodulated)radio.In1906,hetransmittedmusicdowntheMassachusettscoast.In1910,DeForestwasbroadcastingthevoiceofItalianoperasingerEnricoCaruso(1873–1921)fromtheMetropolitanOperaHouseinNewYork.However,Teslasuedhimforinfringinghispatentsandwon.

TheMillion-DollarFollyThenewspapersbegantocallWardenclyffeTesla’sMillion-DollarFolly.Forcedtocloseitdown,Teslahadanervousbreakdown.Herailedagainstthecritics:

Itisnotadream.Itisasimplefeatofscientificelectricalengineering,onlyexpensive–blind,faint-hearted,doubtingworld…Humanityisnotyetsufficientlyadvancedtobewillinglyledbythediscoverer’skeensearchingsense.Butwhoknows?Perhapsitisbetterinthispresentworldofoursthatarevolutionaryideaorinventioninsteadofbeinghelpedandpatted,behamperedandill-treatedinitsadolescence–bywantofmeans,byselfishinterest,pedantry,stupidityandignorance;thatitbeattackedandstifled;thatitpassthroughbittertrialsandtribulations,throughtheheartlessstrifeofcommercialexistence.Sodowegetourlight.Soallthatwasgreatinthepastwasridiculed,

condemned,combated,suppressed–onlytoemergeallthemorepowerfully,allthemoretriumphantlyfromthestruggle.

TeslaretreatedtohisroomattheWaldorf-AstoriawherehenursedaninjuredpigeonhehadfoundneartheNewYorkPublicLibrary.However,atnight,hesometimesstoleouttoWardenclyffetohookhimselfuptothehigh-frequencymachinery.‘Ihavepassed150,000voltsthroughmyhead,’hetoldTheNewYorkTimes,‘anddidnotloseconsciousness,butIinvariablyfellintoalethargicsleepsometimeafter.’Hefoundtheelectricitysoothing.

SeeingintotheFutureAlthoughWardenclyffedidnotliveuptohisexpectations,Tesla’svisionremainedintact.In‘TheFutureoftheWirelessArt’inWirelessTelegraphyandTelephonyin1908hesaid:

Assoonasitiscompleted,itwillbepossibleforabusinessmaninNewYorktodictateinstructions,andhavetheminstantlyappearintypeathisofficeinLondonorelsewhere.Hewillbeabletocallup,fromhisdesk,andtalktoanytelephonesubscriberontheglobe,withoutanychangewhateverintheexistingequipment.Aninexpensiveinstrument,notbiggerthanawatch,willenableitsbearertohearanywhere,onseaorland,musicorsong,thespeechofapoliticalleader,theaddressofaneminentmanofscience,orthesermonofaneloquentclergyman,deliveredinsomeotherplace,howeverdistant.Inthesamemanneranypicture,character,drawing,orprintcanbetransferredfromonetoanotherplace.Millionsofsuchinstrumentscanbeoperatedfrombutoneplantofthiskind.Moreimportantthanallofthis,however,willbethetransmissionofpower,withoutwires,whichwillbeshownonascalelargeenoughtocarryconviction.

Chapter10–FreshDreamsofFlyingOnmyslowreturntothenormalstateofmind,Iexperiencedanexquisitelypainfullongingaftersomethingundefinable.DuringthedayIworkedasusualandthisfeeling,thoughitpersisted,wasmuchlesspronounced,butwhenIretired,thenight,withitsmonstrousamplifications,madethesufferingveryacute…mytorturewasduetoaconsumingdesiretoseemymother.

NikolaTesla

SlowlyTeslarecovered.Hewouldgooutduringtheday,asdapperasever,tohavewarmcompressesappliedtohisfaceandhisscalpmassaged.Helookedfornewofficesanddelightedontravellingonthesubwaywhichwaspoweredbyhisinductionmotors.

InMay1907,TeslawasinductedintotheNewYorkAcademyofSciences.Hemanagedtoborrowsomemoneyandraiseafewmortgages,includingonewithGeorgeC.Boldt,theproprietoroftheWaldorf-Astoria,wherehehadnotpaidrentfor3years.Justasheseemedtobegettingbackonhisfeetcamethe‘Panicof1907’,whensharesplunged50percentfromthepeakthepreviousyear,causingarunonthebanks.

Nevertheless,hisimaginationwasasgoodasever.TheWrightbrothershadmadetheirfirstpoweredflightin1903.AstorwasalsokeenonflyingmachinesandencouragedTeslatotakeaninterest.However,atadinnerattheWaldorf-Astoriaatthebeginningof1908,hemadeanotherofhispronouncements:

Thecomingyearwilldispelanothererrorwhichhasgreatlyretardedtheprogressofaerialnavigation.Theaeronautwillsoonsatisfyhimselfthatanairplane…isaltogethertooheavytosoar,andthatsuchamachine,whileithasitsuses,canneverflyasfastasadirigibleballoon.Oncethisisfullyrecognizedtheexpertwillconcentratehiseffortsonthelattertype,andbeforemanymonthsarepasseditwillbeafamiliarobjectinthesky.

However,hewasnotentirelywrongashewentontosay:‘Aerialvesselsofwarwillbeusedtotheexclusionofships.’Healsosaid‘thepropellerisdoomed’.Itwould,hesaid,havetobereplacedby‘areactivejet’.

Tesla’sFlyingMachineDespitehisgloomyprognostication,TeslarevealedinTheNewYorkTimesof8June1908thathewasworkingonaheavier-than-airmachineofhisown.By1911,Teslawasreadytospellouthisvisioninapressinterview:

Theflyingmachineofthefuture–myflyingmachine–willbeheavierthanair,butitwillnotbeanairplane.Itwillhavenowings.Itwillbesubstantial,solid,stable.Youcannothaveastableairplane.Thegyroscopecanneverbesuccessfullyappliedtotheairplane,foritwouldgiveastabilitythatwouldresultinthemachinebeingtorntopiecesbythewind,justastheunprotectedairplaneonthegroundistorntopiecesbyahighwind.

Myflyingmachinewillhaveneitherwingsnorpropellers.Youmightseeitonthegroundandyouwouldneverguessthatitwasaflyingmachine.Yetitwillbeabletomoveatwillthroughtheairinanydirectionwithperfectsafety,higherspeedsthanhaveyetbeenreached,regardlessofweatherandobliviousofholesintheairordownwardcurrents.Itwillascendinsuchcurrentsifdesired.Itcanremainabsolutelystationaryintheair,eveninawind,forgreatlengthoftime.Itsliftingpowerwillnotdependuponanysuchdelicatedevicesasthebirdhastoemploy,butuponpositivemechanicalaction.

Teslacouldnotbearbeingleftbehind.In1911,hesaid:‘20yearsagoIbelievedthatIwouldbethefirstmantofly;thatIwasonthetrackofaccomplishingwhatnooneelsewasanywherenearreaching.Iwasworkingentirelyinelectricitythenanddidnotrealizethatthegasolineenginewasapproachingaperfectionthatwasgoingtomaketheaeroplanefeasible.’

Hisidea,naturally,wastohaveaplanepoweredbyelectricity,withpowersuppliedbystationsontheground.‘Ihavenotaccomplishedthisasyet,butamconfidentthatIwillintime,’hesaid.

TheFlivverPlaneTakesOffTeslaappliedforapatentonaflyingmachinein1921.Dubbedthe‘flivverplane’–flivverwasearly20th-centuryslangforacheapcar–itwassaidtocombinethequalitiesofahelicopterandaplane,andcouldflyverticallyaswellashorizontally.Accordingtoapressreport:

Itisatinycombinationplanewhich,itsinventorasserts,willriseanddescendverticallyandflyhorizontallyatgreatspeed,muchfasterthanthespeedoftheplanesoftoday.Butdespitethefeatswhichhecreditstohisinvention,Teslasaysthatitwillsellforsomethinglessthan$1,000.

Thehelicopter-airplaneisasmallstructure,withtwowingsabout8ftsquare.Itmayhaveonepropelleranditmayhaveseveral,tobedrivenbyalightbutpowerfulturbinemotorofTesla’sinvention.Whentheplanerestsonthegroundthepropellerwillbeoverheadandthewingswillbestandingvertically.Themotorisexpectedtogenerateaterrificpowerthatwilllifttheplaneintotheair.Thispowercanbesustainedonlyashortwhile.

Atthedesiredheight,theaviatorbeginstotilthisplane.Thewingsgraduallyarebroughtintoahorizontalpositionthatputsthepropellerinfrontofthemachine.Duringthisoperationtheenginepowerisdecreased,and,atthislowerpower,thehelicopterbecomesanairplaneandisoperatedassuch.Thewingsnowaresupportingsurfaces,and,exceptwhenexceptionalspeediswantedforafewmoments,theenginewillberunatalowrate.

Seatsforthepilotandthreeorfourpassengersaresuspendedfromtrunnionsonwhichtheycanturnthroughanangleof90degrees.Thisenablesthoseintheplanetositinanormalpositionatalltimes.Withtwowheelbasesatrightangles,thehelicopter-airplaneisabletodescendinaglideorvertically,landingeasilyeitherway.Asahelicopter,ithasalowlandingvelocity.

AlthoughheobtainedmorepatentsforTheFlivverPlanein1928,evenbythen,hestillhadnotbuiltafull-scalemodel.

BecomingYesterday’sNewsBy1909,LeeDeForesthadperfectedtheradio-telephonewhichhadbeenadoptedbythenaviesofBritain,theUSandItaly.Hehadcutoutthesparkand

minimizedthechancesoftheinterruptionofmessages.Bytransmittingthespeakingvoice,heclaimed,informationcouldnowbepassedatarateof40,000wordsanhourinsteadof40wordsaminute,whichwasthespeedofthefastestMorseoperator.Teslawasrapidlybecomingafootnoteinthehistoryofwireless.

Radio-telephoneswerebeingsetupontopoftallbuildingsand,toaddinsulttoinjury,radiotowerswereerectedontopoftheWaldorf-Astoria.WhileTeslatooknight-timeramblestoGrandCentralStationwhichwouldsoonboastitsastronomicalceiling,ProfessorWilliamPickeringannouncedthathehadraised$10,000toerectasetofmirrorsinTexastosendsignalstoMars.

AdvancedBladelessTurbinesConsideringhisownexperimentswithwirelesstransmission‘evidentlyfarinadvanceofthetimes’,Teslamovedontootherinventions.Hecameupwitha‘bladelessturbine’which,hebelieved,wouldreplacethepetrolengineinacarorcouldbeusedtopoweraircraft,shipsortorpedoes.Italsoworkedasapump.

JustasarotatingmagneticfielddraggedtherotoraroundinhisACmotors,Teslabelievedthatitwaspossibletousesteamorcompressedairtoturnaseriesofdiscsattachedtoaturbine.Theyutilizedthepropertyofviscosity–thatis,afluid’sresistancetoflow.Byadjustingthedistancebetweenthediscstomatchtheviscosityandspeedofflowofthefluid,Teslabelievedthathecouldcreateanefficientengine.

InTesla’sengine,fluidenteredattheedgeofthediscandexitedattheshaftinthecentre.Asthefluidspiralleddownbetweenthediscs,itdraggedthemaroundwithit.Whentheactionwasreversed,thefluidspiralledoutfromthecentreandactedasapumporablower.

Withoutblades,theenginewouldbecheapertobuildandeasiertomaintain.What’smoreitgaveavastlyimprovedpowertoweightratio.Teslaclaimedthat,whilethelightestaeroplaneengineproducesonehorsepower(746watts)foreach2.5pounds(1.1kilograms),hisenginewouldproduce25horsepower(18,642watts).Inhisownmind,hehadsolvedtheproblemofflying.

‘Ihaveaccomplishedwhatmechanicalengineershavebeendreamingabouteversincetheinventionofsteampower,’saidTesla.‘Thatistheperfectrotary

engine.’

Thatwasallverywellintheory,butithadtakenTeslayearstogofromtheideaofarotatingmagneticfieldtotheproductionofafunctioningACmotor.Producingabladelessturbinesimilarlyrequiredagreatdealofmeticulousengineering.Allsortsofdifferentmaterialsandconfigurationswouldhavetobetested.NeverthelessTeslawasconfidentthathisnewenginewouldbesosuccessfulthathewouldhavethemoneytoreopenWardenclyffe.

ComingUpwiththePrototypesIn1906,JuliusCzito,sonofTesla’slong-servingassistantKolman,builtthefirstprototype.Ithadeightdiscseach6inches(15cm)indiameter.Weighinglessthan10pounds(4.5kg)itdeveloped30horsepowerandwouldrotateatupto35,000revolutionsperminute(rpm).Atthisspeed,themetaldisksbegantodistort.Nevertheless,in1909,Teslafiledtwopatents–onefortheturbine,theotherforthepump.

Thefollowingyear,Czitoproducedasecondprototypewith12inch(30cm)discs.Withthespeedlimitedto10,000rpm,itdeveloped100horsepower.Athirdprototypewasslightlysmaller.Itsdiscswere9.75inches(24.8cm)indiameter.Thespeedwaslimitedto9,000rpm,butitdeveloped110horsepower.Teslaproclaimedthathehadinvented‘apowerhouseinahat’.Hookeduptoaninductionmotoritcouldhavemadeajetengine.

AsheshuttledbetweenvariousworkshopsinNewYork,Providence,RhodeIsland,andBridgeport,Connecticut–wheremostofthedevelopmentwasdone–hebecameincreasinglyoptimistic.

‘Iamnowatworkonnewideasofanautomobile,locomotiveandlatheinwhichtheseinventionsofmineareembodiedandwhichcannothelp[but]proveacolossalsuccess,’hesaid.‘Theonlytroubleistogetthecash,butitcannotlastverylongbeforemymoneywillcomeinatorrent.’Laterhewrote,undaunted:‘Thingsaredevelopingveryfavourably,anditseemsmywirelessdreamwillberealizedbeforenextsummer.’

ThereisspeculationthatTeslainstalledoneofhisenginesona‘mysteriouscraft’thatAstorhadmooredontheHarlemRiver.‘Itseemedtoembodyan

airshipwithapracticalwatercraft,’saidTheNewYorkTimes.However,afterayear,itdisappeared.

PuttingonaPublicShowAstorrefusedtoinvest,soTeslasetuptheTeslaPropulsionCompanywithJosephHoadley,whoseAlabamaConsolidatedCoalandIroncompanyplannedtousetheTeslapumpasablowerinitsblastfurnaces.Certainhisfortuneswereontheupagain,TeslatookofficesinthenewMetropolitanLifeToweronMadisonSquare,thenthetallestbuildingintheworld.

Eagertopromotehisnewinvention,TeslaarrangedtogiveapublicdemonstrationattheWatersideStationoftheNewYorkEdisonCompany.Teslahadtwoenginesbuiltwith18-inch(46-cm)rotors.Theywerejust3ft(90cm)long,2ft(60cm)wideand2ft(60cm)high,andweighed400pounds(181kg).Revolvingat9,000rpm,theyeachdeveloped200horsepower.

Inthedemonstration,thetwoturbineswereconnectedbyatorquerod.Turningintheoppositedirection,thetwomotorswouldengageinatug-of-war,withthepowertheydevelopedregisteredonthetorquerod.Butinthisconfiguration,withthetwoturbinespushingagainstoneanother,themotorsdidnotactuallyturn,juststrainedagainsteachother.Theaudiencewasnotimpressedandthestorysooncirculatedthatthetestwasacompletefailure.

BuildingUpHighHopesToTesla,though,thetesthadbeenasuccess.HetoldtheNewYorkHeraldTribune:‘Onesuchpumpnowinoperation,witheightdiscs,18inchesindiameter,pumps4,000gallonsaminutetoaheightof360feet.’

Asamotor,theywouldberunusingwater,air,steam,gasoranyotherfluidunderpressure.‘Themotorisespeciallyadaptedtoautomobiles,foritwillrunongasexplosionsaswellasonsteam,’saidTesla.‘Couplingtheseenginesinseries,onecandoawaywithgearinginmachinery.Factoriescanbeequippedwithoutshafting.’Theapplicationswerelimitless.

‘Withathousandhorse-powerengine,weighingonly100pounds,imaginethe

possibilitiesinautomobiles,locomotivesandsteamships,’hesaid.‘InthespacenowoccupiedbytheenginesoftheLusitania25timesher80,000horsepowercouldbedeveloped,wereitpossibletoprovideboilercapacitysufficienttofurnishthenecessarysteam.’

TheenginewouldalsobeperfecttopowerTesla’sflyingmachine.Usingthecurrentreciprocatingpetrolengine,hesaid,‘theaeroplaneisfatallydefective.Itismerelyatoy,asportingplaything.Itcanneverbecomecommerciallypractical.’

Theproblemwas,ofcourse,heneededmoneytodevelopit.Westinghousewasoutofbusiness;Astorwasnotinterested.Thenin1912,AstorwaslostontheTitanic.ThefollowingyearJ.P.Morganalsodied.Afterhisfuneral,TeslaapproachedhissonJackforfunding.TeslawasstillhopingtogetWardenclyffeupandrunningagain,butJackshowednointerest.However,heloanedtheinventor$20,000todevelophisturbine.

TeslathenmovedintotheWoolworthBuilding,whichhadtakenoverfromtheMetropolitanLifeTowerastheworld’stallestbuilding.Onthewallofhisofficethere,TeslahadthefamouspictureofhiminhislabatColoradoSpringsquietlyreadingwhilehugestreaksofartificiallightningcrackoverhishead.Thepictureis,ofcourse,acheat,takenusingtime-lapsephotography.

TeslathentriedtosellhisturbinetoSigmundBergmann(1851–1927),anoldcolleagueofEdison’swhohadsetupalargemanufacturingconcerninGermany.ButthedealwasnotconcludedbeforethestartofWorldWarI,whenJackMorganbecameinvolvedinhelpingBritainandFrancetofinancethewarandlostinterest.

MarconiversusTeslaTeslawasbitterwhenMarconiwontheNobelPrizein1909forwhatTeslaconsideredwashisinvention.JackHammondtriedtobalancethetwomen’scontributionsinhisarticle‘TheFutureofWireless’intheNationalPressReporterin1912:

MrTeslain1892showedthatthetrueHertzianeffectwasnotameansbywhichitwaspossibleforasendingstationtocommunicatewithareceivingstationat

anygreatdistance.Hedemonstratedfurthermore,thatwavespropagatedatatransmittingstationtravelledalongthegroundasaconductor.Todayitisacknowledgedthattheseviewsarecorrect.Itwas,however,lefttothesplendidenterpriseofMarconitocrystallizetheresultsofpreviousinvestigatorsintoacompleteandpracticalsystemofspacetelegraphy…In1897,MrMarconitransmittedmessagestoadistanceof8.7miles.TodayMrMarconisaysthatthemaximumeffectivedistanceoftransmissionis6,000miles.

RemoteControlMechanicalDogAdisgruntledTeslaresentedthatanycreditshouldgotoMarconi.Healsoheardthat,whileworkingwithAlexanderGrahamBellandTesla’sformerassistantFritzLowenstein,Hammondhadinventedamechanicaldogthatworkedbyremotecontrol.WhileHammondassuredTeslathathehadnotinfringedanyofhispatents,Teslainsistedthathegetashareinanyprofits.ThetwoofthemformedtheTesla-HammondWirelessCompanyfundedbyHammond’sfather.Teslasawthisnewcompanyasawaytomarkethisbladelessturbine,perhapstothemilitary.ButHammondwasmoreinterestedinTesla’spatentsonselectivetuning,whichdivideduptheradiospectrumintonumerouschannels–acrucialdevelopmentinradio.

HammondcontactedtheWarDepartmentwiththeproposalforaship-to-shorecommunicationsystemandhiredFritzLowensteinandBenjaminFranklinMiessnertoformamilitaryresearchgroupatthefamilyestateinGloucester,Massachusetts.AgainTeslawassidelined.

SendingMessagesthroughtheAirWhilepracticalworkwasunderwayinGloucester,TeslawasmakingmoreoutrageousclaimstotheconventionoftheNationalElectricLightAssociationin1911.HesaidthathewouldbeabletorunthestreetcarsinDublinbyapowerstationinLongIslandCity.HiswirelesstransmitterwouldgenerateenoughpowertolighttheentireUnitedStates.

‘Thecurrentwouldpassintotheairand,spreadinginalldirections,producedaneffectofastrongauroraborealis,’hesaid.‘Itwouldbeasoftlight,butsufficienttodistinguishobjects.’TheNewYorkTimessaid:‘QueenIsabellaof

SpaincouldnothavebeenmoreamazedwhenmeetingChristopherColumbustohearaboutthenewworld.’

TeslawasevenpreparedtotakeonEuclid:

Ihaveannihilateddistancewithmyschemeandwhenperfecteditwillnotbeonemitedifferentthanmypresentplanscallfor.Theairwillbemymedium,andIwillbeabletotransmitenergyofanyamounttoanyplaceintheworld.Iwillalsobeabletosendmessagestoallpartsoftheworld,andIwillsendwordsoutintotheworld,whichwillcomeoutofthegroundintheSaharaDesertwithsuchforcethattheycanbeheardfor15milesaround.

Ialsohopetosetupacentralwirelesstelephonestationwherebytherewillbeaforceofamillionhorsepowerbehindeachwordutteredintomyinstrument,andinwhichdistancewillplaynohindranceswhatever.Manyhundredsofpeoplewillbeabletotalkatthesametimeandwithoutanyinterferencewitheachother.

Healsosaidthathehadperfectedanewsteamengine,aturbinethatwouldproduce10horsepowerbutweighedonlyonepound.Themachinewouldbe‘thesmallestthingeverseenonwheelsandwillbemorepowerfulthananyautomobileengineevermanufactured’.

EndingtheHammondPartnershipTeslamadeoverturestotheJapanese,hopingthattheywouldtake500ofhisturbinestopowertheirtorpedoes.HealsohadmeetingswithGEandtheSeiberlingCompany,whodevelopedhigh-speedpowerboats.Thenheworkedonprototypecarengines,approachingFord.KaiserWilhelmIIalsotookaninterestinpossiblemilitaryapplications.ButTeslawashavingproblemswiththedesign.Theballbearingsworedowntooquickly.

AsTeslapreferredtoworkduringthenight,labourcostssoared.Thoughhedidnottakeasalaryhimself,injustafewmonthshefoundhehadlaidout$18,000andaskedHammondforanother$10,000tokeepgoing.ButHammondandLowensteinwerebusyinstallingwirelessequipmentonnavalvesselsandcompetingwithDeForestfora$50,000amplifierdealwithAT&T.SoHammond’smaininterestnowwasperfectingwirelessandheignoredTesla’s

request.Bythenitwasclearthatitwouldtakeagreatdealmorethan$10,000toperfecttheturbine.Thiseffectivelyendedtheirpartnership.

Hammondspentthemoneyhesaveddevelopingremotecontrol,spendingaround$750,000dollarsoncrewlessships,aircraftandsubmarines.HewaseventuallycompensatedbytheWarDepartmentanddidaseparatedealwiththeRadioCorporationofAmerica–laterRCA–shortlyafterTesla’swirelesspatentshadrunout.Yetagaintheinventorhadfailedtoprofitfromhisinventions.However,theyhadmadeHammondamillionaireinhisownright.Heusedthemoneytobuildafauxmedievalcastlelessthanamilefromhisparents’house.Itboastedanudestatueofthefamousinventor.

IsItElectrified?Teslawasneveridleforlong.AnexperimentwithhisTeslaCoilsinSwedenhaddemonstratedthatchildreninanelectrifiedenvironmentgrewmorequicklyandscoredhigherinaptitudetests.SoTeslawenttoworkforthesuperintendentofNewYork’spublicschoolsinstallingTeslaCoilsinthewallsofaschoolforapilotstudy.Theguineapigswere50backwardpupilsanditwassaidthat‘thebrainsofthechildrenwillreceiveartificialstimulationtosuchanextentthattheywillbetransformedfromduncesintostarpupils’.

ForTesla,therewouldbelimitlessapplications.TheNewYorkTimesreported:

Accordingtotheinventorthisexperimentinschoolswillbemerelyanopeningwedge,asuggestiontothepeoplethatbytheuseofhighpotentialelectricitytheymaydoawaywiththeuseofbromides,phosphates,pepsintablets,andallkindsofdrugstakenfordisordersofthenervousanddigestivesystem.Ifhisdreamcomestrue,10yearsfromnowpeoplewillinquirewhenrentinganapartmentorahouse,‘Isitelectrified?’Everyonewillhaveatleastoneroominhishousefurnishedwithacoilgeneratinghigh-frequencycurrents.Bythattimetheappliancewillbeinexpensive,sothatatamoderatecostpeoplewillbeabletoobtainsuperbhealthandmentalbrilliancy.Ordinaryconversationwillthenbecarriedoninscintillatingepigrams,andthementallifeoftheaverageadultwillbesoquickenedastoequalthebrainactivityofthemostbrilliantpeoplelivingbeforethetimewhenageneratorofhigh-frequencycurrentswasahouseholdessential.

EveryoneWantstobeTeslaTeslaalsotoldthenewspaperthatoneofhisassistantshadbeenexceedinglystupid,butafteratimeworkingaroundhigh-voltageequipmentthemangrewbrighterandworkedbetter.Askedaboutanyharmfulside-effects,Teslasaidthattheraysoflightissuingfromordinaryhouseholdincandescentlampsweremoreharmfulthanthosefromahigh-voltagecoil.Healsomaintainedthattheincreasedprevalenceofbaldnesswasduetotheeffectonthescalpofraysfromincandescentbulbs.Buttheelectromagneticradiationfromhiscoilswas,heinsisted,perfectlysafe.

ConstantLegalBattlesWhentheTitanicsank,Marconiwascreditedwithsavingthelivesofthe710survivors,asitwashisequipmentthathadsummonedtherescueships.ThiswasgallingforTeslaandotherpioneers.SoTeslabegansuingMarconiforpatentinfringement.InBritain,Teslaalreadyhadletavitalpatentlapse.However,SirOliverLodge,theinventorofthecoherer,wonasuitagainstMarconi.InFrance,TeslasucceededinchallengingtwoofMarconi’spatents.

Teslawassuedhimself,firstbyaninvestorwhofailedtoreapthericheshewaspromised,thenbyWestinghouseoverequipmenttheyhadlenthim.Teslaarguedthathewasnotpersonallyliableforthis,butagreedtoreturntheequipment.Thoughhislossesweresmall,hewasdeeplyindebtandthebadpublicitydamagedhisreputation.Itseemedhewasnowfairgame.AMrsTiersteinwantedtoshoothimfor‘throwingelectricityather’.Shewasconfinedtoanasylum.

WhileTelefunkeninGermanyinfringedTesla’spatents,itwastooimportanttosue.But,whenthecompanycametoAmericatosetuptransatlanticstationsatTuckerton,NewJersey,andSayville,NewYork,itsfounderAdolfSlaby(1849–1913),soughtoutTeslainthehopethattheycouldpresentaunitedfronttoMarconi.However,in1914,TeslawasalsoapproachedbytheAmericanMarconicompany.Buttheyonlyofferedstock;Teslaneededcash.HeappealedtoJackMorganforhelp,sayingtheUSgovernmenthadalreadyinstalled$10-million-worthofhisequipmentandhewasexpectingtoreceivecompensation.

MeanwhileTelefunkenwassuingMarconiwho,inturn,wassuingLowensteinandtheUSNavy.However,asthewirelessequipmentHammondsuppliedtheWarDepartmentwasbeingusedtotestguidedmissiles,itwasclassified,soHammondwasimmunefromlitigation.

WorldWarIWiththeoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914,theBritishcutGermany’stransatlanticcables.Consequently,theTelefunkenstationsatTuckertonandSayvillebecameofvitalimportance.Fearingthattheymaybeusedtodirectthemovementsofbattleshipsandsubmarines,theBritishwantedthemshutdown.Whileostensiblyneutral,PresidentWoodrowWilson(1856–1924)signedabillprohibitingradiostationsfromsendingorreceivingmessagesofan‘unneutralnature’andtookoverthestationatTuckerton.

Althoughone-tenthofthepopulationoftheUnitedStateswasofGermanorigin,mostAmericansbackedBritainandTesla’sconnectionswithTelefunkenmadehimunpopular.Indeed,hewasreceivingroyaltiesfromtheirsubsidiary,theAtlanticCommunicationCompany,andwasgivingthemadviceonhowtoboosttheoutputoftheirstationatSayville,whichwasonLongIslandjustafewmilesfromWardenclyffe.On23April1915,TheNewYorkTimesreportedthatitspowerhadbeenincreasedfrom35kilowattsto100kilowattsandthattwo500ft(150m)towerswereabouttobeerected,transformingitintooneofthemostpowerfultransatlanticcommunicationstations.Inatesttransmissionthepreviousyear,TheNewYorkTimeshadreceivedamessagefromtheBurgomasterofBerlin.

Tesla’sDayinCourtMarconiwonitscaseagainstLowenstein,butlostitssuitagainsttheUSNavy.Inpreparationforthecase,theAssistantSecretaryfortheNavy–laterpresident–FranklinD.Roosevelt(1882–1945)reviewedTesla’s1899fileattheLighthouseBoard.InitwastheletteraskingTeslawhetherhecouldsupplywirelesstelegraphyapparatus.AreviewofMarconi’spatentswasalsomade.

In1900,thecommissionerofpatentsJohnSeymour–whohadalreadyupheldTesla’spatentsagainstMichaelPupin’sclaimthathehadinventedtheAC

system–hadrejectedMarconi’sfirstpatentapplicationbecauseofthepriorclaimsofTesla,LodgeandFerdinandBraun,whohadsharedtheNobelPrizeforphysicswithMarconiin1909.In1903,thepatentofficewrote:‘…Marconi’spretendedignoranceofthenatureofaTeslaoscillatorbeinglittleshortofabsurd...thetermTeslaoscillatorhasbecomeahouseholdwordonbothcontinents’–thatis,EuropeandNorthAmerica.

In1904,afterSeymourhadretired,Marconihadbeengrantedapatent.ThiswasbeingcontestedinTelefunken’ssuitagainstMarconinowgoingtotrial.TheBrooklynEaglereportedthatsomeoftheworld’sgreatestinventorswereonhandtotestify–notleastMarconihimself.HearrivedinNewYorkontheLusitaniainApril1915,tellingreportersthathehadseentheperiscopeofaGermansubmarineonthecrossing.ThepresswereonhissideasItalysidedwiththeAlliesinWorldWarI.

AlsoappearingforthedefencewasTesla’soldadversary,ColumbiaProfessorMichaelPupin,whoshockedthecourtbysaying:‘IinventedwirelessbeforeMarconiorTeslaanditwasIwhogaveitunreservedlytothosewhofollowed!’

AlocalnewspaperreportedthatTeslawassoshockedthat‘watchinghisfellowSerbuponthestand,Tesla’sjawdroppedsohard,italmostcrackeduponthefloor’.

Pupinhadalreadymadeitclearwherehestood.InthepresshesaidofMarconi:‘Hisgeniusgavetheideatotheworld,andhetaughttheworldhowtobuildatelegraphicpracticeuponthebasisofthisidea…Inmyopinion,thefirstclaimforwirelesstelegraphybelongstoMrMarconiabsolutely,andtonobodyelse.’

TeslatheTrailblazerWhilePupincouldonlyassertthatMarconiwastheinventor,Teslacamearmedwithlectures,articlesandpatents.WhileMarconihadonlybeengrantedhisfirstUSpatentin1904,TeslahadgivenapracticaldemonstrationofwirelessinStLouis,Missouriin1893.HehadtransmittedasignalfromhisHoustonStreetlaboratorytoWestPointbefore1897.Peoplewhovisitedhislabsawtheequipment.HethencomparedtheMarconipatenttohisown,saying:‘Ifyoutakethesetwocontemporaneousdiagrams,andexaminethesubsequentdevelopments,youwillfindthatabsolutelynotavestigeofthatapparatusof

Marconiremains,andthatinallthepresentsystemthereisnothingbutmyfour-tunedcircuits.Everybodyisusingthem.’

FollowingTeslatothestandwasJohnStoneStone,whocouldhimselfclaimtobetheinventoroftheradio.Hefiledacrucialpatentontuning2yearsbeforeMarconi,andheacknowledgedthatitwasTesla,notMarconi,whowasatrailblazer.

DuetoWorldWarI,thelegalbattlewasabandonedbeforethecasewasdecided.FearingaGermanattack,MarconididnotreturntoEuropeontheLusitania.Insteadunderafalsenameandinheavydisguised,hesetsailontheStPaul.On7May1915,theLusitaniawassunkbyaGermansubmarinewiththelossof1,134lives,including128UScitizens.Americawasoutraged.ItwasalreadysuspectedthattheTelefunkenradiostationwaspassingcodedmessagestosubmarines.TwoweekslaterTheNewYorkTimesreportedthattheGermanshaddeveloped‘airtorpedoes’whichweredroppedfromzeppelinsandcontrolledbywireless–theverythingTeslahadclaimedtohaveinvented.

WhentheUSjoinedWorldWarIin1917,theformerheadoftheTuckertonstationwasarrestedforspyingandtheSayvillestationwastakenoverbythegovernment.Tesla’smonthlyroyaltychequesfromTelefunkenstopped.Edison,Fessenden,Pupin,Thomsonandothersgotjobsasadvisorstothegovernment,butTesla–possiblybecauseoftheconnectionswithTelefunken–wasleftout.

Chapter11–TheNobelPrizeIhaveconcludedthatthehonourhasbeenconferreduponmeinacknowledgementofadiscoveryannouncedashorttimeagowhichconcernsthetransmissionofelectricalenergywithoutwires.Thisdiscoverymeansthatelectricaleffectsofunlimitedintensityandpowercanbeproduced,sothatnotonlycanenergybetransmittedforallpracticalpurposestoanyterrestrialdistance,buteveneffectsofcosmicmagnitudemaybecreated.

NikolaTesla

On6November1915,TheNewYorkTimesannouncedthatTeslaandEdisonhadbeenawardedtheNobelPrizeforphysics.Thesourceofthestory,apparently,wastheCopenhagencorrespondentoftheDailyTelegraph.Teslahadreceivednonotification,butwheninterviewedbytheTimeshesaidthathethoughthehadbeengiventheNobelPrizeforadevicehehadfiledapatentforamonthearlierthatmadeit‘practicabletoprojectthehumanvoicenotonlyforadistanceof5,000miles,butclearacrosstheglobe.IdemonstratedthisinColoradoin1899.’Hewentontoexplainhowitwouldwork:

TheplantwouldsimplybeconnectedwiththetelephoneexchangeofNewYorkCityandasubscriberwillbeabletotalktoanyothertelephonesubscriberintheworld,andallthiswithoutanychangeinhisapparatus.Thisplanhasbeencalledmy‘worldsystem’.BythesamemeansIproposealsototransmitpicturesandprojectimages,sothatthesubscriberwillnotonlyhearthevoice,butseethepersontowhomheistalking…

Afurtheradvantagewouldbethatthetransmissionisinstantandfreeoftheunavoidabledelayexperiencedwiththeuseofwireandcables.AsIhavealreadymadeknown,thecurrentpassesthroughtheearth,startingfromthetransmissionstationwithinfinitespeed,slowingdowntothespeedoflightatadistanceof6,000miles,thenincreasinginspeedfromthatregionandreachingthereceivingstationagainwithinfinitevelocity.

It’sallawonderfulthing.Wirelessiscomingtomankindinitsfullmeaninglikeahurricanesomeofthesedays.Somedaytherewillbe,say,sixgreatwirelesstelephonestationsina‘worldsystem’connectingalltheinhabitantsofthisearthtooneanothernotonlybyvoicebutbysight.It’ssurelycoming.

IlluminatingtheSkyThisdiscoveryhadadirectbearingontheproblemsuppermostinthepublic’smind,hesaid,theperfectionofwirelesstelephony.On7November,hetoldtheTimes:

Wewilldeprivetheoceanofitsterrorsbyilluminatingthesky,thusavoidingcollisionsatseaandotherdisasterscausedbydarkness.Wewilldrawunlimitedquantitiesofwaterfromtheoceansandirrigatethedesertsandotheraridregions.Inthiswaywewillfertilizethesoilandderiveanyamountofpowerfromthesun.Ialsobelievethatultimatelyallbattles,iftheyshouldcome,willbewagedbyelectricalwavesinsteadofexplosives.

Hewouldsaynothingfurtheronthematter.However,heagreedthatEdisondeservedadozenNobelPrizes,thoughhesaidhehadnoideawhichonehehadbeenawardedtheprizefor.Whenshownthedespatch,Edisonwiselydeclinedtocomment.MeanwhiletheideaofwinningtheprizehadgonetoTesla’shead.HewrotetotheJohnsons:

Inathousandyears,therewillbemanyrecipientsoftheNobelPrize.ButIhavenotlessthanfourdozenofmycreationsidentifiedwithmynameinthetechnicalliterature.Thesearehonoursrealandpermanent,whicharebestowednotbyafewwhoareapttoerr,butbythewholeworldwhichseldommakesamistake,andforanyoftheseIwouldgivealltheNobelprizesduringthenextthousandyears…Josiewillneverhadthechanceofturningmeawayasabeggar,butIshallgivehersoon,theopportunityofslammingyourdoorinthefaceofamillionaire.

ThiswasnojoketoRobertJohnsonwhohadfallenonhardtimes.Hewrotelater:‘WhenthatNobelPrizecomes,rememberthatIamholdingontomyhousebytheskinofmyteethanddesperatelyinneedofcash!’

Asitwas,neitherTeslanorEdisonwasawardedtheprize.ThatyeartheNobel

PrizeforphysicswenttoWilliamBraggandhissonLawrencefortheirresearchintocrystallinestructuresusingX-rays.Teslahadnotevenbeennominated,thoughEdisonwas.Teslawasnotnominateduntil1937anddidnotgetittheneither.

However,Tesla’slong-standingfriendandfirstbiographerJohnO’NeillsaidthatTeslaactuallyturneddowntheaward.‘TohavetheawardgofirsttoMarconi,andthentobeaskedtosharetheawardwithEdison,wastoogreataderogationoftherelativevalueofhisworktotheworldforTeslatobearwithoutrebelling,’hewroteinProdigalGenius.AccordingtoO’Neill,TesladidnotputhimselfinthesamecategoryasEdison.Heconsideredhimselfadiscovererofnewprinciples,whileEdisonwasaninventorwhoexploitednewdiscoveriesforcommercialgain.

TheBoltsofThorAlthoughTheNewYorkTimeshadannouncedthattheBraggshadwontheNobelPrizeon14November1915,itcontinuedtosaythatTeslawasa1915NobelPrizewinnerinanarticleon8December,headlinedTesla’sNewDeviceLikeBoltsofThor,whenthepaperreportedthathewastakingoutapatentona‘manlessairship’.Ithadneitheranenginenorwingsandcouldbesentataspeedof300miles(480km)asecondtoanyplaceontheglobeusingelectricity.AccordingtotheTimes:

Tenmilesorathousandmiles,itwillallbethesametothemachine,theinventorsays.Straighttothepoint,onlandoronsea,itwillbeabletogowithprecision,deliveringablowthatwillparalyzeorkill,asisdesired.AmaninatoweronLongIslandcouldshieldNewYorkagainstshipsorarmybyworkingalever…

Teslarefusedtogointofurtherdetails.However,hedismissedelectricalengineerCharlesH.Harris’ssuggestionthat,intimeofwar,thecountrywouldbesurroundedby‘anelectricalwalloffire’as‘notpractical’asitwouldtakemorethanallthegeneratorsintheUStopowerit.

DescribingRadarWhileTesla’sideasonunmannedairshipsandboltsofThorseemunworldly,he

alsodescribedawayofdetectingshipsatsea.Hisideawastotransmithigh-frequencyradiowavesthatwouldreflectoffthehullsofvesselsandappearonafluorescentscreen.In1917,hesaid:‘Wemayproduceatwill,fromasendingstation,anelectricaleffectinanyparticularregionoftheglobe;wemaydeterminetherelativepositionorcourseofamovingobject,suchasavesselatsea,thedistancetraversedbythesame,oritsspeed.’Thiswasoneofthefirstdescriptionsofwhatwenowcallradar.Againitwastoofaraheadofitstimetobetakenseriously.However,in1934theFrenchengineerÉmileGirardeau(1882–1970)builtanobstacle-locatingradioapparatus–‘conceivedaccordingtotheprinciplesstatedbyTesla,’hesaid–andobtainedapatentforaworkingsystem,partofwhichwasinstalledonthelinerNormandiein1935.

TheEdisonMedalIn1917,TeslawasawardedtheEdisonMedalbytheAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers.AccordingtoO’Neill,Teslawasreluctanttoacceptitatfirst,butwaspersuadedtodosobythechairmanofthemedalcommittee,BernardA.Behrend,whowasanadmirerandclosepersonalfriend.Teslaturnedthemedaldowninitiallybecauseitwasnearly30yearssincehehadannouncedhisrotatingelectricfieldandhisACsystemtotheInstitute.‘Idonotneeditshonoursandsomeoneelsemayfindituseful,’hesaid.PressedbyBehrendforfurtherexplanation,Teslasaid:

YouproposetohonourmewithamedalwhichIcouldpinonmycoatandstrutforavainhourbeforethemembersandguestsofyourInstitute.Youwouldbestowanoutwardsemblanceofhonouringmebutyouwoulddecoratemybodyandcontinuetoletitstarve,forfailuretosupplyrecognition,mymindanditscreativeproductswhichhavesuppliedthefoundationuponwhichthemajorportionofyourInstituteexists.AndwhenyouwouldgothroughthevacuouspantomimeofhonouringTeslayouwouldnotbehonouringTeslabutEdisonwhohadpreviouslysharedunearnedgloryfromeverypreviousrecipientofthismedal.

Despitehisrancour,TeslawascajoledintoacceptingtheMedal.AfterallitcouldhardlybeawardedtoEdison.ButtheacceptancespeechpresentedTeslawithsomethingofaproblem.WhenhehadaddressedtheAIEEin1888,hehadalabwherehecouldpreparehisdemonstrations.Nowhehadnone.Norcould

heexpecttoequalthelectureshehadtakenontheroadinthe1890s.Hehadnoprops.

AfteraprivatedinnerattheEngineers’Club,themedalwinnerwastogiveaformaladdressintheauditoriumoftheUnitedEngineeringSocietiesBuilding.However,asthemembersoftheInstituteassembledthere,Teslawasnowheretobeseen.BehrendfoundhimfeedingthepigeonsintheplazaofNewYorkPublicLibrary.AsBehrendapproached,Teslahadpigeonsperchedonhishead,shouldersandarms,andhehadacarpetofthempeckingatseedaroundhisfeet.ItwasclearthatthepigeonsmeantmoretohimthanthemembersofAIEE.BehrendbeggedTeslanottolethimdown.

TheWheelsofIndustryWillCeaseIntheauditoriumoftheUnitedEngineeringSocietiesBuilding,BehrendsaidthatTeslahadbeentakentemporarilyunwell,buthewasnowokayandtheproceedingswouldbedelayedbyabout20minutes.WhenthepresentationbeganDrArthurKennellyfromtheEdisoncompanysaidthatTeslawasbeingawardedtheEdisonMedalforthedevelopmentofrotatingmagneticfields,whichhadmadeitpossibletouseACinelectricmotors,andforhisinvestigationsintohigh-frequencycurrents.

CharlesA.Terry,whohadworkedwithTeslaonsomeofhisearlyresearch,ranthroughTesla’sachievementstodate.Behrendfollowedupbypointingoutthat,byanextraordinarycoincidence,TeslahadgiventhefirstlectureonpolyphaseACthereexactly29yearsearlier,adding:

NotsincetheappearanceofFaraday’sexperimentalresearchesinelectricityhasagreatexperimentaltruthbeenvoicedsosimplyandsoclearlyasthisdescriptionofMrTesla’sgreatdiscoveryofthegenerationandutilizationofpolyphasealternatingcurrents.Heleftnothingtobedoneforthosewhofollowedhim.Hispapercontainedtheskeletonevenofthemathematicaltheory.

Threeyearslater,in1891,therewasgiventhefirstgreatdemonstration,bySwissengineers,ofthetransmissionofpowerat30,000voltsfromLauffentoFrankfurtbymeansofMrTesla’ssystem.AfewyearslaterthiswasfollowedbythedevelopmentoftheCataractConstructionCompany,underthepresidencyofourmember,EdwardD.Adams,andwiththeaidoftheengineersofthe

WestinghouseCompany.ItisinterestingtorecallheretonightthatinLordKelvin’sreporttoMrAdams,LordKelvinrecommendedtheuseofdirectcurrentforthedevelopmentofpoweratNiagaraFallsandforitstransmissiontoBuffalo.

ThedueappreciationorevenenumerationoftheresultsofMrTesla’sinventionisneitherpracticablenordesirableatthismoment.Thereisatimeforallthings.Sufficeittosaythat,werewetoseizeandtoeliminatefromourindustrialworldtheresultsofMrTesla’swork,thewheelsofindustrywouldceasetoturn,ourelectriccarsandtrainswouldstop,ourtownswouldbedark,ourmillswouldbedeadandidle.Yea,sofar-reachingisthisworkthatithasbecomethewarpandwoofofindustry…Hisnamemarksanepochintheadvanceofelectricalscience.Fromthatworkhassprungarevolutionintheelectricalart.

BehrendthenaskedTeslatoaccepttheMedal,notforthepurposesofperpetuatinghisname–‘thenameofTeslarunsnomoreriskofoblivionthandoesthatofFaraday,orthatofEdison’.NorwastheMedalevidencethatTesla’sworkhadreceivedofficialsanction–‘hisworkstandsinnoneedofsuchsanction’.

No,MrTesla,webegyoutocherishthismedalasasymbolofourgratitudeforthenewcreativethought,thepowerfulimpetus,akintorevolution,whichyouhavegiventoourartandtoourscience.Youhavelivedtoseetheworkofyourgeniusestablished.Whatshallamandesiremorethanthis?ThereringsouttousaparaphraseofPope’slinesonNewton:‘NatureandNature’slawslayhidinnight.Godsaid,LetTeslabe,andallwaslight.’

Tesla’sAcceptanceSpeechAcceptingtheEdisonMedal,Teslasaidhewasgratefulforthesympathyandappreciationshownhim.Greatstrideshadbeenmadeinthetransmissionandtransformationofenergy,hesaid,but‘wearepressingon,inspiredwiththehopeandconvictionthatthisisjustthebeginning,aforerunneroffurtherandstillgreateraccomplishments’.Hehadnotwrittenanacceptancespeechandspokeoffthecuff,saying:

Icomefromaverywiryandlong-livedrace.Someofmyancestorshavebeencentenarians,andoneofthemlived129years.Iamdeterminedtokeepupthe

record,andbelievethereisaprospectofaccomplishingit.Then,naturehasgivenmeavividimaginationwhich,throughincessantexerciseandtraining,throughthestudyofscientificsubjects,andtheverificationoftheoriesthroughexperiment,hasbecomeveryaccurateinresults,sothatIhavebeenabletodispense,toalargeextent,withtheslowlabours,wastefulandexpensiveprocessesofpracticaldevelopmentoftheideasIconceive.Ithasmadeitpossibleformetoexploreextendedfieldswithgreatrapidityandgetresultswiththeleastexpenditureofvitalenergy.Bythismeans,Imaytellyoualso,IamabletopicturetheobjectsofmydesiresinformssorealandtangiblethatIcanridmyselfofthatmorbidcravingforperishablepossessionstowhichsomanysuccumb.

Mylifewasalsowonderfulinanotherrespect,forphysicalenduranceorenergy.Ifyouinquireintothecareerofsuccessfulmenintheinventor’sprofession,youwillfind,asarule,thattheyareasremarkablefortheirphysicalasfortheirmentalcapacities…WhenIturnedmythoughtstoinventions,IfoundthatIcouldvisualizemyconceptionswiththegreatestfacility.Ididnotneedanymodelsanddrawingsorexperiments,Icoulddoitallinmymind,andIdid.ThewayIunconsciouslyevolvedwhatIconsideredanewmethodinmaterializinginventiveconceptsandideas,isexactlyopposedtothepurelyexperimentalmethod,ofwhichundoubtedlyEdisonisthegreatestandmostsuccessfulexponent.

Themomentyouconstructadevicetocarryintopracticeacrudeideayouwillfindthatyouwillbeengrossedwiththedetailsandeffectsoftheapparatus.Asyougoonchangingandconstructing,youwilllosetheforcesofconcentration,andyouwilllosesightofthegreatunderlyingprinciple.Youobtainresults,butatthesacrificeofquality.Ididnotconstruct.WhenIgotanidea,Istartedrightawaytobuilditupinmymind.Ichangedthestructure,Imadeimprovements,Iexperimented,andIranthedeviceinmymind.

ItisabsolutelythesametomewhetherIplacemyturbineinmymindorhaveitinmyshopactuallyrunninginmytest.Itmakesnodifference.Theresultsarethesame.InthiswayyouseeIcandevelopandperfectaninventionwithouttouchinganything,andwhenIhavegonesofarthatIhaveputintothatdeviceeverypossibleimprovementIcanthinkof,thatIcanseenofaultinitanymore,Ithenconstructit,andeverytimemydeviceworksasIconceiveditwould,myexperimentcomesoutexactlyasIplanit,andin20yearstherehasnotbeena

single,solitaryexperimentwhichdidnotcomeoutexactlyasIthoughtitwould.

Chapter12–DestroyingtheDreamIhavereceivedreportswhichhavecompletelyconfoundedmeallthemoreasIamnowdoingimportantworkforthegovernmentwithaviewofputtingtheplanttoaspecialmoment…Itrustthatyouwillappreciatetheseriousnessofthesituationandwillseethatthepropertyistakengoodcareofandthatallapparatusiscarefullypreserved.

NikolaTesla

TeslahadsignedoverWardenclyffetotheWaldorf-Astoriaashecouldnotpayhishotelbillwhichhadnowreached$20,000($400,000attoday’sprices).However,hestillhopeditwouldbereturnedwhenheraisedthemoneytopaythebill,butthehotelmanagementwasdeterminedtodemolishthetowerandselloffparts.Tesla’sresponsewastoemphasizethetower’susefulnessintheeventofwar.Itwas,afterall,hometohisdeathrayandcouldshatterarmieswithits‘BoltsofThor’.Nevertheless,hewastoldthatthedemolitionofthetowerwastogoahead.WiththeUSnowinWorldWarI,therewouldbenomoremoney.Aspartofthewareffort,Westinghouse,AmericanMarconiandAT&Twereallowedtopooltheirpatentsandproducedeachother’sequipmentwithoutcompensatingtheoriginalinventors.‘Agreatwronghasbeendone,’hewrotelater,‘butIamconfidentthatjusticewillprevail.’

InJuly1917,TeslalefttheWaldorf-Astoriawherehehadlivedfor20years.Afterpersuadingthemanagementtolethimkeepmanyofhispersonaleffectsinthebasement,hetookthetraintoChicagowhereheplannedtocontinueworkonhisbladelessturbines.TherehemovedintotheBlackstoneHotelnextdoortotheUniversityofChicago.

Thefollowingmonth,TeslareceivedaletterfromGeorgeScherff,hissecretary,tellinghimthatexplosivesexpertshadplacedchargesonmajorstrutsofthetoweratWardenclyffeandhadblownthemup.

SuspicionsofEspionageMeanwhilethestorywascirculatedthatsuspectedGermanspieshadbeenusingthetowerforradiocommunication.TheElectricalExperimentersaid:‘SuspectingthatGermanspieswereusingthebigwirelesstowererectedatShoreham,L.I.,about20yearsagobyNikolaTesla,theFederalGovernmentorderedthetowerdestroyedanditwasrecentlydemolishedwithdynamite.Duringthepastmonthseveralstrangershadbeenseenlurkingabouttheplace.’

AndtheNewYorkSungleefullyreported:‘ThedestructionofNikolaTesla’sfamoustower…showsforciblythegreatprecautionsbeingtakenatthistimetopreventanynewsofmilitaryimportancegettingtotheenemy.’

Teslawasupsetbytheimplicationthathewasdisloyaltohisnewcountry.Hehadarguedthatthestructureshouldhavebeenpreservedtohelplocateanddestroyenemysubmarines.Ifthetowerhadbeendestroyedtocurbspying,Teslapointedoutthatheshouldhavebeencompensatedbythegovernmentforthelargeamountofmoneyhehadputintoit.Asitwas,hemadenopublicprotestwhentheUSwasatwar.However,2yearslaterhewrotethathisdreamhadbeendestroyedbyrivals,saying:

Iamunwillingtoaccordtosomesmall-mindedandjealousindividualsthesatisfactionofhavingthwartedmyefforts.Thesemenaretomenothingmorethanmicrobesofanastydisease.Myprojectwasretardedbythelawsofnature.Theworldwasnotpreparedforit.Itwastoofaraheadoftime,butthesamelawswillprevailintheendandmakeitatriumphalsuccess.

TelephonyTakesOverWithTesla’sWorldTelegraphyCentrenowinpieces,representativesofAmericanMarconi,AT&T,WestinghouseandGEgottogetherbehindcloseddoorsinWashingtonandformedRCA.Attheendofthewar,radiostationswerereturnedtotheirrightfulowners,favouringRCA.UsingMarconipatents,Westinghousesetupindependently.In1920,Teslawrote,offeringhisservices.Theywererefused.However,alittlelater,Westinghousewroteagain,askingTeslaifhewouldliketobroadcasttotheir‘invisibleaudience’oneThursdayevening.

Teslarepliedthat,20yearsearlier,hehadpromisedhisfriendJ.P.Morganthathis‘worldsystem’wouldenablethevoiceofatelephonesubscribertobetransmittedtoanypointontheglobe.‘Iprefertowaituntilmyprojectiscompletedbeforeaddressinganinvisibleaudience,’hesaidproudly.

TheScienceFantasyFactorThoughTesla’stowerwasinruins,theideawouldliveon.BeforeleavingNewYork,Teslateamedupwithlong-termadmirerHugoGernsback,theeditorofElectricalExperimenter.HehadmetTeslain1908whenhevisitedhislabtoseeabladelessturbine.Elevenyearslater,GernsbackrecordedhisimpressionsinElectricalExperimenter:

Thedooropensandoutstepsatallfigure–over6fthigh–gauntbuterect.Itapproachesslowly,stately.Youbecomeconsciousatoncethatyouareface-to-facewithapersonalityofahighorder.NikolaTeslaadvancesandshakesyourhandwithapowerfulgrip,surprisingforamanover60.Awinningsmilefrompiercinglightblue-greyeyes,setinextraordinarilydeepsockets,fascinatesyouandmakesyoufeelatonceathome.

Youareguidedintoanofficeimmaculateinitsorderliness.Notaspeckofdustistobeseen.Nopaperslitterthedesk,everythingjustso.Itreflectsthemanhimself,immaculateinattire,orderlyandpreciseinhiseverymovement.Dressedinadarkfrockcoat,heisentirelydevoidofalljewellery.Noring,stickpin,orevenwatch-chaincanbeseen.

Teslaspeaks–averyhighalmostfalsettovoice.Hespeaksquicklyandveryconvincingly.Itistheman’svoicechieflywhichfascinatesyou.

Ashespeaksyoufinditdifficulttotakeyoureyesoffhisown.Onlywhenhespeakstoothersdoyouhaveachancetostudyhishead,predominantofwhichisaveryhighforeheadwithabulgebetweentheeyes–thenever-failingsignofanexceptionalintelligence.Thenthelong,well-shapednose,proclaimingthescientist.

Howdoesthisman,whohasaccomplishedsuchtremendouswork,keepyoungandmanagetosurprisetheworldwithmoreandmorenewinventionsashegrowsolder?

Howdoesthisyouthofsixty,whoisaprofessorofmathematics,agreatmechanicalandelectricalengineerandthegreatestinventorofalltimes,keephisphysicalaswellasremarkablementalfreshness?

GernsbackemployedtheartistFrankR.PaultoshowtheworldwhatTesla’stowerwouldhavelookedlikedifithadbeencompleted.ForthecoveroftheElectricalExperimenterPauladdedtransmittersandTesla’swinglessflyingmachineszappingnearbyshipswiththeirdeath-rays.Teslawassothrilled,heusedtheillustrationashisletterhead.

In1919,ElectricalExperimenterserializedTesla’sautobiographyMyInventions.ThistoowasillustratedbyFrankPaul’sdrawing,alongwithphotographsoftheequipment.Thisboostedthecirculationofthemagazinetoaround100,000andprovidedTeslaamodestincome.However,TeslafelthehadbeenunderpaidandwhenGernsbacksoughttoputhimonthecoverofElectricalExperimenteragain,Teslarefused,saying:‘Iappreciateyourunusualintelligenceandenterprise,butthetroublewithyouseemstobethatyouarethinkingonlyofH.Gernsbackfirstofall,oncemore,andthenagain.’

Nevertheless,GernsbackneverstintedinhispraiseofTesla,runninghisarticlesinseveralofhismagazines.HeevenlatchedontosomeofTesla’smoreoutlandishideas.WhileTesladidnotbelieveinextra-sensoryperceptionormind-readinginthepsychicsense,hedidthinkitpossibletoreadanotherperson’sthoughtsbyattachingtelevisionequipmenttotheirretina.PauldepictedthisonthecoverofScienceWonderStoriesinOctober1929whichshowedtwopeoplewearingthought-readinghelmets.

TheChicagoYearsTeslastayedinChicagountiltheendofWorldWarI.HeworkedonhisturbinesatPyleNational.Againherefusedasalary,hopingtomakebiggerprofitsfromhisinventionsintheend.Butearningnothingfromhiswirelesspatents,hisonlysourceofincomewastheWalthamWatchCompanywhoweremanufacturingaspeedometerhehaddesigned.AdvertisementsforWalthamspeedometersandautomobileclocksinTheNewYorkTimesin1921read:

Everyprogressiveautomobilemanufacturerisaddingimprovementstohiscar.ThisiswhythefirstAir-FrictionSpeedometerintheworld,inventedbyNikola

Tesla,perfectedanddevelopedbyWalthamduringthepastfewyears,haswontheunqualifiedapprovaloftheworld’sgreatestautomotiveengineers.YouwillfindthisexclusiveAir-FrictioninstrumentuponsuchcarsastheCunningham,Lafayette,Leach-Biltwell,Lincoln,Packard,Pierce-Arrow,Renault,Rolls-Royce,Stevens-Duryea,Wills-SainteClaireandothers.ItprovidesinstantaneousaccuracywiththatdependabilityforwhichWalthamisfamous.

TheBigShipTeslawasstilldependingonhisturbinestomakehimrich‘withinfourmonths’,hetoldJackMorganbeforeheleftNewYork.‘Mybigshipisstilltocomein,’hesaid,‘butIhaveamarvellousopportunityhavingperfectedaninventionthatwillastoundthewholeworld.’

Buthehadyettoperfectit.Thehighrotationalspeedputtoomuchstressonthediscswhichriskedcracking.Variousalloysweretried.However,theadvantagesofhisturbinewasobvious.‘Supposethatthesteampressureofthelocomotivewouldvaryfromsay50to200pounds,nomatterhowrapidly,’hewrote,‘thiswouldnothavetheslightesteffectontheperformanceoftheturbine.’

TheUSMachineManufacturingCompanyaskedaboutputtingoneinanaeroplane.TheChicagoPneumaticToolCompanyalsomadeenquiries.HetoldGeorgeScherffthathewasexpectingtomake$25millionayearfromhisturbines.Allthewhilethedebtskeptpilingup.

MadeinMilwaukeeTeslafinallysucceededingettingtheAllis-ChalmersManufacturingCompanyofMilwaukeeinterested.Theymadereciprocatingengines,turbinesandotherheavymachinery.However,hedisplayedalackoftacticanddiplomacythatruinedtheprojectfromtheoutset.Insistingonenteringnegotiationswiththeseniorstaff,hewentdirectlytothepresidentofthecompanyand,whilehisengineerswerepreparingafeasibilityreport,Teslacontactedtheboardofdirectorsandsoldthemtheideabeforetheengineershadhadtheirsay.

ThreeofTesla’sturbineswerebuilt.Twohad20discsthatwere18inches(46cm)indiameter.Testedwith80poundspressure,theydeveloped200

horsepoweratbetween10,000and12,000rpm.ThishadthesameoutputasTesla’s1911modelwithdiscshalfthediameterwhenoperatingat125poundspressureand9,000rpm.Theyalsobuiltalargerversion.HansDahlstrand,consultingengineerofthesteamturbinedepartment,wroteareportsaying:

Wealsobuilta500kilowattsteamturbinetooperateat3,600revolutions.Theturbinerotorconsistedof15disks60inches[152cm]indiameterandone-eighthofaninchthick[3mm].Thediscswereplacedapproximatelyone-eighthinchapart.Theunitwastestedbyconnectingtoagenerator.Themaximummechanicalefficiencyobtainedonthisunitwasapproximately38percentwhenoperatingatsteampressureofapproximately80poundsabsoluteandabackpressureofapproximately3poundsabsoluteand100°F[38°C]superheatattheinlet.Whenthesteampressurewasincreasedabovethatgiventhemechanicalefficiencydropped,consequentlythedesignoftheseturbineswasofsuchanaturethatinordertoobtainmaximumefficiencyathighpressure,itwouldhavebeennecessarytohavemorethanoneturbineinseries.

DahlstrandreportedthatdifficultieswereencounteredintheTeslaturbinefromvibration,makingitnecessarytore-enforcethediscs,andthatthisdifficultyiscommontoallturbines.Vibrationcrackedwheelsandwreckedturbines,sometimeswithinafewhoursandsometimesafteryearsofoperation.Thisvibrationwascausedbytakingsuchterrificamountsofpowerfromrelativelylightmachinery.TheDahlstrandReportidentifiedotherproblems:

Theefficiencyofthesmallturbineunitscompareswiththeefficiencyobtainableonsmallimpulseturbinesrunningatspeedswheretheycanbedirectlyconnectedtopumpsandothermachinery.Itisobvious,therefore,thatthesmallunitinordertoobtainthesameefficiencyhadtooperateatfrom10,000to12,000revolutionsanditwouldhavebeennecessarytoprovidereductiongearsbetweenthesteamturbineandthedrivenunit.

Furthermore,thedesignoftheTeslaturbinecouldnotcompeteasfarasmanufacturingcostswiththesmallertypeofimpulseunits.Itisalsoquestionablewhethertherotordisks,becauseoflightconstructionandhighstress,wouldhavelastedanylengthoftimeifoperatingcontinuously.

Theaboveremarksapplyequallytothelargeturbinerunningat3,600revolutions.Itwasfoundwhenthisunitwasdismantledthatthediscshaddistortedtoagreatextentandtheopinionwasthatthesediscswouldultimately

havefailediftheunithadbeenoperatedforanylengthoftime.

ThegasturbinewasneverconstructedforthereasonthatthecompanywasunabletoobtainsufficientengineeringinformationfromMrTeslaindicatingevenanapproximatedesignthathehadinmind.

TerminatingtheTurbineTeslaseemstohavewalkedoutatthisstage.LaterTeslawasaskedwhyhestoppedworkingwithAllis-Chalmers.Hesaid:‘TheywouldnotbuildtheturbinesasIwished.’Buthewouldnotelaborate.Allis-Chalmerswentontomanufactureadifferenttypeofgasturbinethatwasinproductionforyears.

AnumberofengineershadtriedtoexplainthefailureofTesla’sturbine.Oneexpertsaidthat,whilebeingafineconceptandanexcellentmachine,itwasnotthatmuchbetterthanotherdesigns.Anothersaidthatnotenoughmoneyhadbeenspentonresearchanddevelopment.Metallurgywasinitsinfancyandtheinstrumentationformeasuringitsperformancehadnotbeendeveloped,norhadthemagneticbearingitwouldhaveneededtorunefficiently.However,manufacturershavemadepumpsusingTesla’sprinciplesandothershaveexperimentedwithmakingthediscsusingadvancedmaterialssuchascarbonfibre,titanium-impregnatedplasticandKevlar.

Indisappointment,TeslareturnedtoColoradoSpringswhereheconductedsomeexperimentsinthelabofthelocalengineeringschoolandrelivedoldtimes.

AfterasojournatWalthamWatchesinBoston,heworkedonapetrol-poweredturbineatBuddManufacturinginPhiladelphia.Andhewasnotwithouthissuccesses.HesoldamotorthatwasusedincinemaequipmenttoWisconsinElectricanda‘fluiddiode’toanoilcompanythatwassaidtobe‘theonlyvalvingpatentwithoutmovingparts’.Moneybegancomingin,butneverintheamountsthatheover-optimisticallypredicted.

PlanetEarthCalling...MarconimovedontoTesla’spatchagainwhenheclaimedtohavedetectedradiosignalscomingfromoutsidetheatmosphere.Teslapooh-poohedthis,claiming

thatMarconiwasonlypickingupsignalsfromotherterrestrialwirelessoperators.ThiscouldnothavebeenthecasewithhisownsignalsfromMarsin1899,heclaimed,astherewerenoradiotransmitterswitharangeofmorethanafewmilesatthattime.NeverthelessRobertJohnsonwrotetoTeslapointingoutthat,onceagain,whenMarconihadrepeatedoneofhisideas,itwas‘nolongerlaughedat’.

‘Communicationwithintelligenceonotherstars?Itmaysomedaybepossible,’saidMarconi.Languagemaybeaproblem,butMarconisaid:

Well,itisanobstacle,butIdon’tthinkitisinsurmountable.Yousee,onemightgetthroughsomemessagesuchas2plus2equals4,andgoonrepeatingituntilananswercamebacksignifying‘Yes’,whichwouldbeoneword.Mathematicsmustbethesamethroughoutthephysicaluniverse.Bystickingtomathematicsoveranumberofyearsonemightcometospeech.Itiscertainlypossible.

TeslasaidthathehadlittleconfidenceinMarconi’sideaoftryingtocommunicatewithaliensusingmathematics.Hethoughtitwouldbebettertosendpicturesbywireless–thehumanface,forexample.TheNewYorkTimeswassurelybeingsarcasticwhenitsuggestedthattheyfollowupbysendingmovies.Perhapsitcouldevenbeacommercialenterprise.‘WiththisbeginningwholefeaturefilmscanbesentbyradioacrossthesolarsystemandreleasedonMarsonthenightthatseestheirpremiereonBroadway,’thepapersaid.

In1919,rocket-pioneerRobertGoddard(1882–1945)publishedAMethodofReachingExtremeAltitudes,claimingthatitwouldbepossibletosendthingsasfarastheMoon.Teslasaidthatthisschemeseemedfar-fetchedasthefuelsthenknowndidnothavethenecessary‘explosivepower’.Healsodoubtedthatanyrocketcould‘operateat459°[F]belowzero–thetemperatureofinterplanetaryspace’.

PARTFOUR:DESCENTANDRE-ASSESSMENT

Chapter13–TalkingtoPigeonsIhavebeenfeedingpigeons,thousandsofthem,foryears;thousandsofthem.Buttherewasonepigeon,abeautifulbird,purewhitewithlightgreytipsonitswings;thatonewasdifferent.Itwasafemale.Iwouldknowthatpigeonanywhere.NomatterwhereIwas,thatpigeonwouldfindme;whenIwantedherIhadonlytowishandcallherandshewouldcomeflyingtome.SheunderstoodmeandIunderstoodher.Ilovedthatpigeon.Ilovedherasamanlovesawoman,andshelovedme…AslongasIhadher,therewasapurposeinmylife.

NikolaTesla

BackinNewYork,TeslamovedintotheHotelStRegis.RobertJohnsonhadbeenappointedambassadortoItaly,sohisfriendsleftforRome.Onhisown,Teslabecamemoreeccentric.Hewouldcircletheblockthreetimesbeforeenteringthehotel,avoidingsteppingonthecracksinthesidewalk.Andhewasfanaticalaboutcleanliness,exceptwhenitcametopigeonswhichhestillfedoutsidetheNewYorkPublicLibrary.

Havinggivenuptheappetitesofhisyouth,henowpractisedwhathecalled‘gastronomicalfrugality’towhichheowedhisperpetualyouth.AccordingtoHugoGernsback,Teslabelievedthatmostpeoplenotonlyeatalloftheirbodilyills,butactuallyatethemselvestodeathbyeitherconsumingtoomuch,orelsebyeatingfoodthatdoesnotagreewiththem.Hisdailymenuconsistedof:

Breakfast:Onetotwopintsofwarmmilkandafeweggs,preparedbyhimself.

Lunch:Nonewhatsoever,asarule.

Dinner:Celerysouporsimilar,asinglepieceofmeatorfowl,potatoesandoneothervegetable;aglassoflightwine.Fordessert,perhapsasliceofcheese,andinvariablyabigrawapple.

Andthat’sall.

Whileheateverylittle,Teslainsistedthatwhathedideatmustbeofthehighestquality.Hewasalsoanaccomplishedcookwhoinventedanumberofappetizingdishes.

‘Hisonlyviceishisgenerosity,’saidGernsback.‘Themanwho,bytheignorantonlookerhasoftenbeencalledanidledreamer,hasmadeoveramilliondollarsoutofhisinventions–andspentthemasquicklyonnewones.ButTeslaisanidealistofthehighestorderandtosuchmen,moneyitselfmeansbutlittle.’

FiletMignonandRoastDuckTesla’sfrugaldietinhislateryearsismarkedlydifferentfromhisconsumptioninhisheyday.Thenatdinnerhewouldenjoythicksteaks,preferablyfiletmignon,andoftentwoorthreeofthem,thoughheneverputonweight.Heremained10stone(142poundsor64kg),from1888toaround1926exceptforabriefperiodofillness,whenhelost5pounds(2kg).

Laterheturnedtolamb,orderingaroastsaddlelargeenoughtoserveseveralpeople.Hewouldeatonlythecentralportionofthetenderloin.Anotherfavouritewasacrownofbabylambchops,orduckroastedunderalayerofcelerystalks–adishofhisowninvention.Hewouldoftensuperviseitscookinginthekitchenanditwouldbethecentre-piecewhenentertainingfriends.ButTeslawouldonlyeatthemeateithersideofthebreastbone.

Gradually,hesubstitutedboiledfish,thenturnedtoavegetariandiet.Throughouthislifehedrankmilkandtowardstheendwarmmilkbecamethemainstayofhisdiet.Whenhewasyoung,hedrankalotofcoffee.Althoughhedecideditwasbadforhim,hehaddifficultygivingitup.Sowitheachmeal,hewouldorderapotofcoffeesothathecouldsmellthearoma.Eventuallyhewentoffthesmellandgaveupthispractice.Hehadalwaysavoidedteaandcocoa,but,alongwithwine,hedrankwhisky.This,hebelieved,wasresponsibleforthelongevityofhisancestorsandprolongedhisownlife.WhenProhibitionwasintroducedin1919,Tesladenouncedit,sayingitwasanintolerableinfringementoftherightsofanindividual.‘Itimposesrestrictionsonthemostneededandharmlessofstimulants,’hesaid,‘whilepermittingunlimitedconsumptionofpoisonsbyallclasses,fromchildhoodtooldage.’

Headmittedthathehadconsumedenoughalcoholicbeveragesto‘formalakeofnomeandimensions’.But,beingalaw-abidingcitizen,hegaveitup,declaringthatitwas6monthsbeforehecoulddigestamealandthatabstinencewouldreducehislife-expectationto130years.

‘Ifeelsurethatifeveryonehaddonethesame,’hesaid,‘millionsofAmericanswouldhaveshortenedtheirlife-spanandthousandswouldhavediedinthefirst2years.Asuddenchangeofdietortheomissionofoneofitsimportantelements,especiallyinadvancedyears,isextremelydangerous.’

Inlateryears,aftertherepealofProhibition,hewouldhaveabottleofwinebroughtinanicebucket,butnothaveitopened.Itremainedtherepurelytoshowthathecouldrestrainhimselffromdrinking.

Hehadalsobeenaheavysmokerinhisyouth,particularlyenjoyingcigars.However,whenhewasinhisearlytwenties,oneofhissistersfellill.Shesaidshecouldtrytogetbetterifhegaveupsmoking.Sherecoveredandheneversmokedagain.

ExtremeGermPhobiaAfterstudyingmicroscopicorganismsbeforeheleftEurope,Tesladevelopedaphobiaaboutgerms.Thewashroominhislaboratorywasprivate.Nooneelsewasallowedtouseit.Hewouldbeimpelledtowashhishandsontheslightestpretext,insistingthathissecretaryprovideafreshlylaunderedtoweleachtimetodrythem.Hewouldalsoavoidshakinghands,usuallykeepinghishandsclaspedbehindhiminsocialsituations.

Thisledtoembarrassmentwhenvisitorsadvancedprofferingtheirhand.IfTeslawascaughtunawaresandhishandwasshaken,hewouldrushtothewashroomatthefirstpossibleopportunitytoscrubit,ignoringanybusinessthevisitorwastheretoconduct.Andhefounditparticularlynauseatingwhenworkmenatetheirlunchwithdirtyhands.Hotelstaffwerekeptatadistanceofatleast3feet.

Headwaitersgrewusedtohisdemandtobeseatedatatablethatwasnottobeusedbyothercustomers.Heneededafreshtableclothwitheverymealandtwodozenserviettes.Thesilverwarehadtobesterilizedbeforeitleftthekitchen.Teslawouldthenpickeachitemupwithaserviette,andpolishitwithanother.

Thenhewoulddropbothserviettesonthefloorbeforeattendingtothenextitemofcutlery.Andifaflyalightedonthetable,hewouldinsistthateverythingwasremovedfromthetableandthemealwouldstartover.

Helivedinhotelsthatcouldmeethismeticulousstandardsandonlyemployedassistantsthatwerescrupulouslyclean.Whenhevisitedthebarberstohavehishalf-hourscalpmassagethreetimesaweek,heinsistedonfreshtowelsonhischair,butstrangelyhedidnotobjecttobeingshavedusingthesamebrushandshavingmugastheothercustomers.

SteppingOutinStyleTotheendofhislife,Teslawasafastidiousdresser.Well-cutclothessuitedhistall,slimfigure.‘Inthematterofclothes’,heobserved,‘theworldtakesamanathisownvaluation.’Heworewhitemonogrammedsilkshirtsthathadtowithstandconstantlaundering.Collarsandcuffswerediscardedafterasingleuse,aswerehandkerchiefs.Tieswerereplacedeveryweek.Costingadollareach,theonlycolourshewouldconsiderwereredandblack.Theyweretiedintheold-fashioned,four-in-handstyle.Hispyjamasalsohadhisinitialsembroideredontheleftbreastandhislinenarrivedfreshlypackaged.

Exceptonformaloccasions,Teslaworehigh-lacedshoes,possiblytogivehisanklesextrasupportbecauseofhisheight.Theyextendedhalfwayuphiscalves.Heinsistedonalongnarrowshoewithatapered,squaretoewhichhadtobehandmade.

Hissuitshadwaistedcoatsandheusuallyworeablackbowlerorderby,whichgavehimanairofquietelegance.Hecarriedacaneandworegreysuedegloves.At$2.50apair,theywerealsoreplacedweekly,eveniftheywereascleanastheyhadbeenwhentheycamefromthemakers.

RestlessSleepingHabitsTeslaclaimedthatheusuallysleptforjust2hoursanight,3hoursbeingtoomuch.Buthewouldgotobedat5amandgetupat10,theextrathreehoursrest,hemaintainedwasforquietcontemplation.Onceayear,hewouldsleepforthefull5hourswhich,hesaid,gavehimatremendousreserveofenergy.

Inthis,hecompetedwithEdisonwhoclaimedonlytosleep4hoursanight,thoughwhenhesatinhislabhewouldtaketwo3-hournapsaday.Teslaprobablydidthesame.Hotelstaffsaidthattheyoftenfoundhimsittingtransfixedandtheyfoundtheycouldworkaroundhiminhishomewithoutdisturbinghim.

Hetookbriskwalkstoaidhisconcentration,buteventhenhewasofteninadream.Peoplewhoheknewquitewellcouldwalkpasthim,eventhoughheappearedtobelookingstraightatthem.In1935,hesaidhewasluckynottohavebeenkilledwhilejaywalkinginsuchastate.Twoyearslater,hewashitbyataxiandbadlyinjuredthough,refusingtoseeadoctorhelimpedhome.Hehadthreecrackedribsandwasconfinedtobedfor6months.

WardenclyffeRevisitedTeslastillhadnotgivenuponWardenclyffeandsuedtheWaldorf-Astoriaoveritsdestruction.HemaintainedthathehadputupWardenclyffeascollateralagainstthe$20,000heowed.Theyassumedthatitwastheirs.Theyhadtornitdowntosellforscrapandreselltheland.Tesla,ofcourse,wasexpectingtomake$30,000adayfromWardenclyffeifitwaseverfinished.Ifhethenpaidthe$20,000,theexperimentalstationwouldthenbehisagain.IncourtheinsistedthattheWaldorf-Astoriaweresupposedtotakecareofitbut,evenbeforeithadbeentorndown,theyhadallowedvandalstobreakinandstealexpensiveequipment.

DuringthetrialTeslawastogivealovingdescriptionofhislostpalace.TheattorneyfortheWaldorf-Astoriatriedtoblockthistestimony,butthejudgelethimgoahead.

Thebuildingformedasquareabout100ftby100ft[30by30m].Itwasdividedintofourcompartments,withanofficeandamachineshopandtwoverylargeareas…Theengineswerelocatedononesideandtheboilersontheotherside,andinthecentre,thechimneyrose.Thereweretwo300-horsepowerboilerssurroundedbytwo16,000-gallonwatertanks.Totherightoftheboilerplantwasone400-horsepowerWestinghouseengineandasmaller35-kilowattenginetodrivethedynamoforthelighting.Alongwiththemwasthemainswitchboardthatcontrolledthepumpsandvariouscompressors.

Towardstheroad,ontherailroadside,wasthemachineshop.Thatcompartmentwas100ftby35ft[30mby10m]withadoorinthemiddleanditcontained,Ithinkeightlathes.Thentherewasthemillingmachine,aplanerandshaper,aspliner,threedrills,fourmotors,agrinderandablacksmith’sforge.

Now,inthecompartmentopposite,therewascontainedtherealexpensiveapparatus.ThereweretwospecialglasscaseswhereIkepthistoricalapparatuswhichwasexhibitedanddescribedinmylecturesandscientificarticles.Therewereatleastathousandbulbsandtubeseachofwhichrepresentedacertainphaseofscientificdevelopment.

Thentherewasalsofivelargetanks,fourofwhichcontainedspecialtransformerscreatedsoastotransformtheenergyfortheplant.Theywereabout,Ishouldsay,7ft[2m]highandabout5ftby5ft[1.5by1.5m]each,andwerefilledwithspecialoilwhichwecalltransformeroil,tostandanelectrictensionof60,000volts.Thentherewasafifthsimilartankforspecialpurposes.Andthereweremyelectricgeneratingapparatus.ThatapparatuswaspreciousbecauseitcouldflashamessageacrosstheAtlantic,andyetitwasbuiltin1894or1895.

TheWaldorf-Astoria’sattorneyobjectedagain,butthejudgeallowedTeslatocontinue.

Beyondthedoorofthiscompartment,thereweretobecondensers,whatwecallelectriccondensers,whichwouldstoretheenergyandthendischargeandmakeitgoaroundtheworld.Someofthesecondenserswereinanadvancedstateofconstruction,andotherswerenot.ThentherewasaveryexpensivepieceofapparatusthattheWestinghouseCompanyfurnishedme,onlytwoofitskindhaveeverbeenconstructed.Itwasdevelopedbymyselfwiththeirengineers.Thatwasasteeltankwhichcontainedaveryelaborateassemblageofcoils,andelaborateregulatingapparatus,anditwasintendedtogiveeveryimaginableregulationthatIwantedinmymeasurementsandcontrolofenergy.

Hewentontodescribeaspecial100-horsepowermotorequippedwithelaboratedevicesforrectifyingthealternatingcurrentsandsendingthembacktothecondensers.Onthisapparatusalone,Teslasaidhehadspentthousandsofdollars.‘ThenalongthecentreoftheroomIhadaverypreciouspieceof

apparatus,’hesaid.Itwashisremote-controlledboat.

ABoltfromtheBlueAskedwhetherthatwasall,Teslareplied:‘Oh,no,nowherenear.’Andhewentontodescribeaseriesofcupboardsthatcontainednumerousdevicesthateachrepresentedadifferentphaseinthedevelopmentofhiswork.Inthetestingroomtherewereotherinstruments,someofwhichhadbeengiventohimbyLordKelvin.Teslathendescribedthetowerwithitsexpensiveundergroundworkingscontainingspecialapparatusfor‘grippingtheearth’.

Theshaft,yourhonour,wasfirstcoveredwithtimberandtheinsidewithsteel.Inthecentreofthistherewasawindingstairsgoingdownandinthecentreofthestairswasabigshaftthroughwhichthecurrentwastopass,andthisshaftwassofiguredinordertotellexactlywherethenodalpointis,soIcouldcalculateexactlythesizeoftheEarthorthediameteroftheEarthandmeasureitexactlywithin4ft[1.2m]withthatmachine.

Andthentherealexpensiveworkwastoconnectthatcentralpartwiththeearth,andthereIhadspecialmachinesriggedupwhichwouldpushtheironpipes,onelengthafteranother,andIpushed,Ithink16ofthem,300ft[90m].Thecurrentthroughthesepipeswastotakeholdoftheearth.Nowthatwasaveryexpensivepartofthework,butitdoesnotshowonthetower,butitbelongstothetower.

Theprimarypurposeofthetower,yourhonour,wastotelephone,tosendthehumanvoiceandlikenessaroundtheglobe.Thatwasmydiscovery,thatIannouncedin1893,andnowallthewirelessplantsaredoingthat.Thereisnotanothersystembeingused.Thentheideawastoreproducethisapparatusandconnectitjustwithacentralstationandtelephoneoffice,sothatyoumaypickupyourtelephoneandifyouwantedtotalktoasubscriberinAustraliayouwouldsimplycallupthatplantandthatplantwouldconnectyouimmediately.AndIhadcontemplatedtohavepressmessages,stockquotations,picturesforthepressandreproductionsofsignatures,chequesandeverythingtransmittedfromthere.

Teslawasaskedwhetherhehadanywarningthatthetowerwasgoingtobedemolished.Hereplied,‘No,sir.Itcamelikeaboltfromabluesky…’

AlthoughtheWaldorf-Astoriahadnotaccountedforthemachinery,theyhadsoldoffanddestroyedpropertyworth$350,000torecoup$20,000,thejudgefoundinfavourofthehotel,whoalsohadthelastword:

Asasolacetothewildhopesofthisdreamyinventor,ifpriortothattimeheshouldgraspinhisfingersanyoneofthecastlesinSpainwhichalwayswerefloatingaboutinhisdreams,andhadhepaidtheboardbillswhichheowed,thiswildscrubbywoodland,includingtheTowerofBabelthereon,wouldcheerfullyhavebeenreconveyedtohim.

ListeningtoCommunistOverturesThe1920USPresidentialElectionwasthefirsttobebroadcasttoanationalaudience–thoughLeeDeForesthadannouncedthewrongwinnertoasmallaudiencefouryearsbefore.InItaly,FascistleaderBenitoMussolini(1883–1945)salutedMarconi.HisnationalbroadcastingsystemallowedthedictatortoreachtheentireItaliannationafterhecametopowerin1922.Meanwhile,VladimirIlichLenin(1870–1924),whohadledtheBolshevikRevolutioninRussiain1917,madeoverturestoTesla,askinghimtocometotheSovietUniontobuildpowerstationsandanACdistributionsystem.

TeslawasalsoinvitedtospeakatameetingoftheFriendsofSovietRussiainSpringfield,Massachusetts,travellingtherewithIvanMashevkieffromtheRussianWorkersClubofManhattan.Atthemeeting,theorganizers,agroupofItalianradicals,addressedTeslamysteriouslyas‘Bettini’.AccordingtoanFBIagentattheevent,Tesla‘prophesiedthatItalywouldsoonadoptacommunistformofgovernment’.However,thereisnoevidencethatheknewwhathewasgettinghimselfinto.Teslatooklittleinterestinpoliticsandhewas,atbest,naïve.

WaitingfortheMidnightHourWhilecommutingtoMilwaukee,Teslawaspaying$15adayforroom1607intheHotelStRegisonFifthAvenue.However,heneglectedtopayfor7monthsandwasforcedtomovetotheHotelMargueryonParkAvenueand48thStreet.Fortunatelythiswasstillclosetohisnight-timehaunts,GrandCentralStationandBryantParkbehindNewYorkPublicLibrary.Hewasspottedthereone

night,sportinghisderby,caneandwhiteglovesbytheNewYorkWorld:

Midnightisthehourhechoosesforhisvisits…Tall,well-dressed,ofdignifiedbearing,hewhistlesseveraltimes,asignalforthepigeonsontheledgesofthebuildingtoflutterdownabouthisfeet.Withageneroushand,themanscatterspeanutsonthelawnfromabag.Aproudman,yethumbleinhischarities–NikolaTesla.

HowThisManWorked…AyoungsciencejournalistnamedKennethSwezey,oncepraisedbyAlbertEinsteinforhisexplanationoftheArchimedesprinciple,soughtoutTesla.WhileSwezeywasonly19andTeslainhislatesixties,theybecamefirmfriendsfortherestofhislife.AccordingtoSwezey,Teslasometimesgreetedhimatthedoorstarknaked,butinsistedthatTeslawas‘absolutelycelibate’.

HeconfirmedthatTeslasleptlessthan2hoursanight,thoughhewouldoccasionallydozetorechargehisbatteries.Hewouldwalk8to10milesadayandrelaxinabathtub,thoughgonewastheelectricshowerthatbombardedhimwithcleansingparticles.Hewouldalsoclenchandunclenchhistoesahundredtimeseachnighttostimulatethebraincells.Swezeyrecalled:

Andhowthismanworked!Iwilltellyouaboutalittleepisode…Iwassleepinginmyroomlikeonedead.Itwasthreeaftermidnight.Suddenlythetelephoneringawakenedme.ThroughmysleepIheardhisvoice,‘Swezey,howareyou,whatareyoudoing?’ThiswasoneofmanyconversationsinwhichIdidnotsucceedinparticipating.Hespokeanimatedly,withpauses[ashehadworked]outaproblem,comparingonetheorytoanother,commenting:andwhenhefelthearrivedatthesolution,hesuddenlyclosedthetelephone.

In1926,TeslamovedtotheHotelPennsylvania.Therethe‘tall,thin,asceticman’wasinterviewedbyColliersmagazineandhegaveanotherofhispredictions:‘Thisstruggleofthehumanfemaletowardsexequalitywillendinanewsocialorder,withthehumanfemaleassuperior.’TeslaforwardedhispredictiontoJ.P.Morgan’sdaughterAnne,whohehadremainedintouchwithandwasnowanadvocateforthewomen’smovement.

IntotheRealmsoftheFutureItwasaroundthattime,Teslaretired.MissDorothyF.Skerritt,Tesla’ssecretaryuntilheclosedhisofficeat70,describedhimatthatage:

AsoneapproachedMrTeslayoubeheldatall,gauntman.Heappearedtobeanalmostdivinebeing.Whenabout70,hestooderect,hisextremelythinbodyimmaculatelyandsimplyattiredinclothingofasubduedcolouring.Neitherscarfpinnorringadornedhim.Hisbushyblackhairwaspartedinthemiddleandbrushedbackbrisklyfromhishighbroadforehead,deeplylinedbyhiscloseconcentrationonscientificproblemsthatstimulatedandfascinatedhim.Fromunderprotrudingeyebrowshisdeep-set,steelgrey,soft,yetpiercingeyes,seemedtoreadyourinnermostthoughts.Ashewaxedenthusiasticaboutfieldstoconquerandachievementstoattainhisfaceglowedwithalmostetherealradiance,andhislistenersweretransportedfromthecommonplacesoftodaytoimaginativerealmsofthefuture.Hisgenialsmileandnobilityofbearingalwaysdenotedthegentlemanlycharacteristicsthatweresoingrainedinhissoul.

TooGreataSacrificeInaninterviewwiththeNewYorkWorldin1926,hesaid:‘SometimesIfeelthatbynotmarryingImadetoogreatasacrificetomywork,soIhavedecidedtolavishalltheaffectionofamannolongeryoungonthefeatherytribe.IamsatisfiedifanythingIdowillliveforposterity.Buttocareforthosehomeless,hungryorsickbirdsisthedelightsofmylife.Itismyonlymeansofplaying.’

Oneparticularpigeonwasspecialtohim.Whenhefoundit,ithadabrokenlegandwing.‘Usingmymechanicalknowledge,IinventedadevicebywhichIsupporteditsbodyincomfortinordertoletthebonesheal.’Hekeptthebirdinhishotelsuiteandfiguredthatitcosthimmorethan$2,000tohealher.Ittookayear-and-a-halfbeforeshewaswellagainand,Teslasaid,shewas‘oneofthefinestandprettiestbirdsIhaveeverseen’.

MyLife’sWorkwasFinished…Hisloveofthatonepigeonandherdeathaffectedhimprofoundly.HetoldJohnJ.O’Neill:

WhenshewasillIknew,andunderstood;shecametomyroomandIstayedbesideherfordays.Inursedherbacktohealth.Thatpigeonwasthejoyofmylife.Ifsheneededme,nothingelsemattered.AslongasIhadher,therewasapurposeinmylife.

ThenonenightasIwaslyinginmybedinthedark,solvingproblems,asusual,sheflewinthroughtheopenwindowandstoodonmydesk.Iknewshewantedme;shewantedtotellmesomethingimportantsoIgotupandwenttoher.

AsIlookedatherIknewshewantedtotellme–shewasdying.Andthen,asIgothermessage,therecamealightfromhereyes–powerfulbeamsoflight…itwasareallight,apowerful,dazzling,blindinglight,alightmoreintensethanIhadeverproducedbythemostpowerfullampsinmylaboratory.

Whenthatpigeondied,somethingwentoutofmylife.UptothattimeIknewwithacertaintythatIwouldcompletemywork,nomatterhowambitiousmyprogramme,butwhenthatsomethingwentoutofmylifeIknewmylife’sworkwasfinished.

Chapter14–ANewSourceofEnergyI’mhappytohearthatyouarecelebratingyour75thbirthday,andthat,asasuccessfulpioneerinthefieldofhigh-frequencycurrents,youhavebeenabletowitnessthewonderfuldevelopmentofthisfieldoftechnology.Icongratulateyouonthemagnificentsuccessofyourlife’swork.

AlbertEinstein

Whileworkingonhispetrol-poweredturbineinPhiladelphiain1924–25,TeslametJohnB.Flowers,aninspectorofanaircraftfactory.Withdevelopmentofhisbladelessturbinereachingadeadend,TeslareturnedtotheideaofpoweringplanesandcarsremotelyfromlargecentralpowerstationsliketheonehehadtriedtobuildatWardenclyffe.InTesla’shotelsuite,FlowershelpeddraftaproposaltotestandimplementTesla’sWirelessPowerSystemtopresentittoJ.H.Dillinger,headoftheRadioLaboratoryattheBureauofStandardsinWashington,DC.

FlowerstoldDillingerthatTesla’ssystemwouldpoweraplaneatanypointaroundtheworldandthatTeslahadalreadydevelopedanoscillatortoprovidethepowerwhichhewaswillingtogivetotheAmericangovernmentiftheyagreedtobuildtheplant.AmeetinginWashingtonwasarrangedandDillingersenttheproposaltophysicistHarveyL.Curtis(1875–1956).

The10-pagedocumentoutlinedaplantousestandingwavestooperatecarsandplanes.Todemonstratethis,asketchshowedaballoon,standinginfortheEarth,andamechanicaloscillatorstandinginfortheelectricaldevice:

…amechanicaloscillatorarmwasfastenedtothetiedopeningofarubberballoon20inches[50cm]indiameter.Theoscillatorarmwasoperatedwithanelectricalmotorat1,750rpmbymeansofaneccentriconthemotorshaft.Theballoonhungfreeintheair.Therubbersurfaceoftheballoonrepresentedtheearth’sconductingsurfaceandtheairinsideitsinsulatinginterior.Thewaveswerepropagatedintherubbersurfaceattherateof51ftpersecond[15.5mper

second],thefrequencyoftransmissionwas29cyclespersecondandthewavelengthwas21inches[53cm].

ThemechanicaloscillatorwasusedinplaceofTesla’selectricaloscillatorasitpresentsanalmostperfectanalogy.StandingorstationarywavesoftherubbersurfacereplacetheelectromagneticwavesofTesla’ssystem.Bythetestofthisanalogue,theoperationofTesla’ssystemcanbeforecast.Whentheoscillatorarmwassetinmotionbyoperatingthemotor,therewerethreestandingwaveshavingsixloopsontheEarth’ssurface–allhavingthesameamplitudeofvibration!

Whenthefingerwaspushedagainstoneormoreloops,alltheloopswerereducedinamplitudeinthesameproportionshowingtheabilitytoobtainallthepoweroutatoneormorepoints!Thewavesextendedcompletelyaroundtheworldandreturnedtothesendingstation.

Curtisrejectedtheproposalas,withTesla’sstandingwaves,therewouldbeaconcentrationofenergyatthenodes.But,asCurtispointedout:

ThesystemproposedbyMrFlowersdoesnothavethisfeature.Heproposestocollectenergyatanypoint…somemeanswouldhavetobedevisedforconcentratingthisenergyandmakingitavailable.Nosuchmethodhasbeenproposed,andIdonotthinkofanythatwouldbefeasible…Idonotknowofanywirelessapparatusofsufficientmagnitudetowarranttheexpectationthatpowercanbeeconomicallytransmittedbyradiomethods.

FasterthantheSpeedofLightTesladeniedthattheelectricitywouldbeavailableonlyatthenodalpoints,advisingthat,inahydraulicsystem,thepressureofthefluidisthesamethroughout.Therewasenergyavailableatanelectricaloutletevenwhennothingispluggedin.Heexplainedthattheoscillationswouldspreadfromhismagnifyingtransmittertheoreticallyataninfinitespeed,thenslowdown–atfirstveryquickly,thenatslowerrate.Afteraround6,000miles(9,500km)theywouldtravelatthespeedoflight.

Fromthereonitincreasesinspeed,slowlyatfirst,andthenmorerapidly,reachingtheantipodewithapproximatelyaninfinitevelocity.Thelawsofmotion

canbeexpressedbystatingthatthewavesontheterrestrialsurfacesweepinequalintervalsoftimeoverequalareas,butitmustbeunderstoodthatthecurrentpenetratesdeepintotheEarthandtheeffectsproducedonthereceiversarethesameasifthewholeflowwasconfinedtotheEarth’saxisjoiningthetransmitterwiththeantipode.Themeansurfacespeedisthusabout471,200kmpersecond[292,790milesasecond]–57percentgreaterthanthatoftheso-calledHertzwaves.

Therewasaproblemwiththis.JamesClerkMaxwell’sequationspredictedthespeedoflightat186,000milesasecond(300,000kmasecond).Atfirst,itwasassumedthatthisspeedwasrelativetothebackgroundetherthatelectromagneticradiationpropagatedthrough.ButtheMichelson-Morleyexperimentshowedtherewasnosuchthingasether.Einsteinrealizedthatthismeantthespeedoflightwasanabsolute–andtherewasnosuchthingasaspeedfasterthanlight.

TeslarailedagainstEinsteinandrelativity.Hewouldnotaccepttheconceptofcurvedspace,aspredictedbyEinstein’stheoryofgeneralrelativity,either.ButEinstein,withhisNobelPrize,wasthenewstarinthescientificfirmament.Tesla,Edison,whodiedin1931,Bell,whodiedin1922,andtheWrightbrothers,whodiedin1912and1948,wereoldhat.

BusinessAsUsualDespitetherejectionoftheirplansinWashington,FlowersandTeslawenttoDetroittotryandsellhis‘flyingautomobile’toGeneralMotors.TeslaalsotriedtosellhisspeedometertoFord,butitshighcostmadeitbettersuitedtoluxurycars.InDetroit,TeslamethisnephewNicholasTrbojevichandtherewasanincidentthatbecamepartoffamilylore.Thetwoweregoingforalatesnackinanexpensivehotel.Theheadwaitersuggestedthattheywaitfiveminutes.Thenthe$5coverchargewouldbelifted.ThiswasinthemiddleoftheGreatDepressionwhen$5wouldfeedafamilyforaweek.ButTeslawasnotpreparedtowait.WhenTrbojevichquestionedhisuncleoverthematterofthecovercharge,Teslasaid:‘I’llneverdierichunlessthemoneycomesinthedoorfasterthanIcanshovelitoutofthewindow.’

TeslaheldtalkswithUSSteelconcerninginstallinghisbladelessturbinesontheexhaustfromtheblastfurnaces,generatinghugeamountsofelectricity.But,

apparently,atestdidnotgoahead.TheninBuffalo,Teslaconductedsometop-secretexperiments.ItwassaidthatthepetrolengineofaPierce-ArrowsedanwasreplacedbyanACinductionmotor.A‘powerreceiver’using12vacuumtubeswassetinthedashboardconnectedtoa6ft(2m)antenna.Thereisotherspeculationthatitwaspoweredbyasteamorpetrol-driventurbine,butnophysicalevidenceofeitherdesignhasbeenfound.

WhileexperimenterswereusingTeslaCoilstotryandsplittheatom,Teslahimselfwasmakingmoreoutlandishpredictions,sayingthatallthemachineryonEarthcouldbepoweredbycosmicrays.Unlimitedquantitiesofpowercouldbetransmittedthroughwiresorwirelesslyfromacentralstationtoanywhereontheglobe,eliminatingtheneedforcoal,oil,gasoranyotherterrestrialenergysource.AlreadythecentralsourceofenergyonEarthwastheSun,hesaid,butthenewsourceofpowerwouldnotbeturnedoffatnight.

HeraldingaNewIndustrialRevolutionWithjustfivedaystogotohis75thbirthday,Teslasaidthathewouldsoonannounce‘byfarthemostimportantdiscovery’ofhislongcareer.‘Itwillthrowlightonmanypuzzlingphenomenaofthecosmos,’hesaid,‘andmayprovealsoofgreatindustrialvalue,particularlyincreatinganewandvirtuallyunlimitedmarketforsteel.’

Hesaidthathehadbeenwonderfullyfortunateincomingupwithnewideasthathewassurewouldberememberedbyposterity.Hewasconfidentthathisrotatingmagneticfield,inductionmotorandwirelesssystemwouldliveonlongafterhewasgone,buthestillconsideredhislatestdiscoveriesthemostimportant.Theywouldmarkanewdepartureinscience,beofgreatpracticalvaluesandinaugurateanewindustrialrevolution,hesaid.

Hehadalreadysucceededinprovinghistheoriesbyexperimentationand,ifthecalculationsbasedonthemturnedouttobetrue,theworldwouldhaveanewsourceofenergyinpracticallyunlimitedamounts,availableatanypointontheglobe.But,again,hewastantalizinglyvaguewhenitcametothedetails:

Icanonlysayatthistimethatitwillcomefromanentirelynewandunsuspectedsource,andwillbeforallpracticalpurposesconstant,dayandnight,andatalltimesoftheyear.Theapparatusforcapturingtheenergyandtransformingit

willpartakebothmechanicalandelectricalfeatures,andwillbeofidealsimplicity.Atfirstthecostmaybefoundtoohigh,butthisobstaclewillbeovercome.Moreover,theinstallmentwillbe,sotospeak,indestructible,andwillcontinuetofunctionforanylengthoftimewithoutadditionalexpenditures.

ThepresshadheardsuchpromisesfromTeslabeforeandwantedtoknowwhenhewasgoingtomakeanofficialannouncementofhisnewdiscoveries.Butthegreatmanwasunwillingtobepinneddown.Theseideashadnotcometohimovernight,butastheresultofintensestudyandexperimentationfornearly36years.Hesaidhewasanxioustogivethefactstotheworldassoonaspossible,butwishedtopresenttheminafinishedform.Thatmaytakeafewmonths,orafewyears,hesaid.

AlltheenergythattheEarthreceivesfromallthesunsandstarsoftheuniverseisonlyaboutone-quarterofonepercentofthatwhichitreceivesdirectlyfromtheSun.Therefore,itwouldbeincomparablymorerationaltoharnesstheheatandlightraysoftheSunthanattempttocapturetheinsignificantenergyofthisradiation…Wecandoitnow,andwearedoingittoacertainextent.Butthetremendoushandicapisfoundintheperiodiccharacterofthiskindofenergysupply.Manyattemptshavebeenmadeinthisdirection,butinvariablyitwasfoundthatthepowerwastooexpensive.

DismissingAtomicEnergyHavingrejectedEinstein’stheoryofrelativity,Teslaalsodismissedtheideaofatomicenergy.‘Theideaofatomicenergyisillusionary,’hesaid,‘butithastakensopowerfulaholdonthemindsthat,althoughIhavepreachedagainstitfor25years,therestillaresomewhobelieveittoberealizable.’

Heclaimedtohavedisintegratedatomsinhisexperimentswiththehigh-potentialvacuumtubehedevelopedin1896,whichheconsideredoneofhisbestinventions.Heoperatedatarangeofpotentialsfrom4millionto18millionsvolts.Morerecently,hesaid,hehaddesignedanapparatusthatwouldworkat50millionvolts,whichshouldproduceresultsofgreatscientificimportance.‘Butastoatomicenergy,myexperimentalobservationshaveshownthattheprocessofdisintegrationisnotaccompaniedbyaliberationofsuchenergyasmightbeexpectedfrompresenttheories,’hesaid.

CosmicRaysandBeyondTeslaclaimstohavediscoveredcosmicrayswhileinvestigatingX-raysandradioactivityinColoradoSpringsin1899,buthisfindingswereindisagreementwiththeoriesadvancedmorerecently:

Ihavesatisfiedmyselfthattheraysarenotgeneratedbytheformationofnewmatterinspace,aprocesswhichwouldbelikewaterrunninguphill.Nordotheycometoanyappreciableamountfromthestars.AccordingtomyinvestigationstheSunemitsaradiationofsuchapenetrativepowerthatitisvirtuallyimpossibletoabsorbitinleadorothersubstances.Ithas,furthermore,otherextraordinarypropertiesinregardtowhichIshallexpressmyselfatsomefuturedate.Thisray,whichIcalltheprimarysolarray,givesrisetoasecondaryradiationbyimpactagainstthecosmicdustscatteredthroughspace.Itisthesecondaryradiationwhichnowiscommonlycalledthecosmicrays,andcomes,ofcourse,equallyfromalldirectionsinspace.

Healsodismissedtheideathatradioactivityresultedfromactivitywithinradioactivesubstances.ItwascausedbyraysemittedfromtheSun.Ifradiumcouldbescreenedeffectivelyfromthisray,itwouldceasetoberadioactive,hesaid.Hehadalsobeendesigningrocket-shipsthathesaidcouldattainspeedsofnearlyamileasecond–3,600milesanhour(5,793kmperhour)–throughtherarefiedmediumabovethestratosphere.Again,hehopedhisrocket-shipswouldbringworldpeace:

Ianticipatethatsuchmachineswillbeoftremendousimportanceininternationalconflictsinthefuture.Iforeseethatintimesnottoodistantwarsbetweenvariouscountrieswillbecarriedonwithoutasinglecombatantpassingtheborder.Atthisverytimeitispossibletoconstructsuchinfernalmachineswhichwillcarryanydesiredquantityofpoisonedgasesandexplosives,launchthemagainstatargetthousandsofmilesawayanddestroyawholecity.Ifwarsarenotdoneawaywith,weareboundtocomeeventuallytothiskindofwarfare,becauseitisthemosteconomicalmeansofinflictinginjuryandstrikingterrorintheheartsofenemiesthateverhasbeenimagined.Denselypopulatedcountries,likeEnglandandJapan,willbeatagreatdisadvantageascomparedwiththoseembracingvastterritories,suchastheUnitedStatesandRussia.

AlthoughsomeofTesla’sideasinlaterlifecanbedismissedastheravingsofa

madscientist,sometimesheshowsremarkableprescience.

SendingSignalstotheStarsWhenTimemagazineputtheageingandeccentricinventorontheircoverofthe20July1931issuetocelebratehis75thbirthday,Tesladidnotdisappoint.Hetoldthemofhisnewinvention,theTesla-scope,thathecouldusetosignaltothestars,saying:

Ithinkthatnothingcanbemoreimportantthaninterplanetarycommunication.Itwillcertainlycomesomeday,andthecertitudethatthereareotherhumanbeingsintheuniverse,working,suffering,strugglinglikeourselves,willproduceamagiceffectonmankind,andwillformthefoundationofauniversalbrotherhoodthatwilllastaslongashumanityitself.

Askedwhenthiswouldhappen,hesaid:‘Ihavebeenleadingasecludedlife,oneofcontinuous,concentratedthoughtanddeepmeditation.NaturallyenoughIhaveaccumulatedagreatnumberofideas.Thequestioniswhethermyphysicalpowerswillbeadequatetoworkingthemoutandgivingthemtotheworld.’

Healsoclaimedthatwith15millionvolts–‘thehighesteverused’–hesplitatomsoverandoveragain,butnoenergywasreleased.TheTimearticlecarriedseveralotheramusingstoriesaboutTesla.Itsaidthatheleftthe‘swank’HotelStRegisafterthemaidscomplainedthathekeptfourpetpigeonsinhisroll-topdeskandthat,whilewalkingdownanicyFifthAvenue,‘heslipped,threwhimselfintoaflyingsomersault,landedonhisfeet,unperturbedkeptonwalking’.Timereportedmoreeccentricities:

AttheHotelGovernorClintonwherehenowlives,ifsomeoneringshimuponthetelephoneorknocksathisdoorandhedoesnotwanttoanswer,helockshimselfinthebathroom,turnsthewaterloudlyon.Heisverysensitivetosensorystimuli.Whenhegetsexcited,blindinglightsflashthroughhismind.Heretreatstobed.Alifelongbachelor,habituallyhegoestobedat5.30am,risesat10.30am.Buthedoesnotsleepthewholeperiod.Proudly,yetalmostplaintively,heexplains:‘Irollaroundandworkonmyproblems.’

ThePlauditsofPeersBirthdayaccoladesfloodedin.OverahundredlettersofcongratulationwerereceivedfromotherscientistsorinventorsincludingSirOliverLodge,LeeDeForestandAlbertEinstein.NotablyabsentwerebirthdaygreetingsfromMarconiandPupin.AndnonecouldmatchthetributebestowedonEdisonwhenhedied3monthslaterandthelightsofNewYorkweredimmedinreverence.

Naturally,Teslawasfullofnewpredictions.‘Ifeelthatwearenearingaperiodwhenthehumanmindwillperformgreaterwondersthaneverbefore,’hesaid.‘Thisisduetothecontinuousrefinementofmeansandmethodsofobservationandever-increasingdelicacyofourperception.’

Wewereabouttoconquernature,contactbeingsonotherplanetsandtransmithugeamountsofpowervastdistances.AreporterfromTheNewYorkTimesagainaskedwhenhewasgoingtomakehisdiscoverypublic.‘Therewasatraceofregretinhisvoiceasheanswered,’saidthepaper,‘andthelookofamanwhohasworkenoughforcenturiesandonlyafewyearstodoitin.’TeslathenquotedGoethe.‘HehadnotreadGoethefor40years,hesaid,andhequoteditfrommemory.’

Hewasalsoatoddswiththenewideasofquantummechanics.‘Thereisnochanceinnature,’hesaid,‘althoughthemoderntheoryofindeterminacyattemptstoshowscientificallythateventsaregovernedbychance.Ipositivelydenythat.Thecausesandeffects,howevercomplex,areintimatelylinked,andtheresultofallinferencesmustbeinevitablyfixedasbyamathematicalformula.’

WavesinTimeandSpaceHere-assertedthathumanbeingswereautomatonscompletelyunderthecontrolofexternalforcesandhedeniedtheexistenceofindividuality,saying:

Ittookmenotlessthan20yearstodevelopafacultytotraceeverythoughtoractofminetoanexternalinfluence.Wearejustwavesintimeandspace,changingcontinuously,andtheillusionofindividualityisproducedthroughtheconcatenationoftherapidlysucceedingphasesofexistence.Whatwedefineaslikenessismerelytheresultofthesymmetricalarrangementofmoleculeswhichcomposeourbody.

Healsodeniedtheexistenceofthesoulorspirit,sayingtheyweremerelyexpressionsofthefunctionsofthebody.‘Thesefunctionsceasewithdeathandsodosoulandspirit,’hesaid.‘Whathumanityneedsisideals.Idealismistheforcethatwillfreeusfrommaterialfetters.’

PhotographingThoughtAt77,TeslatoldajournalistfromtheKansasCityJournal-Postthatheexpectedsoontobeabletophotographthoughts,explaining:

In1893,whileengagedincertaininvestigations,Ibecameconvincedthatadefiniteimageformedinthoughtmust,byreflexaction,produceacorrespondingimageontheretina,whichmightpossiblybereadbysuitableapparatus.Thisbroughtmetomysystemoftelevision,whichIannouncedatthattime.Myideawastoemployanartificialretinareceivingtheimageoftheobjectseen,an‘opticnerve’andanothersuchretinaattheplaceofreproduction.Thesetworetinasweretobeconstructedafterthefashionofacheckerboardwithmanyseparatelittlesections,andtheso-calledopticnervewasnothingmorethanapartoftheearth.

Aninventionofmineenablesmetotransmitsimultaneously,andwithoutanyinterferencewhatsoever,hundredsofthousandsofdistinctimpulsesthroughthegroundjustasthoughIhadsomanyseparatewires.Ididnotcontemplateusinganymovingpart–ascanningapparatusoracathodicray,whichisasortofmovingdevice,theuseofwhichIsuggestedinoneofmylectures.

Nowifitbetruethatathoughtreflectsanimageontheretina,itisamerequestionofilluminatingthesamepropertyandtakingphotographs,andthenusingtheordinarymethodswhichareavailabletoprojecttheimageonascreen.Ifthiscanbedonesuccessfully,thentheobjectsimaginedbyapersonwouldbeclearlyreflectedonthescreenastheyareformed,andinthiswayeverythoughtoftheindividualcouldberead.Ourmindswouldthen,indeed,belikeopenbooks.

Asalways,heclaimedtohavediscoveredanewsourceofpower.Hewasnotreadytogointodetails.Hehadtocheckhisfindingsbeforetheycouldbeformallyannounced.Buthehadbeenworkingtheunderlyingprinciplesformanyyears.Fromthepracticalpointofview,hisgeneratorwouldrequireahuge

initialinvestment,butonceamachinewasinstalleditwouldworkindefinitelyandthecostofoperationwouldbenexttonothing.

Butthistimehegavemoredetails.Thedesignwasrelativelysimple–‘justabigmassofsteel,copperandaluminium,comprisingastationaryandrotatingpart,peculiarlyassembled’.TheelectricitywouldthenbedistributedlongdistancesbyhisACsystemwhich,hesaid,alreadydistributed30millionhorsepowerofwaterpower,andtherewereprojectsthengoingonallovertheworldwhichwoulddoublethatamount.

‘Unfortunately,thereisnotenoughwaterpowertosatisfythepresentneeds,’hesaid,‘andeverywhereinventorsandengineersareendeavouringtounlocksomeadditionalstoreofenergy.’

TheFormulaforaLongLifeInhiseighthdecade,Teslastillexpectedtolivealongtimeandreflectedonlifeandlongevity.

QuiteearlyinlifeIsetaboutdiscipliningmyself,planningoutaprogrammeoflivingforwhatIconsideredthemostsaneandworthwhilelife.SinceIlovemyworkaboveallthings,itisonlynaturalthatIshouldwishtocontinueituntilIdie.Iwantnovacation–nosurceasefrommylabours.Ifpeoplewouldselectalifeworkcompatiblewiththeirtemperaments,thesumtotalofhappinesswouldbeimmeasurablyincreasedintheworld.

Manyaresaddenedanddepressedbythebrevityoflife.‘Whatistheuseofattemptingtoaccomplishanything?’theysay.‘Lifeissoshort.Wemayneverlivetoseethecompletionofthetask.’Well,peoplecouldprolongtheirlivesconsiderablyiftheywouldbutmaketheeffort.Humanbeingsdosomanythingsthatpavethewaytoanearlygrave.

Firstofall,weeattoomuch,butthiswehaveheardsaidoftenbefore.Andweeatthewrongkindsoffoodsanddrinkthewrongkindsofliquids.Mostoftheharmisdonebyovereatingandunder-exercising,whichbringabouttoxicconditionsinthebodyandmakeitimpossibletothrowofftheaccumulatedpoisons.

Myregimeforthegoodlifeandmydiet?Well,foronething,Idrinkplentyofmilkandwater.Whyoverburdenthebodiesthatserveus?Ieatbuttwomealsaday,andIavoidallacid-producingfoods.Almosteveryoneeatstoomanypeasandbeansandotherfoodscontaininguricacidandotherpoisons.Ipartakeliberallyoffreshvegetables,fishandmeatsparingly,andrarely.Fishisreputedasfinebrainfood,buthasaverystrongacidreaction,asitcontainsagreatdealofphosphorus.Acidityisbyfartheworstenemytofightoffinoldage.

Potatoesaresplendid,andshouldbeeatenatleastonceaday.Theycontainvaluablemineralsaltsandareneutralizing.Ibelieveinplentyofexercise.Iwalk8or10mileseveryday,andnevertakeacaborotherconveyanceswhenIhavethetimetouselegpower.Ialsoexerciseinmybathdaily,forIthinkthatthisisofgreatimportance.Itakeawarmbath,followedbyaprolongedcoldshower.

Sleep?Iscarcelyeversleep.Icomeofalong-livedfamily,butitisnotedforitspoorsleepers.Iexpecttomatchtherecordsofmyancestorsandlivetobeatleast100.Mysleeplessnessdoesnotworryme.SometimesIdozeforanhourorso.Occasionally,however,onceinafewmonths,Imaysleepfor4or5hours.ThenIawakenvirtuallychargedwithenergy,likeabattery.Nothingcanstopmeaftersuchanight.Ifeelgreatstrengththen.Thereisnodoubtaboutitbutthatsleepisarestorer,avitalizer,thatitincreasesenergy.Butontheotherhand,Idonotthinkitisessentialtoone’swellbeing,particularlyifoneishabituallyapoorsleeper.

Today,at77,asaresultofawell-regulatedlife,sleeplessnessnotwithstanding,Ihaveanexcellentcertificateofhealth.Ineverfeltbetterinmylife.Iamenergetic,strong,infullpossessionofallmymentalfacilities.InmyprimeIdidnotpossesstheenergyIhavetoday.Andwhatismore,insolvingmyproblemsIusebutasmallpartoftheenergyIpossess,forIhavelearnedhowtoconserveit.Becauseofmyexperienceandknowledgegainedthroughtheyears,mytasksaremuchlighter.Contrarytogeneralbelief,workcomeseasierforolderpeopleiftheyareingoodhealth,becausetheyhavelearnedthroughyearsofpracticehowtoarriveatagivenplacebytheshortestpath.

DevelopingtheDeathRayTeslahadinheritedadeephatredofwarfromhisfather.Throughouthislife,hesoughtwaystoendwarfare.Shortofthat,hethoughtwarsshouldbefoughtout

betweenmachines.Hisideaforadeathraybeganbackinthe1890swhenheproducedatypeoflampwhich,withabeamofelectrons,couldvaporizezirconiaordiamonds.Andin1915,hetalkedofbeamingenergyfromWardenclyffe,thatwould‘paralyzeorkill’.

InWorldWarI,BritishinventorHarryGrindell-Matthewsclaimedtohaveinventeda‘diabolicalray’thatcouldbeusedagainstzeppelins.Intheearly1920s,boththeBritishandtheFrenchgovernmentsshowedaninterest.In1924,hewenttoNewYorkwherehemetHugoGernsbackand,probably,Tesla.However,GernsbackandProfessorW.Severinghouse,aphysicistfromColumbiaUniversity,triedunsuccessfullytoduplicatehisfindings.Nottobeoutdone,theGermansandtheSovietsbothclaimedtohavedevelopedbeamsthatcouldbringdownplanes.

But,Teslawasnotconvinced.In1934,hesaid:‘Itisimpossibletodevelopsucharay.IworkedonthatideaformanyyearsbeforemyignorancewasdispelledandIbecameconvincedthatitcouldnotberealized.’

Hewasworkingonsomethingthathesaidwasentirelydifferent.‘Thisnewbeamofmineconsistsofminutebulletsmovingataterrificspeed,andanyamountofpowerdesiredcanbetransmittedbythem.Thewholeplantisjustagun,butonewhichisincomparablysuperiortothepresent.’

ThewarcloudsweregatheringoverEuropeagainand,on11July1934,TheNewYorkTimescarriedtheheadlineonitsfrontpage,reading:Tesla,at78,BaresNew‘DeathBeam’.Teslasaidhisnewinvention‘willsendconcentratedbeamsofparticlesthroughthefreeair,ofsuchtremendousenergythattheywillbringdownafleetof10,000enemyairplanesatadistanceof250miles(400km)fromadefendingnation’sbordersandwillcausearmiesofmillionstodropdeadintheirtracks’.

ThedeathbeamwouldoperatesilentlyatdistancesasfarasyoucouldseewithatelescopeandlimitedonlybythecurvatureoftheEarth.Itwouldbeinvisibleandleavenomarksbeyondtheevidenceofitsdestruction.Anarmyofamillionmenwouldbeannihilatedinasecondand,evenwiththemostpowerfulmicroscope,itwouldnotbepossibletoseewhathadcausedtheirdeaths.

Itwouldalsobetheperfectdefenceagainstbombing.‘Theflyingmachinehascompletelydemoralizedtheworld,’hewrote,‘somuchthatinsomecities,as

LondonandParis,peopleareinmortalfearofaerialbombing.ThenewmeansIhaveperfectedaffordabsoluteprotectionagainstthisandotherformsofattack.’

Teslasaidthathisdeathbeamwouldmakewarimpossiblebyofferingeverycountryan‘invisibleChineseWall,onlyamilliontimesmoreimpenetrable’.Itwouldmakeeverynationimpregnabletoattackbyaeroplanesorlargeinvadingarmies.

Whilemakingeverynationsafefrominvasion,Teslasaidtheycouldnotbeusedasoffensiveweaponsasthedeathbeam‘couldbegeneratedonlyfromlarge,stationaryandimmovablepowerplants,stationedinthemannerofold-timefortsatvariousstrategicdistancesfromeachcountry’sborder…theycouldnotbemovedforpurposesofattack’.

However,headmittedthatsmallergeneratingplantscouldbemountedonbattleshipswithenoughpowertodestroyincomingaircraft–re-establishingthesuperiorityofthebattleshipovertheaeroplaneagain.Submarinescouldalsobecomeobsolete,hesaid,asmethodsofdetectingthemhadbeenperfectedtothepointwheretherewasnopointinsubmerging.Onceasubmarinehadbeenlocated,thedeathbeamcouldbeemployedasitwouldworkunderwater,thoughnotaswellasinair.

Elsewhereheproclaimedthatthebattleshipwasdoomed.‘Whathappenedtothearmouredknightwillalsohappentothearmouredvessel,’hesaid.Themoneyspentonbattleships‘shouldbedirectedinchannelsthatwillimprovethewelfareofthecountry’.

ManifestationsofEnergyTheproductionofthedeathbeaminvolvedfournewinventionsofTesla’s,thoughhewouldnotprovidedetailsoftheseuntiltheyhadbeensubmittedtotheproperscientificauthorities.However,hesaid,thefirstinventionwasanapparatusforproducingraysand‘othermanifestationsofenergyinfreeair’,eliminatingthehighvacuumnecessaryatpresentfortheproductionofsuchraysandbeams.Thesecondwasanewmethodforproducingaverygreatelectricalforce.Thethirdwasamethodforamplifyingthisandthefourth,hesaid,was‘anewmethodforproducingatremendouselectricalrepellingforce’.AgainTeslawaslookingatapotentialof50millionvoltswhichwouldcatapultmicroscopic

particlesofmattertowardsthetarget.Hereckonedthatitwouldcostnomorethan$2millionandtakeonlythreemonthstobuild.

‘AllmyinventionsareattheserviceoftheUnitedStatesgovernment,’hesaid.

Shouldthegovernmenttakehimuponhisoffer,hesaidhewouldgotoworkatonceandkeepongoinguntilhecollapsed.However,headded:‘Iwouldhavetoinsistononecondition–Iwouldnotsufferinterferencefromanyexperts.Theywouldhavetotrustme.’

IntheNewYorkHeraldjournalistJosephAlsopdescribedtheprogressTeslawasmakingdevelopinghisdeathray:

Heillustratedthesortofthingthattheparticleswillbebyrecallinganincidentthatoccurredoftenenoughwhenhewasexperimentingwithacathodetube.Then,sometimes,aparticlelargerthananelectron,butstillverytiny,wouldbreakofffromthecathode,passoutofthetubeandhithim.Hesaidhecouldfeelasharp,stingingpainwhereitenteredhisbody,andagainattheplacewhereitpassedout.Theparticlesinthebeamofforce,ammunitionwhichtheoperatorsofthegeneratingmachinewillhavetosupply,willtravelfarfasterthansuchparticlesasbrokeofffromthecathode,andtheywilltravelinconcentrations,hesaid.

AsDrTeslaexplainedit,thetremendousspeedoftheparticleswillgivethemtheirdestruction-dealingqualities.Allbutthethickestarmouredsurfacesconfrontingthemwouldbemeltedthroughinaninstantbytheheatgeneratedintheconcussion.Suchbeamsorraysofparticlesnowknowntosciencearecomposedalwaysoffragmentsofatoms,whereas,accordingtoDrTesla,hiswouldbeofmicroscopicdustofasuitablesort.

Thechiefdifferentiationbetweenhisandthepresentrayswouldappeartobe,however,thathisareproducedinfreeairinsteadofinavacuumtube.Thevacuumtuberayshavebeenprojectedoutintotheair,buttheretheytravelonlyafewinches,andtheyarecapableonlyofcausingburnsorslightdisintegrationofobjectswhichtheystrike.

TeslatriedtogetJackMorgantofinanceaprototypeofhisinvention,butMorganwasunconvinced.HetriedtodealdirectlywiththeBritish,tonoavail.Frustrated,hesentanelaboratetechnicalpaper,includingdiagrams,toanumber

ofnationsincludingtheUS,Canada,Britain,France,theSovietUnionandYugoslavia.Called‘TheNewArtofProjectingConcentratedNon-DispersiveEnergyThroughNaturalMedia’,thepaperprovidedthefirsttechnicaldescriptionofachargedparticlebeamweapon.Anditwasnotjustfantasy.Teslahadsolvedoneofthekeyproblemsofadeathray–howtooperateavacuumchamberwithoneendopentotheatmosphere.Heachievedthisbydirectingahigh-velocitystreamofairatthetipofhisguntomaintain‘dynamicseal’.ThiswouldbeprovidedbyalargeTeslaturbine.

InterestcamefromtheSovietUnionand,in1937,TeslapresentedaplantotheAmtorgTradingCorporation,inNewYorkCity,whichhandledtradewiththeSovietUnion.Twoyearslater,in1939,partoftheprototypewastestedintheUSSRandTeslareceivedapaymentof$25,000.Butbythen,theSovietUnionhadallieditselfwithNaziGermany.

WhileTesla’sdeathbeamdidnotseethelightofdayinWorldWarII,duringtheColdWarboththeUSandtheSovietUnionworkedonchargedparticlebeams.

ResemblingDrFrankensteinTeslamadeafurthermoveintosciencefictionwhenthe1931horrorclassicFrankensteinusedTeslaCoilstomakelightningflashes.MuchoftheequipmentusedbyDrFrankensteinbearsanuncannyresemblancetotheapparatusTeslainventedforhisexperiments.Indeed,Teslafavouredthemovie’sproducerCarlLaemmleashefoughtpatentbattleswithEdisonwhenestablishingUniversalPictures.

In1935,oneofTesla’selectricalextravaganzaswasfilmedbyanewsreelcameramanandofferedtoParamount,buttheyfoundthesubjecttootechnical.NeverthelessHugoGernsbackandFrankPaulcontinuedtouseTesla’sideasintheirsci-ficomics.

MeanwhileTeslawentaboutworkonhisdeathrayinasecretlaboratoryundertheFifty-ninthStreetBridge.Oneofhisotherinventionsoftheperiodwasawoodenbirdcage,completewithbirdbath.WesternUnionboysweredespatchedwiththesetorescueinjuredpigeonsfromaroundNewYorkPublicLibrary,BryantParkandStPatrick’sCathedral.

TaintedwithAnti-SemitismTeslaalsohadtieswithaHungarianarchitectnamedTitusdeBobula,possiblythroughthePuskásbrothers.deBobulaborrowedmoneyfromtheinventorasearlyas1900.In1908,hemarriedthenieceofPittsburghsteelmagnateCharlesSchwab(1862–1939).deBobulathendesignedandbuiltSchwab’snewmansionandborrowedmoneyfromhimforanumberofrealestateventures.HeofferedtofindthebackingtorebuildWardenclyffe,butdeBobula’sventuresturnedsour.HefelloutwithSchwabandbecameananarchist.BackinBudapest,hejoinedapro-Hitlergroupandwroteapaperdenouncing‘Jewishphysics’astheNazisdubbedthenewdeparturesintorelativityandquantumphysics.Echoesofanti-SemitismcanbefoundinTesla’sattacksonEinstein.

ReturningtotheUS,deBobuladesigneda120-ft(36-m)towerforTesla’sdeathbeam.However,hisinvolvementwithamunitionscompanyrunbyaGerman-AmericanbroughthimtotheattentionoftheIRSandtheFBI.Whenhisapartmentwassearcheditwasfoundtobefullofgrenades,tear-gasbombsanddynamite.TeslawasfuriouswhendeBobulausedhisnameinanarmsdealwithParaguay.Questionedbytheauthorities,deBobuladeniedanytiestotheCommunistPartyortheGerman-AmericanBundwhichsupportedHitler.TheFBImonitoredhisactivitiesthroughoutWorldWarII.Nothingwaseverprovedagainsthim.However,Teslawastaintedbyassociation.

ReviewingHisGreatestInventionsThefollowingyearTeslawasstillfullofwildandabstrusepronouncements.Heinvitedsome30journaliststoagourmetluncheontocelebratehis79thbirthdayintheprivatediningroomoftheHotelNewYorker,wherehewasthenstaying.HehadbeenthrownoutoftheHotelPennsylvaniain1930,owing$2,000,whenotherpatronscomplainedofthepigeondroppings.Whilethereportersfeastedathisexpense,Tesladidnoteventouchaglassofwater.However,towardstheendofthemeal,hewentandgotasmallbottleofpasteurizedmilkwhichhepouredintoasilverdishandheatedonasmalloilstovebesidethetable.TheHotelNewYorkerthensuppliedabirthdaycakewithonecandlefortheirhonouredguest.

Askedwhatwashisgreatestfeatinthefieldofengineering,hesaid:‘An

apparatusbywhichmechanicalenergycanbetransmittedtoanypartoftheterrestrialglobe.’

Hecalledthisdiscovery‘tele-geo-dynamics’andadmittedthatitwould‘appearalmostpreposterous’.However,itwouldgivetheworldanewmeansofunfailingcommunication,provideanewandbyfarthesafestmeansforguidingshipsatseaandintoport,furnisha‘diviningrod’forlocatinganytypeoforebeneaththesurfaceoftheEarth,andgivescientistsameansof‘layingbarethephysicalconditionsoftheEarthandenablethemtodeterminealltheEarth’sphysicalconstants’.

Theapparatusneededtodothis,hesaid,wassimple.Itconsistedofastationarypartandacylinderoffinesteel‘floating’intheair.Hehad,hesaid,discoveredameansof‘impressingonthefloatingpartpowerfulimpulseswhichreactonthestationarypart,andthroughthelattertotransmitenergythroughtheEarth’.Todothishehad‘foundanewamplifierforaknowntypeofenergy’.Thepurposewas‘toproduceimpulsesthroughtheEarthandthenpickthemupwheneverneeded’.

Hissecondgreatestinvention,hesaid,‘willbeconsideredabsolutelyimpossiblebyanycompetentelectricalengineer’.Itwasanewmethodofproducingdirectcurrentwithoutacommutator–something,hesaid,‘thathasbeenconsideredimpossiblesincethedaysofFaraday’.

‘Incredibleasitseems,’hesaid,‘Ihavefoundasolutionforthisoldproblem.’

Nexthecametocosmicrayswhich,hesaid,wereproducedbytheforceofelectrostaticrepulsionandconsistedofpowerfullychargedpositiveparticlesthatcometoEarthfromtheSunandotherstars.‘Afterexperimentation,’hesaid,‘theSunischargedwithanelectricalpotentialof215billionvolts,whiletheelectricchargestoredintheSunamountedtoaround50billionbillionelectrostaticunits.’

Againhedismissedthetheoryofrelativity,describingitas‘amassoferroranddeceptiveideasviolentlyopposedtotheteachingsofgreatmenofscienceandeventocommonsense’.

Thetheory,wrapsalltheseerrorsandfallaciesandclothestheminmagnificentmathematicalgarbwhichfascinates,dazzlesandmakespeopleblindtothe

underlyingerrors.Thetheoryislikeabeggarclothedinpurplewhomignorantpeopletakeforaking.Itsexponentsarebrilliantmen,buttheyaremetaphysicistsratherthanscientists.Notasingleoneoftherelativitypropositionshasbeenproved.

OneofTesla’sgreatbugbearswithrelativitywasitsprohibitionofanythingtravellingfasterthanthespeedoflight,whichupsethistheoriesaboutstandingwavesandthewirelesstransmissionofenergy.Hewasadamantthat,inhisobservationsofcosmicrays,hehadalreadydiscoveredparticlesthattravelledfasterthanlight.

In1899,IobtainedmathematicalandexperimentalproofsthattheSun,andotherheavenlybodiessimilarlyconditioned,emitraysofgreatenergywhichconsistofinconceivablysmallparticlesanimatedbyvelocitiesvastlyexceedingthatoflight.Sogreatisthepenetrativepoweroftheseraysthattheycantraversethousandsofmilesofsolidmatterwithbutslightdiminutionofvelocity.Inpassingthroughspace,whichisfilledwithcosmicdust,theygeneratedasecondaryradiationofconstantintensity,dayandnight,andpouringupontheearthequallyfromalldirections.Astheprimaryraysprojectedfromthesunsandstarscanpassthroughdistancesmeasuredinlight-yearswithoutgreatdiminutionofvelocity,itfollowsthatwhetherasecondaryrayisgeneratednearasunoratanydistancefromit,howevergreat,itsintensityisthesame.

Asofyet,nooneelsehasfoundparticlesthattravelfasterthanlight.However,neutrinosgeneratedbythefusionreactionsintheSundohavethepenetrativepowerTeslamentioned.TheywerepredictedbytheItalian-bornphysicistEnricoFermi(1901–54)in1934,butnotdetectedexperimentallyforanother20years.Neverthelessin1932,Teslasaidthathehad‘harnessedthecosmicraysandcausedthemtooperateamotivedevice’.Cosmicrays,hesaid,strucktheatmosphere,ionizingtheairandcreatingchargedparticles–ionsandelectrons.‘Thesechargesarecapturedinacondenserwhichismadetodischargethroughthecircuitofamotor,’hesaid.Healsosaidthathehad‘hopesofbuildingsuchamotoronalargescale’.However,by1935,hewasalsotellingtheNewYorkHeraldTribunethatsomedaytheSunwouldexplode.

TheTeslaInstituteIn1936,theTeslaInstitutewasopenedinBelgrade,thenthecapitalof

Yugoslavia.Afullyequippedresearchcentre,itwasfundedbytheYugoslavgovernmentandprivatesources.Aweekofcelebrationscommemoratingthegreatman’s80thbirthdayfollowed.TheyoccurredinBelgradeon26,27and28May,inZagreb,capitalofCroatia,on30MayandinhisnativevillageofSmiljanon2June,andagainon12July1936.

Chapter15–TheFinalDaysWhathasthefutureinstoreforthisstrangebeing,bornofabreath,ofperishabletissue,yetImmortal,withhispowersfearfulandDivine?Whatmagicwillbewroughtbyhimintheend?Whatistobehisgreatestdeed,hiscrowningachievement?

NikolaTesla

At81,TeslawashonouredbyboththeYugoslavandCzechoslovakiangovernments.HewasawardedtheGrandCordonoftheWhiteEagle,Yugoslavia’shighesthonourbestowedbyKingPeterthroughhisregentPrincePaul,andCzechoslovakia’sOrderoftheWhiteLion.ThesewerepresentedathisbirthdayluncheonattheHotelNewYorker.Meanwhilehewasstillmakinghisbirthdayannouncementsofnewdiscoveriestonewspapermen.

In1937,hetoldthemthathehadperfectedtheprincipleofanewtubethatwouldmakeitpossibletosmashatomsandproducecheapradium.Hewouldgiveademonstrationofitin‘onlyalittletime’.HewasexpectingtoputhisdiscoveryforwardforFrance’sPierreGuzmanPrizeof100,000francs(around€50,000).ItwasawardedbytheAcadémiedesSciencesto‘thepersonofwhatevernationwhowillfindthemeans…ofcommunicatingwithastarandofreceivingaresponse’.

Themoney,ofcourse,isatriflingconsideration,butforthegreathistoricalhonourofbeingthefirsttoachievethismiracleIwouldbealmostwillingtogivemylife.IamjustassurethatprizewillbeawardedtomeasifIalreadyhaditinmypocket.Theyhavegottodoit.Itmeansitwillbepossibletoconveyseveralthousandunitsofhorsepowertootherplanets,regardlessofdistance.ThisdiscoveryofminewillberememberedwheneverythingelseIhavedoneiscoveredindust.

[TheGuzmanPrizewasfinallyawardedtothecrewofApollo11in1969afterthefirstMoonlanding.]

Hisapparatus,Teslasaid,employedmorethanthreedozenofhisowninventions.‘Itisabsolutelydeveloped,’hesaid.‘Iwouldn’tbesurerthatIcantransmitenergyahundredmilesthanIamofthefactthatIcantransmitenergyamillionmilesup.’

Itusedadifferentkindofenergythanwascommonlyemployedwhichtravelsthroughachannelof‘lessthanone-halfofone-millionthofacentimetre’.‘Icouldundertakeacontracttomanufacturetheapparatus,’hesaid.

Whilehewascertainthattherewaslifeonotherplanets,theproblemwithhisequipment,hesaid,washittingothermovingplanetswithaneedle-pointoftremendousenergy.Buthethoughtthatastronomerscouldhelpsolvethisproblem.FirsttheyshouldaimthisTeslaRayattheMoonwheretheycouldeasilyseeitseffects–‘thesplashandthevolatilizationofmatter’.Healsoimaginedadvancedthinkerslivingonotherplanetswereexperimentinginthisfield,mistakingTeslaenergyraysforcosmicrays.

Onthepracticalfront,heannouncedanewtypeoftube.Hisexperimentshadbeenrewardedwith‘completesuccess’andhehad‘producedatubewhichitwillbehardtoimprovefurther’.

Itisofidealsimplicity,notsubjecttowearandcanbeoperatedatanypotential,howeverhigh–even100millionvolts–thatcanbeproduced.Itwillcarryheavycurrents,transformanyamountofenergywithinpracticallimitsanditpermitseasycontrolandregulationofthesame.Iexpectthatthisinvention,whenitbecomesknown,willbeuniversallyadoptedinpreferencetootherformsoftubesandthatitwillbethemeansofobtainingresultsundreamedofbefore.Amongothers,itwillenabletheproductionofcheapradiumsubstitutesinanydesiredquantityandwillbe,ingeneral,immediatelymoreeffectiveinthesmashingofatomsandthetransmutationofmatter.However,thistubewillnotopenupawaytoutilizeatomicorsubatomicenergyforpowerpurposes.Itwillcheapenradiumsothatitwillbejustascheap–well,itwillgetdownto$1apound–inanyquantity.

Teslawasannoyedthatsomenewspaperssaidhewouldbegivingafulldescriptionofhisinventionathisbirthdaylunch.Hecouldnotreleasetheinformation,hesaid,becausehewasboundbyfinancialobligationsinvolving‘vastsumsofmoney’.Andthiswasnotanidleboast,heinsisted:‘Itisnotanexperiment.Ihavebuilt,demonstratedandusedit.Onlyalittletimewillpass

beforeIcangiveittotheworld.’

TheNewYorkTimes,perhapswithtongueincheek,wentontoreportthatDrTeslaentertainedhisguestswithcolourfulpersonalreminiscencesandobservationsincludinghisopinionsondietingandimmortality.

MoreMoneyWorriesAlthoughTesla’smindwasasfertileasever,hisfinancialsituationcontinuedtodecline.WhenHugoGernsbackshowedhimWestinghouse’slatestradioset,Teslasawimmediatelythattheywereflagrantlyinfringinghiswirelesspatents.Heprotested,butwasinnopositiontofightalargecorporation.

Unabletopayhishotelbill,again,Teslahandedoverthe‘workingmodel’ofhisdeathbeamascollateral.Itwasworth,hesaid,$10,000.HealsotoldJackMorganthattheRussianswerekeentobuyhisdeathbeamtodefendthemselvesagainsttheJapanese.However,healreadyowedMorganagreatdealofmoneyoverhisbladelessturbinesand,despitefillinghisletterswithattacksonFranklinRoosevelt’s‘NewDeal’withAstorwhoMorganhated,nomoneywasforthcoming.

Eventually,WestinghouseacknowledgedTesla’scontributiontothecompanyandpaidhim$125amonthasaconsultingengineer.TheyalsocametoanagreementwiththeHotelNewYorkerwhereTeslalivedrentfreefortherestofhislife.Inhislastyears,theYugoslavgovernmentalsogavehimanhonorariumof$7,200ayear.Thisallowedhimtogivegeneroustipstothosewhohadrenderedhimtheslightestassistanceandhand-outs,thathecouldill-afford,toanyonehethoughtwasinneed.

Tesla’sLastInterviewsTeslagavesomeofhislastinterviewstoNaziapologistGeorgeS.Viereck.AgainheexplainedthathewasnotabelieverinGodintheconventionalsense.PerhapsunderViereck’sinfluence,Teslaespousedeugenics–theforcedsterilizationofthosethoughttobementallyunfit–whichwerethenbeingpractisedintheUSaswellasNaziGermany.

Theyear2100willseeeugenicsuniversallyestablished.Inpastages,thelawgoverningthesurvivalofthefittestroughlyweededoutthelessdesirablestrains.Thenman’snewsenseofpitybegantointerferewiththeruthlessworkingsofnature.Asaresult,wecontinuetokeepaliveandtobreedtheunfit.Theonlymethodcompatiblewithournotionsofcivilizationandtheraceistopreventthebreedingoftheunfitbysterilizationandthedeliberateguidanceofthematinginstinct.SeveralEuropeancountriesandanumberofstatesoftheAmericanUnionsterilizethecriminalandtheinsane.Thisisnotsufficient.Thetrendofopinionamongeugenistsisthatwemustmakemarriagemoredifficult.Certainlynoonewhoisnotadesirableparentshouldbepermittedtoproduceprogeny.Acenturyfromnowitwillnomoreoccurtoanormalpersontomatewithapersoneugenicallyunfitthantomarryahabitualcriminal.

Althoughatthetime,theenvironmentwashardlyontheagenda,TeslatoldViereck:

Hygiene,physicalculturewillberecognizedbranchesofeducationandgovernment.TheSecretaryofHygieneorPhysicalCulturewillbefarmoreimportantinthecabinetofthePresidentoftheUnitedStateswhoholdsofficeintheyear2035thantheSecretaryofWar.ThepollutionofourbeachessuchasexiststodayaroundNewYorkCitywillseemasunthinkabletoourchildrenandgrandchildrenaslifewithoutplumbingseemstous.Ourwatersupplywillbefarmorecarefullysupervised,andonlyalunaticwilldrinkunsterilizedwater.

Helookedforwardtoatimewherescienceandeducationwouldbemoreimportantthanwar:

Todaythemostcivilizedcountriesoftheworldspendamaximumoftheirincomeonwarandaminimumoneducation.The21stcenturywillreversethisorder.Itwillbemoreglorioustofightagainstignorancethantodieonthefieldofbattle.Thediscoveryofanewscientifictruthwillbemoreimportantthanthesquabblesofdiplomats.Eventhenewspapersofourowndayarebeginningtotreatscientificdiscoveriesandthecreationoffreshphilosophicalconceptsasnews.Thenewspapersofthe21stcenturywillgiveamere‘stick’inthebackpagestoaccountsofcrimeorpoliticalcontroversies,butwillheadlineonthefrontpagestheproclamationofanewscientifichypothesis.

Nowgauntfromhismeagrediet,hehadclearviewsonthefutureoffood:

Morepeopledieorgrowsickfrompollutedwaterthanfromcoffee,tea,tobacco,andotherstimulants.Imyselfeschewallstimulants.Ialsopracticallyabstainfrommeat.Iamconvincedthatwithinacentury,coffee,tea,andtobaccowillnolongerbeinvogue.Alcohol,however,willstillbeused.Itisnotastimulantbutaveritableelixiroflife.Theabolitionofstimulantswillnotcomeaboutforcibly.Itwillsimplybenolongerfashionabletopoisonthesystemwithharmfulingredients.[Bodybuilder]BernarrMacfaddenhasshownhowitispossibletoprovidepalatablefoodbaseduponnaturalproductssuchasmilk,honey,andwheat.Ibelievethatthefoodwhichisservedtodayinhispennyrestaurantswillbethebasisofepicureanmealsinthesmartestbanquethallsofthe21stcentury.

Therewillbeenoughwheatandwheatproductstofeedtheentireworld,includingtheteemingmillionsofChinaandIndia,nowchronicallyonthevergeofstarvation.Theearthisbountiful,andwhereherbountyfails,nitrogendrawnfromtheairwillrefertilizeherwomb.Idevelopedaprocessforthispurposein1900.Itwasperfected14yearslaterunderthestressofwarbyGermanchemists.

Aftersubsistingonadietofbread,warmmilkandwhathecalled‘FactorActus’,Teslagaveupsolidfoodaltogether,livingonthingruelofcauliflower,leeks,cabbage,turnipsandlettuce.Buthewasstillstrongenoughtomakepredictions.Then,inhislastdays,helivedonmilkandhoney,believingthemtobethepurestfoods.Nevertheless,thefuturelookedbright:

Longbeforethenextcenturydawns,systematicreforestationandthescientificmanagementofnaturalresourceswillhavemadeanendofalldevastatingdroughts,forestfires,andfloods.Theuniversalutilizationofwaterpoweranditslong-distancetransmissionwillsupplyeveryhouseholdwithcheappowerandwilldispensewiththenecessityofburningfuel.Thestruggleforexistencebeinglessened,thereshouldbedevelopmentalongidealratherthanmateriallines.

What’smore,theworkwouldbedonebyrobots,somethingTeslahadbeenworkingonfornearly40years.

Atpresentwesufferfromthederangementofourcivilizationbecausewehavenotyetcompletelyadjustedourselvestothemachineage.Thesolutionofourproblemsdoesnotlieindestroyingbutinmasteringthemachine.

Innumerableactivitiesstillperformedbyhumanhandstodaywillbeperformed

byautomatons.AtthisverymomentscientistsworkinginthelaboratoriesofAmericanuniversitiesareattemptingtocreatewhathasbeendescribedasa‘thinkingmachine’.Ianticipatedthisdevelopment.

Iactuallyconstructed‘robots’.Todaytherobotisanacceptedfact,buttheprinciplehasnotbeenpushedfarenough.Inthe21stcenturytherobotwilltaketheplacewhichslavelabouroccupiedinancientcivilization.Thereisnoreasonatallwhymostofthisshouldnotcometopassinlessthanacentury,freeingmankindtopursueitshigheraspirations.

FragmentsofOlympianGossipUndertheinfluenceofViereck,Tesla,whowasalwayscompetitive,wroteapoemcallFragmentsofOlympianGossip,pokingfunatthescientificestablishment:

Whilelisteningonmycosmicphone

IcaughtwordsfromtheOlympusblown.

Anewcomerwasshownaround;

ThatmuchIcouldguess,aidedbysound.

There’sArchimedeswithhislever

Stillbusyonproblemsasever.

Says:matterandforcearetransmutable

Andwrongthelawsyouthoughtimmutable.

Below,onEarth,theyworkatfullblast

Andnewsarecominginthickandfast.

Thelatesttellsofacosmicgun.

Tobepeltedisverypoorfun.

Wearewarywithsomuchatstake,

Thosebeggarsareapest–nomistake.

Toobad,SirIsaac,theydimmedyourrenown

Andturnedyourgreatscienceupsidedown.

Nowalonghairedcrank,Einsteinbyname,

Putsonyourhighteachingalltheblame.

Says:matterandforcearetransmutable

Andwrongthelawsyouthoughtimmutable.

Iammuchtooignorant,myson,

Forgraspingschemessofinelyspun.

Myfollowersareofstrongermind

AndIamcontenttostaybehind,

PerhapsIfailed,butIdidmybest,

Thesemastersofminemaydotherest.

Come,Kelvin,Ihavefinishedmycup.

WhenisyourfriendTeslacomingup.

Oh,quothKelvin,heisalwayslate,

Itwouldbeuselesstoremonstrate.

Thensilence–shuffleofsoftslipperedfeet–

Iknockand–thebedlamofthestreet.

WorldWarIITeslawasgrowingfeeble,butwiththehelpofhisnephewSavaKosanovichewroteaforewordtoaSerbo-CroateditionofTheFutureoftheCommonManby

thethenVice-PresidentHenryWallace(1888–1965).Init,hesaid:‘Outofthiswar,thegreatestsincethebeginningofhistory,anewworldmustbebornthatwouldjustifythesacrificesofferedbyhumanity,wheretherewillbenohumiliationofthepoorbytheviolenceoftherich;wheretheproductsofintellect,scienceandartwillservesocietyforthebettermentandbeautificationoflife,andnottheindividualsforachievingwealth.Thisnewworldshallbeaworldoffreemenandfreenations,equalindignityandrespect.’

WhiletheregentofYugoslavia,PrincePaul(1893–1976),soughttomakeatreatywiththeNazis,KingPeter(1923–70)opposedit.Whenhecameofageat17,Germanyinvadedandthekingwentintoexile.SavaKosanovicwentwithhim.However,hebegantofavourtheCommunistguerrillaleaderJosipBrozTito(1892–1980),whotheBritishandAmericanswerealsoreluctantlybacking.However,intheUS,KosanovicbroughtKingPetertoTesla’shotel.InhisdiaryKingPeterwrote:

IvisitedDrNikolaTesla,theworld-famousYugoslav-Americanscientist,inhisapartmentintheHotelNewYorker.AfterIhadgreetedhimtheagedscientistsaid:‘Itismygreatesthonour.Iamgladyouareinyouryouth,andIamcontentthatyouwillbeagreatruler.IbelieveIwillliveuntilyoucomebacktoafreeYugoslavia.Fromyourfatheryouhavereceivedhislastwords:“GuardYugoslavia.”IamproudtobeaSerbianandaYugoslav.Ourpeoplecannotperish.PreservetheunityofallYugoslavs–theSerbs,theCroatsandtheSlovenes.’

Thetwoofthemweptoverthefateoftheirhomeland.

GeneroustotheEndAlthoughTeslawasdoggedbyhisownfinancialproblems,hewasgeneroustotheend.Afewdaysbeforehedied,hecalledoneofhisfavouritemessengerboys,aladnamedKerrigan,andgavehimanenvelope,addressedto:MrSamuelClemens,35SouthFifthAvenue,NewYorkCity.Hetoldhimitwastobedeliveredasquicklyaspossible.Afterawhiletheboyreturned,sayingthattherewasnosuchstreetasSouthFifthAvenue.Teslawasfurious.MrClemenswasaveryfamousauthorwhowroteunderthenameofMarkTwain,hetoldKerrigan,andtheaddresshehadgivenwascorrect.

Kerrigantriedagain.Andwhenhehadnoluckhereportedtohisofficemanager,whoquicklyspottedtheboy’sdifficulty.SouthFifthAvenuehadchangeditsnametoWestBroadwayyearsbeforeandMarkTwainhadbeendeadover30years.TheaddressTeslahadgivenhimwasthatofhislaboratorythathadburntdown.KerriganreturnedtoTeslatoexplainhisdifficulties.TeslawasoutragedwhentheboytoldhimthatMarkTwainwasdead.‘Hewasinmyroomherelastnight,’Teslainsisted.‘Heishavingfinancialdifficultiesandneedsmyhelp.’Andhesenttheboytodelivertheenvelopeagain.ConfusedKerriganreturnedtohismanagerwhoopenedtheenvelopetoseewhetheritcontainedanycluetowhereitshouldbedelivered.Allthatwasinsidewasablankpieceofpaperand$100in$5bills.WhenKerriganreturnedtheenvelopetoTeslayetagain,theinventortoldhimthat,ifhecouldnotdeliverthemoney,heshouldkeepit.

Atthesametime,whileTeslacouldnotpaythe$297forhispossessionsthatwerebeingkeptinstorage,hesentachequefor$500toaSerbianChurchinGary,Indiana.Tesla’sbiographerJohnJ.O’NeillsawanadvertisementforTesla’spossessionsthatwerebeingsoldoffbythestoragecompanytocoverthebillandcontactedtheinventor’snephewSavaKosanovicwhopaidthebill,preventingthelossofTesla’spricelesspapers.

TheSlightHintofaSmileDuringthelatterpartof1942,Teslabecamepracticallyarecluse.Physicallyweak,heretiredtobedandpermittednovisitors.Hotelstaffwerenottovisithisroomunlesshesummonedthemandherefusedtolistentoanysuggestionthattheycalladoctor.On5January1943,hecalledamaidtohisroomandissuedordersthathewasnottobedisturbed.Nothingwasheardfromhimforthreedays.Finallythemaiddecidedtoriskhiswrathandcheckuponhim.Sheenteredtheroomintrepidationandfoundhimdead,withtheslighthintofasmileonhisgauntface.

Ashehaddiedalonewithoutmedicalattention,thepolicewerecalled.TheMedicalExaminerputthetimeofdeathas10.30pmonThursday7January,justafewhoursbeforethemaid’searlymorningvisit.Teslahaddiedinhissleep.ThecauseofdeathwasgivenascoronarythrombosisandtheMedicalExaminernotedthattherewere‘Nosuspiciouscircumstances.’

AgentsfromtheFBIcametoopenthesafeinTesla’sroomandreadhispapers

incasetherewasanythinginthemthatmightaidthewareffort.However,HugoGernsback,KennethSwezey,SavaKosanovicandGeorgeClarkofRCAhadalreadyenteredtheapartment.WhileGernsbackwenttoorganizeadeathmask,theotherthreehadthesafeopenedbyalocksmithwithrepresentativesofthehotelmanagementpresent.TheFBIsaidthatvaluablepapersweretaken.However,thehotelmanagementsaidthatKosanoviconlytookthreepicturesandSwezeytookthetestimonialbookcreatedforTesla’s75thbirthday.However,Kosanovicwassurethatsomeonehadalreadygonethroughhisuncle’seffects.Technicalpapersweremissing,alongwithablacknotebookheknewthatTeslakept.Itcontainedseveralhundredpagesofnotes,someofwhichweremarked‘government’.

StateFuneralTheYugoslavambassadorDrConstantinFotitchlaidonastatefuneralforTeslaattheCathedralofStJohntheDivine.Over2,000mournerswerepresent,includingotherinventors.WhilethechurchwasEpiscopalian,theservicewasOrthodoxandconductedinSerbian.ThehonorarypallbearersincludedDrErnstAlexandersonofGeneralElectricwhopatentedahigh-frequencytransmitter,EdwinArmstrong,fatherofFMradio,GanoDunn,presidentofJ.G.WhiteEngineeringwhohadbeenTesla’sassistantathisground-breakinglectureatColumbia,andrepresentativesfromWestinghouse,ColumbiaUniversityandtheHaydenPlanetariumwhereTeslawouldoftengotomeditate.AnumberofYugoslavministerswerethere.KingPeterIIofYugoslaviasentawreathandthechiefmournerwasTesla’snephewSavaKosanovic,whowasbythenpresidentoftheEasternandCentralEuropeanPlanningBoard,representingYugoslavia,Czechoslovakia,PolandandGreece.LaterhebecameYugoslavambassadortotheUS.

Scientistspaidtributetohisintellectandtechnologicalachievements,andtelegramsofcondolencecamefromNobelPrizewinners,prominentscientists,literaryfiguresandUSofficials.AmessagefromMrsEleanorRooseveltread:‘ThePresidentandIaredeeplysorrytohearofthedeathofMrNikolaTesla.Wearegratefulforhiscontributiontoscienceandindustryandtothiscountry.’

Vice-PresidentHenryWallacepaidamorepersonaltribute:‘NikolaTesla,Yugoslavborn,solivedhislifeastomakeitanoutstandingexampleofthat

powerthatmakestheUnitedStatesnotmerelyanEnglish-speakingnationbutanationwithuniversalappeal.InNikolaTesla’sdeaththecommonmanlosesoneofhisbestfriends.’

OvertheradioNewYorkMayorFiorelloLaGuardia(1882–1947)readaeulogywrittenbySloveneauthorLouisAdamic.Aftertheservice,Tesla’sbodywastakentoFerncliffCemeteryinArdsley,NewYork,andwaslatercremated.

TributestoTeslaTeslahadalwaysbeenlovedbythepopularpressforhisshockingexperimentsandoutrageouspronouncements.Onhisdeath,theNewYorkSunwrote:

MrTeslawas86yearsoldwhenhedied.Hediedalone.Hewasaneccentric,whateverthatmeans.Anon-conformist,possibly.Atanyrate,hewouldleavehisexperimentsandgoforatimetofeedthesillyandinconsequentialpigeonsinHeraldSquare.Hedelightedintalkingnonsense;orwasit?Grantingthathewasadifficultmantodealwith,andthatsometimeshispredictionswouldaffronttheordinaryhuman’sintelligence,here,still,wasanextraordinarymanofgenius.Hemusthavebeen.Hewasseeingaglimpseintothatconfusedandmysteriousfrontierwhichdividestheknownandtheunknown...ButtodaywedoknowthatTesla,theostensiblyfoolisholdgentlemanattimeswastryingwithsuperbintelligencetofindtheanswers.Probablyweshallappreciatehimbetterafewmillionyearsfromnow.

Moretributescamerollingin.HugoGernsbackwrote:‘Wecannotknow,butitmaybethatalongtimefromnow,whenpatternshavechanged,thecriticswilltakeaviewofhistory.TheywillbracketTeslawithDaVinci,orwithourownMrFranklin…Onethingissure.Theworld,aswerunittoday,didnotappreciatehispeculiargreatness.’

ThePresidentofRCADavidSarnoffsaid:‘NikolaTesla’sachievementsinelectricalsciencearemonumentsthatsymbolizeAmericaasalandoffreedomandopportunity…Hisnovelideasofgettingtheetherinvibrationputhimonthefrontierofwireless.Tesla’smindwasahumandynamothatwhirledtobenefitmankind.’

EdwinArmstrong,whowentontosueRCAforinfringinghispatents,said:

WhotodaycanreadacopyofTheInventions,ResearchesandWritingsofNikolaTesla,publishedbeforetheturn-of-the-century,withoutbeingfascinatedbythebeautyoftheexperimentsdescribedandstruckwithadmirationforTesla’sextraordinaryinsightintothenatureofthephenomenawithwhichhewasdealing?Whonowcanrealizethedifficultieshemusthavehadtoovercomeinthoseearlydays?Butonecanimaginetheinspirationaleffectofthebook40yearsagoonaboyabouttodecidetostudytheelectricalart.Itseffectwasbothprofoundanddecisive.

NinemonthsafterTesla’sdeaththeUSSNikolaTesla–aLibertyship,vitaltotheAlliedwareffort–waslaunchedinBaltimore.

TheMissingPapersThepapersfromthesafeinTesla’sroomwerelodgedwiththeOfficeofAlienProperty.ThiswasunusualasTeslawasaUScitizen.ThedayafterTesladiedAbrahamN.Spanel,thedesigneroffloatingpontoonstretchers,gotintouchwithFBIagentFredrichCornelsabouttheTeslapapers,fearingthat,viaKosanovic,theymightfallintoCommunisthands.BeforehehadstartedtheInternationalLatexCompanyofDover,Delaware(wholatermadespacesuits),SpanelhadworkedasanelectricalengineerandconsideredthatsomeofTesla’sunmadeinventionsmightplayavitalroleinthewar.Hemadewavesinhighplaces,contactingothersintheWhiteHouseandtheFBI.

SpanelalsogotintouchwiththeyoungelectricalengineerBloyceFitzgeraldwhohadalsocontactedCornels.FitzgeraldhadbeenwritingtoTeslaforsometime.FinallyhegottomeetTeslajustafewweeksbeforehisdeath.Atthetime,FitzgeraldwasattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyworkingonthe‘dissipationofenergyfromrapid-fireweapons’.AroundthesametimeTeslahadcomplainedthatsomeonehadbeentryingtostealhisinvention.Hisroomhadbeenenteredandhispapersexamined,but‘thespieshadleftemptyhanded,’hesaid.

FitzgeraldtoldCornelsthat,amongTesla’spapers,werecompleteplansforhisdeathbeam,alongwithspecificationsandexplanationsofhowthethingworked.Therewasalso‘aworkingmodel…whichcostmorethan$10,000tobuildinasafetydepositboxofTesla’sattheGovernorClintonHotel’.

CharlesHausler,oneofTesla’spigeonhandlers,alsosaidthatTeslakeptalargeboxinhisroomnearhispigeoncages.‘Hetoldmetobeverycarefulnottodisturbtheboxasitcontainedsomethingthatcoulddestroyanairplaneintheskyandhehadhopesofpresentingittotheworld,’Hauslersaid.

TrunksFullofAlienPropertyAccordingtoFitzgerald,Teslahadclaimedthathehadsome80trunksinvariousplacesaroundthecity.ItwasvitalforthewareffortthatthegovernmentgettheirhandsontheTeslapapers.HealsoexpresseddoubtsabouttheloyaltyofnephewsSavaKosanovicandNicholasTrbojevich.TherewaseventalkofhavingKosanovicandSwezeyarrestedfortheft,butasthepaperswerenowwiththeOfficeofAlienProperty,thisseemedunnecessary.

Cornels’bossP.E.Foxworth,assistantdirectoroftheNewYorkFBIoffice,wascalledintoinvestigate.Thegovernment,hesaid,was‘vitallyinterested’inpreservingTesla’spapers.

ThelegalityoftheOAPholdingontoTesla’spaperswasquestionable.AlthoughlegaltitlehadfallentoKosanovic,whowasaforeigner,thegovernmentagencywasnotpermittedtoseize‘enemyassets’withoutacourtorder.NeverthelessAlienPropertycustodianIrvingJurowgotacallorderinghimtoimpoundallofTesla’sbelongingsashewasreputedtohaveinventedadeathraythatdisintegratedenemyplanesintheskyandGermanagentswereafterit.AlongwithagentsfromNavalIntelligence,ArmyIntelligenceandtheFBI,JurowvisitedtheHotelNewYorker,theGovernorClinton,theStRegis,theWaldorf-AstoriaandthestoragefacilitywhereTeslahadkepttherestofhisthings.PapersinpossessionofJohnJ.O’Neill,whowaspreparingabiographyofTesla,werealsoconfiscated.Thesewereperusedbyvariousbranchesofthemilitary.

DrJohnG.Trump,anelectricalengineerwiththeNationalDefenseResearchCommitteeoftheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment,wasalsocalledtoanalyzetheTeslapapersinOAPcustody.Followingathree-dayinvestigation,DrTrumpconcludedthatTesla’s‘thoughtsandeffortsduringatleastthepast15yearswereprimarilyofaspeculative,philosophical,andsomewhatpromotionalcharacteroftenconcernedwiththeproductionandwirelesstransmissionofpower;butdidnotincludenew,sound,workableprinciplesormethodsforrealizingsuchresults’.However,inhisreport,he

admitsthathehadnotbotheredtoopenmanyofthetrunks,soconfidentwashethatnothingofvaluewouldbefound.

TheParticleBeamHowever,amongthepaperswasthestillunpublished‘TheNewArtofProjectingConcentratedNon-DispersiveEnergyThroughNaturalMedia’.ThiswasclassifiedtopsecretanddistributedtoNavalIntelligence,theNationalDefenseResearchCouncil,theFBI,MIT,Wright-PattersonAirForceBase–wheretheV1flyingbombwasreverseengineered–and,probably,theWhiteHouse.

Thepaperdescribedindetailthenewfeatures,includinghowtocreateanon-dispersivebeamofparticles:

Iperfectedmeansforincreasingenormouslytheintensityoftheeffects,butwasbaffledinallmyeffortstomateriallyreducedispersionandbecamefullyconvincedthatthishandicapcouldonlybeovercomebyconveyingthepowerthroughthemediumofsmallparticlesprojected,atprodigiousvelocity,fromthetransmitter.Electro-staticrepulsionwastheonlymeanstothisendandapparatusofstupendousforcewouldhavetobedeveloped,butgrantedthatsufficientspeedandenergycouldberealizedwithasinglerowofminutebodiesthentherewouldbenodispersionwhateverevenatgreatdistance.Sincethecrosssectionofthecarriersmightbereducedtoalmostmicroscopicdimensionsanimmenseconcentrationofenergy,irrespectiveofdistance,couldbeattained.

Thentherewasadiagramoftheopen-endedvacuumwhere,hesaid:

ItwillbeobservedthatinthistubeIdoawaywiththesolidwallorwindowindispensableinalltypesheretoforeemployed,producingthehighvacuumrequiredandpreventingtheinrushoftheairbyagaseousjetofhighvelocity.Evidently,tosecurethisresult,thedynamicpressureofthejetmustbeatleastequaltotheexternalstaticpressure.

Thehigh-potentialgenerator,creatingachargeofupto100millionvolts,workedontheprincipleofaVandeGraafgenerator–withthebeltreplacedbyahigh-speedstreamofionizedair.Thechargeswouldbestoredinspeciallyshapedbulbsaroundthetopofa100ft(30m)tower.Inthesuper-gunitself,

tungstenwirewouldbefedintothehigh-vacuumfiringchamber.Underthehugeelectrostaticforcesgenerated,tinydropletsofmetalwouldbeshearedoffandprojectedoutofthechamberatover400,000feetpersecond(120kmpersecond).

JohnTrumpalsowenttotheHotelGovernorClintontoexaminetheworkingmodelthatTeslahadsaidheleftthere.Teslahadtoldthemanagementthattheboxcontainingasecretweaponthatwasriggedtodetonateifitwasopenedbyanunauthorizedperson.Trumpapproachedwithtrepidation.Allhefoundinsidewas‘amulti-decaderesistanceboxofthetypeusedforWheatstonebridgeresistancemeasurements–acommonstandarditemtobefoundineveryelectricallaboratorybeforetheturnofthecentury’.Trumptooknofurtherinterest.

TheVanishingDeathRayIn1937,Teslahadclaimedthathehadbuilthisdeathbeam,saying:‘Itisnotanexperiment.Ihavebuilt,demonstratedandusedit.OnlyalittletimewillpassbeforeIcangiveittotheworld.’Atthetime,hedidhavetwosecretlabswherejournalistswerenotallowed.

MrsCzito,whosehusband’sfatherandgrandfatherbothworkedforTesla,saidthatherfather-in-lawsaidTeslahadadevicethatcouldbounceabeamofftheMoon.ThereisalsoastorythatthedeBobuladesignwastakentoAlcoaAluminiumwhosaidtheywouldfurnishthematerialrequiredoncethecapitalhadbeenraised.

Thereis,ofcourse,aconspiracytheorytoaccountforthemissingmodel.WhenthesafeinTesla’sroomwasopened,thelocksmithwasaskedtochangethecombination.Insidethesafe,whenitwaslockedagain,wasasetofkeysandTesla’s1917EdisonMedal.ThenewcombinationwasgiventoKosanovicandnooneelse.WhenthesafewasfinallyshippedtoBelgradeandopenedsome10yearslater,themedalandthekeysweremissing.Themedalhasneverbeenfound,butthekeyswerefoundinoneofthenumerouscasesofdocumentsthataccompaniedthesafeintheshipment.

AccordingtotheOfficeofAlienProperty,thetworepresentativesofthehotelmanagementwhowerepresentwereMrL.O.Doty,creditmanager,andMrL.A.

Fitzgerald,assistantcreditmanager.WehavealreadymetBloyceFitzgeraldinconnectionwithTesla,butTesla’sbiographerMarcSeiferhasalsounearthedaletterfromaColonelRalphE.Doty,chiefoftheWashingtonBranchoftheMilitaryIntelligenceService.Dated22January1946,itisaddressedtotheAlienPropertyCustodianandreads:

DearSir:ThisofficeisinreceiptofacommunicationfromHeadquarters,AirTechnicalServiceCommand,WrightField,requestingthatweascertainthewhereaboutsofthefilesofthelatescientist,DrNikolaTesla,whichmaycontaindataofgreatvaluetotheaboveHeadquarters.Ithasbeenindicatedthatyourofficemighthavethesefilesincustody.Ifthisistrue,wewouldliketorequestyourconsentforarepresentativeoftheAirTechnicalServiceCommandtoreviewthem.Inviewoftheextremeimportanceofthesefilestotheabovecommand,wewouldliketorequestthatwebeadvisedofanyattemptbyanyotheragencytoobtainthem.Becauseoftheurgencyofthismatter,thiscommunicationwillbedeliveredtoyoubyaLiaisonOfficerofthisofficeinthehopeofexpeditingthesolicitedinformation.

IftheFitzgeraldandDotyattheopeningofthesafeweregovernmentagents,theymighteasilyhavegotholdofthecombinationandthekeys.ItseemsthatSpanelwasalreadyundersurveillancebytheFBIforhispro-Communistsympathies.InNovember1942,hemetFitzgeraldatanengineeringmeeting,shortlybeforeTesla’sdeath.AtthetimeFitzgeraldwasanarmyprivateatWrightField.TheFBIreportlaterdescribeshimas‘abrilliant20-year-oldscientistwhospenthourswithTeslabeforehisdeath…Fitzgeraldhaddevelopedsomesortofanti-tankgun’.SpaneltriedtoformapartnershipwithFitzgeraldtoselltheweapontotheRemingtonArmsCompany,butthedealfellthroughwhenamorelucrativeoffercamefromtheEiogensShipBuildingCompany.

FitzgeraldwasfiredbyEiogensinNovember1943andreturnedtoWrightFieldasaprivate.AccordingtohisFBIfile,in1945,hewas‘engagedinahighlysecretexperimentalprojectatWrightField…Inspiteofhisrankasprivate,Fitzgeraldisactuallydirectorofthisresearchandisworkingwithmanytopyoungscientists…ontheperfectionofTesla’s‘deathray’whichinFitzgerald’sopinionistheonlydefenceagainsttheoffensiveusebyanothernationoftheatomicbomb.’

ThefilesthatColonelDotyrequesteddidfindtheirwaytoWrightFieldbecause,on24October1947,theDirectoroftheOfficeofAlienPropertywrotetothecommandingofficeroftheAirTechnicalServiceCommand,askingforthemback.Thefollowingmonth,aColonelDuffywroteback,saying:‘ThesereportsarenowinthepossessionoftheElectronicSubdivisionandarebeingevaluated.ThisshouldbecompletedbyJanuary1,1948.Atthattimeyourofficewillbecontactedwithrespecttofinaldispositionofthesepapers.’

BelgradeBoundIn1946,SavaKosanovichadbecomeYugoslavianambassadortotheUSaftertheUSrecognizedTito’sCommunistgovernment.Butby1950,hewasstillnotallowedaccesstoTesla’seffects.Hemadeofficialrepresentationsandin1952,80trunkscontainingTesla’spapers,equipmentandotherbelongingswereshippedtoBelgrade.Fiveyearslater,Tesla’sashesfollowed.IntheTeslaMuseumtheywereplacedinasphericalurnasthiswasTesla’sfavouriteshape.

ThisdidnotstopAmericanScientistbeinginterestedinTesla’spapers.RegularlyindividualscontactedtheFBIwhowerethoughttohavemademicrofilmcopiesofeverythingsenttoYugoslavia.Inthe1970s,itwasthoughtthatTesla’sfireballsmightbeawayofcontainingnuclearfusion.DuringtheColdWar,bothsidesagaininvestigatedthepossibilityofmakingaparticlebeamtodisableincomingnuclearmissiles.NaturallyTesla’sworkwouldhavebeenastartingpoint.

In1977,AviationWeek&SpaceTechnologypublishedanarticlecalledSovietsPushforBeamWeapon.Init,theretiredheadofAirForceIntelligence,GeneralGeorgeJ.KeegansaidthattheSovietUnionwasattemptingtodevelopacharge-particlebeamatthetestfacilitynearthecityofSemipalatinskinKazakhstan.TheeditorofAviationWeek,RobertHoltzsaid:

TheSovietUnionhasachievedatechnicalbreakthroughinhigh-energyphysicsapplicationsthatmaysoonprovideitwithadirected-energybeamweaponcapableofneutralizingtheentireUnitedStatesballisticmissileforceandcheckmatingthiscountry’sstrategicdoctrine…Theracetoperfectdirected-energyweaponsisareality.Despiteinitialskepticism,theUSscientificcommunityisnowpressuringforacceleratedeffortsinthisarea.

ThenewsgotthroughtotheWhiteHouse,butPresidentJimmyCarter(1924–)said:‘Wedonotseeanylikelihoodatall,basedonourconstantmonitoringoftheSovietUnion,thattheyhaveanyprospectivebreakthroughinanewweaponssystemthatwouldendangerourcountry.’

Nevertheless,undertheCarteradministration,workbeganonamajorspace-basedlaserprogramme.UnderthedirectionoftheDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,theALPHAchemicallaserprojectwasbegunin1978.ContractsfortheTALONGOLDtargetingsystemwereawardedin1979,andtheLargeOpticsDemonstrationExperiment(LODE)startedin1980.TheseprogrammesformedthebasisfortheStrategicDefenseInitiative–aka‘StarWars’–announcedbyPresidentRonaldReagan(1911–2004)in1983.SDIaddedX-raylasersandneutralparticlebeams,allofwhichwerereminiscentofTesla’s‘Chinesewall’.Whilethisworkwasgoingon,freshapplicationsweremadetotheFBItoreleaseanycopiesoftheTeslafilestheyhad,ifonlytoknowwhattheSovietsmayhadlearnedaboutbeamweaponsinBelgrade.

However,afterthecollapseoftheSovietUnionitwasdiscoveredthatthetestsiteoutsideSemipalatinskwasnotworkingonabeamweaponatall,butratheronnuclear-poweredrockets.JohnPike,defenceanalystattheFederationofAmericanScientists,saidthatthemisidentificationoftheSemipalatinsktestsite‘mustrankasoneofthemajorintelligencefailuresoftheColdWar’.

Chapter16–PosthumousRecognitionImisunderstoodTesla.IthinkweallmisunderstoodTesla.Wethoughthewasadreamerandvisionary.Hediddreamandhisdreamscametrue,hedidhavevisionsbuttheywereofarealfuture,notanimaginaryone.

JohnStoneStone

In1943–afewmonthsafterTesla’sdeath–theUSSupremeCourtupheldTesla’sradiopatentnumber645,576.TheCourthadaselfishreasonfordoingso.TheMarconiCompanywassuingtheUnitedStatesGovernmentforuseofitspatentsinWorldWarI.TheCourtsimplyavoidedtheactionbyrestoringthepriorityofTesla’spatentoverMarconi.Nevertheless,itre-establishedthesituationthathadapplied40yearsearlierwhenTeslawasrecognizedastheinventorofradiowhosepatentshadbeeninfringedbyMarconi.

In1956,theNobellaureateNielsBohr(1885–1962),fatherofquantumphysics,spokeatacentennialcongressheldinTesla’shonour.InYugoslavia,acommemorativestampwasissued.Teslaappearedonthe100dinarnoteandthe‘Tesla’becametheunitofmagneticfluxdensity.Theasteroid2244TeslawasnamedbySerbianastronomerMiloradProticinBelgradewhenhediscoverediton22October1952.TheTeslaCrateronthefarsideoftheMoonwasnamedafterhimwhenfiveLunarOrbitersphotographedtheothersidein1966and1967.TheIEEEhaspresentedtheNikolaTeslaAwardforoutstandingcontributionstothegenerationorutilizationofelectricpowerannuallysince1976.NikolaTeslaCornerislocatedintheheartofManhattan,atthecornerofWest40thStreetand6thAvenueremindingNewYorkersthatthegreatmanusedtoroamthoseverystreets.NiagaraFallsalsocelebratesthelegendaryinventorwithtwomonuments,oneonGoatIslandwasunveiledin1976,whilein2006astatueofTeslastandingonanACmotorwaserectedinQueenVictoriaParkontheCanadiansideofthefalls.Finally,backinSerbia,BelgradeInternationalAirportwasrenamedBelgradeNikolaTeslaAirportin2006.

Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyTeslawasoverlookedbythehistorybooks.UnlikeMarconiandEdison,hedidnothavelargecompaniesnamedafterhim.Westinghousecouldhavehonouredhim,butnotunnaturallytheygivetheirplauditstoGeorgeWestinghousehimself.AlsounlikeWestinghouse,EdisonandtheWrightBrothers,TeslawasnotborninAmericasohecouldnotbeseenasashiningexampleof‘Yankeeingenuity’.ThosegreatAmericanswerealsoseenaspracticalmenwhomadethingsthatordinarypeoplecouldunderstand.FewpeopleinthegeneralpopulaceunderstandwhatACis,howaninductionmotorworksorwhattheprinciplesbehindthepropagationofradiowavesare.

WithTesla’sseeminglyscience-fictionideastowardstheendofhislife,hewasseenasamysticand,morethananything,theultimatemadscientistwithhismiddle-Europeanaccentandhiseccentricpersonalhabits.However,inthe1950s,Tesla’sfamegrewintheburgeoningcounter-culture.AnelectricalengineernameArthurH.MatthewsclaimedtohavemadeaTeslascopetocommunicatewiththeinhabitantsofotherplanets.HesaidthatTeslawasaVenusianbornonaspaceshiptravellingfromVenustoEarthinJuly1856,revealingallinWallofLight:NikolaTeslaandtheVenusianSpaceship.In1959,MargaretStormpublishedtheoccultbiographyofTesla,ReturnoftheDove.Herstoryalsoinvolvedflyingsaucerswhichwereverymuchinvogue.

Inthe1970s,RalphBergstresser,whohadknownTeslaforthelast6monthsofhislife,produced‘TeslaPlates’whicharemarketedbytheSwissTeslaInstitute.These,insomefashion,aresupposedtotapintotheenergyoftheuniverse.AsTesla’sideas,especiallyinlaterlife,drewonthinkingfromboththeEastandtheWest,hebecameofinteresttoNewAgethinkers.Hisstriking,dark,middle-Europeanlooksandhisdevelopmentofwillpoweralsoappealed.

Withtheenergycrisisofthe1970s,Tesla’sideaoffreeenergyhadrenewedappealandaresearchernamedRobertGolkatriedtorecreateTesla’sColoradoexperiments.In1984,thefirstInternationalTeslaSymposiumwasheldinColoradoSprings.Thegroupmetannuallyforthenext14years.ItspawnedtheInternationalTeslaSocietywhosemembershipgrewto7,000worldwide,butitwentbustin1998.DevoteeshavefoundnewhomesintheTeslaMemorialSocietyofNewYork,theTeslaEngineBuildersAssociationandtheTeslaUniversewebsite.Teslaandhisinventionsstillfascinatefansofsciencefictionandcomputergames,andhehasbeencelebratedindocumentariesonhislifeandtheWaroftheCurrentsonAmerica’sPBSandtheBBC.

In2003,TeslaMotorsbeganproducingelectricvehiclesinCalifornia,usingenginesbasedonTesla’sdesigns.TheyarenowquotedontheNASDAQstockexchangeandhaveaEuropeanHeadquartersatMaidenheadintheUK.

TeslaMagazinewaslaunchedon10July2013.Atthesametime,theTeslaScienceFoundationjoinedforceswithBelgrade’sNikolaTeslaMuseumtocreateatravellingexhibitioncalledTesla’sWonderfulWorldofElectricitywhichtouredtheUnitedStatesandCanada.ItsaimwastogetTeslatherecognitionhedeservesinAmerica.Withnewmoviesbeingmadeabouthislife,itispossiblethatitisnottoolate–thisgoalmaystillbeachieved.

Appendixes

ElectrifyingScienceFacts.........................................................ElectricalSciencein1875TheancientGreeksdiscoveredthatyoucouldproducestaticelectricitybyrubbingamberwithsilk.Inthe18thcentury,scientistssuchastheAmericanBenjaminFranklin(1706–90)andtheBritonHenryCavendish(1731–1810)madeasystematicstudyofthephenomenon.

In1791,theItalianLuigiGalvani(1737–98)discoveredelectricityinanimaltissuewhenhesawafrog’slegtwitchwhentouchedbytwodifferentmetals.ThisledhisfriendAlessandroVolta(1745–1827)tomakethefirstelectricbatteryin1800.

DanishphysicistHansChristianØrsted(1777–1851)discoveredtherelationshipbetweenelectricityandmagnetismin1820whenhesawacompassneedlebeingdeflectedwhenanelectriccurrentwasturnedonandoff.FrenchphysicistAndré-MarieAmpère(1775–1836)developedthisintothescienceofelectrodynamics.

In1831,BritishscientistMichaelFaraday(1791–1867)demonstratedthelawsofelectromagneticinduction,producingacurrentinacoilbymovingamagnetbackandforthinsideit.Thisledtothedevelopmentofboththeelectricmotorandthegeneratorwherecoilsofwireweremountedinarotor,orarmature,withinamagneticfield.

Asthemagneticeffectisonlyapparentwhenthecurrentisturnedonandoff,anelectricmotorhasacommutator–thatis,asplitringwithelectricalcontact,orbrushes,restingoneitherside.Asthemotorturns,contactsswitch,reversingthecurrentflowinthecoil.Similarly,ageneratorneedsacommutatortopreventthecurrentreversingastherotorturns.<Back>

TheGrammeDynamoWiththerapiddevelopmentofthetelegraphsysteminthe1840sand1850s,whatwasneededwasdirectcurrent(DC)thatflowedinonlyonedirection.This

isthetypenormallyproducedbybatteries.

Evenwithacommutator,introducedbyParisianinstrument-makerHippolytePixii(1808–35)in1832,thecurrentdeliveredbyagenerator,whilenotreversing,wasnotsmoothandconstantlikethatfromabattery.Itbuildstoapeakthendropsbacktozeroagain.However,BelgianelectricalengineerZénobe-ThéophileGramme(1826–1901)demonstratedhisGrammedynamoattheFrenchAcademyofSciencesin1871.Byincreasingthenumberofcoilsontherotorandthenumberofsectionsonthecommutator,itcouldproduceanearconstantdirectcurrent.

ShownattheInternationalExhibitioninVienna,oneGrammedynamowasconnectedtoanotheronewhichactedasamotor.Untilthen,motorshadonlybeenpoweredbyexpensivebatteries.Gramme’sbusinesspartner,FrenchengineerHippolyteFontaine(1833–1910)haddemonstratedthatpowercouldbetransmittedfromoneplacetoanotherwithouttheinefficientshafts,belt,chainsorropesusedtoconnectsteamenginestomachines–withobviousadvantagesforindustry.<Back>

WhatisAlternatingCurrent?Theelectricityfromabattery,lightningoraVandeGraafgeneratorthatproducesastaticchargeisdirectcurrent.Itflowsinonlyonedirection.Alternatingcurrentflowsinonedirection,thentheother.Itcyclesthroughpeaksandtroughsasitchangesdirection.

Withadirectcurrent,whenaswitchisthrownamagneticfieldbuildsuparoundthewire,inducingacurrentinanyconductornearby.Thisonlyoccurswhenthefieldisbuildinguporwhenthefieldcollapseswhenthecurrentisswitchedoff.Withanalternatingcurrent,theelectriccurrentiseffectivelybeingswitchedonandoffallthetime,inducinganalternatingcurrentinthesecondaryconductor.Thispropertyisutilizedinaninductionmotor,whereacurrentisinducedinsecondarycoilsontherotor,andinatransformer,wherethevoltageissteppedupanddown.<Back>

PearlStreetPowerStation

Thefirstelectriclightswerearc-lampsthatgaveofflightfromelectricsparks.Butin1879,Edisoncameupwiththeimprovedincandescentlamp.Arclampshadbeenconnectedinseries–ifonefailed,allofthemwentout.Edisonconnectedhislampsinparallel,soeachfaultybulbcouldbereplacedindividually.Thishadcreatedanastonishingdemandforelectricpower.EdisonbuilthisfirstDCpowerstationonPearlStreetinlowerManhattanin1882,initiallytopower400lampsownedby85customers.Itquicklybecameamonopolyandby1884itwasserving508customerswith10,164lamps.Theelectricitywascarriedabovegroundonpoleswithdozensofcrookedcrossbeamssupportingsaggingwires.Theexposedelectricalwiringwasaconstantdangerandunsuspectingchildrenclimbingthepoleswouldsufferlethalelectricshocks.Inspiteoftheperils,wealthyNewYorkersrushedtohavetheirhomeswired,themostimportantbeingthebanker,J.P.Morgan,whohadinvestedheavilyinEdison.<Back>

TheTransformerThetransformerusesthesameprinciplesofelectromagneticinductionemployedinelectricmotorsandgenerators.Twocoilsofwirearewoundaroundasingleironcore.Whenanelectricalcurrentispassedthroughoneofthem,itmagnetizestheironcore.This,inturn,inducesanelectriccurrentintheotherone.Thevoltageissteppeduporsteppeddownaccordingtotheratioofthenumberofturnsofwireineachcoils.However,inductiononlyworkswhentheelectricalcurrentisbeingswitchedonandoffagain,soanalternatingcurrentratherthanadirectcurrentmustbeused.

Thetransformerisavitalcomponentofanypowerdistributionsystemastransmissionlossesaremuchsmallerwhenthevoltageishigher–aslesscurrentisneededtoconveythesameamountofenergy.Soelectricitygeneratedatapowerstationissteppedupinvoltageusingatransformerbeforeitreachesthetransmissionlines.Then,atitsdestination,itissteppeddownforuseinthehomeorfactory.<Back>

HaroldBrown-DyingintheNameofScienceUndertheheadline:‘DiedforScience’sSake–ADogKilledWithTheElectric

Current’,TheNewYorkTimesof31July1888reportedononeofHaroldP.Brown’sdemonstrations.InProfessorChandler’slectureroomatColumbia’sSchoolofMines,Browntoldaninvitedaudiencethatherepresentednocompanyandnofinancialorcommercialinterest.Healsomaintainedthathehadprovedbyrepeatedexperimentsthatalivingcreaturecouldstandshocksfromacontinuouscurrentmuchbetterthanfromanalternatingcurrent.Hehadapplied1,410voltsofDCtoadogwithoutfatalresults,buthadrepeatedlykilleddogswith500to800voltsofalternatingcurrent.

BrownthenbroughtoutaNewfoundlandmixweighing76pounds(34kg).Thedogwasmuzzledandtieddowninsideawirecage.Thenewspaperreported:

MrBrownannouncedthathewouldfirsttrythecontinuouscurrentataforceof300volts[DC].Whentheshockcamethedogyelpedandthensubsided.Arelayhasbeenattachedtotheapparatus,whichshutoffthecurrentalmostassoonasitwasapplied.Whenthedoggot400voltshestruggledconsiderably,stillyelping.At700voltshebrokehismuzzleandnearlyfreedhimself.Hewastiedagain.At1,100voltshisbodycontortedwiththepainofthebrutalexperiment.Hisresistancetothecurrentthendroppedfrom1,500toabout2,500volts.

‘Hewillbelesstrouble,’saidMrBrown,‘whenwetrythealternatingcurrent.Asthesegentlemensay,weshallmakehimfeelbetter.’Itwasproposedthedogbeputoutofhismiseryatonce.Thiswasdonewithanalternatingcurrentof330voltskillingthebeast.

WhenBrownbroughtoutanotherdog,anagentfromtheAmericanSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalssteppedin.Meanwhile,theassembledelectricianssaidthatthedoghadbeenweakenedbytheDCcurrentbeforetheACwasapplied.ButBrowninsistedthattheonlyplacesACshouldbeusedwere‘thedogpound,theslaughterhouseandtheStateprison’.<Back>

WhatisViscosity?Allfluidshaveviscosity.Thickfluidssuchasmolasseshaveahighviscosity;thinones,suchasair,alowviscosity.Allfluids,toagreaterorlesserextent,sticktosolidsurfaces.Themoleculesneartothesurfaceadheretoitandtravelatthesamevelocity.Moleculesalittlefurtherawayareslowedbyaviscousinteractionwiththosestuckonthesurface.Furtherawaystill,thefluidflows

freely.Thetransitionbetweenthelayerstucktothesurfaceandthefree-flowingstreamiscalledtheboundarylayer.Teslafoundthathecoulduse‘viscousshear’intheboundarylayertotransferenergyfromthefluidtotheturbine.<Back>

ExplainingStandingWavesAstandingwaveiscausedbythecombinationoftwowavesmovinginoppositedirectionsandisusuallyfoundwhereawaveisreflectedfromasurfaceortheendofawire.Thetwowavesaresuperimposedandeitheraddtogetherorcanceleachotherout.Avibratingropetiedatoneendwillproduceastandingwave.Atsomepositionsalongtheropethereisnomovement.Thesepointsarecallednodes.Eitherside,wherethemovementisthegreatest,areantinodes.<Back>

TheEdisonMedalTheEdisonMedalwascreatedin1904byagroupofEdison’sfriendsandassociatesasanannualawardtobegiventoalivingelectricianfor‘meritoriousachievementinelectricalscienceandart’.In1909,theAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineersagreedtopresentitastheirhighestaward.ThefirstrecipientwasTesla’srivalElihuThomson.GeorgeWestinghouseandAlexanderGrahamBellalsoreceivedtheaward.ThemedalisnowpresentedbytheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,formedwhentheAIEEmergedwiththeInstituteofRadioEngineers.<Back>

Tesla’sFriendsandContemporaries................................................................................ThomasAlvaEdison(1847–1931)BorninOhio,Edisonhadlittleschooling.Attheageof12hegotajobontherailroadwherehelearnedtelegraphy.Hewentontodeveloptheduplexsystemthatsenttwomessagesatonceandaprinterthatconvertedelectricalsignalsintoletters.

Hequitandwentintobusinessforhimself,developingthequadruplexsystem,whichsentfourmessagesatonceforWesternUnionandtheirrivals.Withthehelpofhisfather,heestablishedalaboratoryandmachineshopatMenloPark,NewJersey,whichbecametheworld’sfirstindustrialresearchfacility.Therehedevelopedunderwatercableforthetelegraph,setaboutimprovingtheprimitivetelephonedevelopedbyAlexanderGrahamBell,andinventingthephonograph.ThisbroughthimworldwidefameastheWizardofMenloPark.

Heworkedontheincandescentlightbulb,thoughbattlesoverpatentsensued.Healsodevelopedelectricmotorsandgeneratorstopowerhislightingsystems,firstonthesteamshipColumbia,thenonbuildingsinNewYorkandLondon.

Apioneerinmotionpictures,healsodevelopedbatteriesforsubmarinesandtheModelTFord.Inall,hetookoutaworldrecord1,093patentsandremainsthemostfamousinventorinAmericanhistory.<Back>

AlexanderGrahamBell(1847–1922)Edinburgh-bornBellfirstvisitedtheUSAin1871wherehedemonstratedhisfather’smethodofteachingspeechtothedeaf.ThefollowingyearheopenedaschoolforteachersofthemethodinBoston.

WithyoungtechnicianThomasWatson,hesettoworkondevelopingwaysofusingelectricitytotransmitsound,gettinghispatentforthetelephonein1876.Hundredsofpatentsuitsfollowed.Nevertheless,theBellTelephoneCompanywasestablishedthefollowingyear,successfullyfightingoffsuitsbytwosubsidiariesoftheWesternUnionTelegraphCompany.

Bellalsoinventedthephotophone,whichtransmittedsoundonabeamoflight,andtheGraphophone,thatrecordedsoundonwaxcylinders.Heexperimentedwithsonardetection,hugeflyingkitesandhydrofoils,whilecontinuingtofindwaystoaidthedeaf.<Back>

GeorgeWestinghouse(1846–1914)GeorgeWestinghousewasadescendentofthearistocraticRussianvonWistinghousenfamily.Hisfatherwasalsoaninventorwithsixpatentsforfarmingmachinerytohisname.Inhisfather’smachineshopinSchenectady,NewYork,theyoungWestinghouseexperimentedwithbatteriesandLeydenjars–glassjarscoatedwithmetalfoil,usedforstoringelectricalcharge.At15,hemadehisfirstinvention,arotarysteamengine.AfterservinginboththeUSArmyandNavyduringtheAmericanCivilWar,heattendedthenearbyUnionCollege,butsoondroppedout.In1865,hepatentedhisrotaryengine,andadeviceforputtingderailedfreightcarsbackonthetracks.Soonafter,hedesignedareversiblecast-steelfrogwhichprolongedthelifeofrailroadtrackswitches.

Havingbeeninvolvedinanearcollisionontherailway,heputhismindtoimprovingthebrakingsystemwhich,untilthen,haddependedonabrakemanoneverycarriage.Hisfirstsystem,usingsteam,provedimpractical.Butthenin1869hecameupwithair-brakesthatsoonbecamestandardintheUSandEurope.

Hethenworkedonsignalling,devisinganelectricalsystem.WiththeaidofTesla,Westinghouseenteredthe‘WaroftheCurrents’,championingACagainstEdison’sDCsystem.By1889,theWestinghouseElectricCorporationwasaglobalcompany,employingover500,000people.However,inthefinancialpanicof1907,helostcontrolofthecompaniesandretiredaltogetherin1911.<Back>

LordKelvin(1824–1907)Scottishengineer,mathematicianandphysicist,WilliamThomsonwasknightedin1866andmadeapeerin1892forhisservicestoscienceandengineering.HehelpeddeveloptheSecondLawofThermodynamics,themathematicalanalysis

ofelectricityandmagnetism,theelectromagnetictheoryoflight,thegeophysicaldeterminationoftheageoftheEarthandthebasicsofhydrodynamics.HisworkonsubmarinetelegraphcableshelpedmakeBritainthehubofglobalcommunications.Heperfectedthemariner’scompassandworkedoutthecorrectvalueofabsolutezero.TheunitsoftheabsolutetemperaturescalearenamedKelvinsintributetohim.<Back>

JamesClerkMaxwell(1831–79)BorninScotland,JamesClerkMaxwellhadalreadydemonstratedcolourphotographyandworkedonthestandardizationofelectricalunitswhen,in1865,hepublishedADynamicalTheoryofElectricalField.Init,hesoughttoconvertthephysicallawsofelectromagneticinductiondiscoveredbyFaradayintomathematics.Hisfamousequationsshowedthatelectricandmagneticfieldstravelthroughspaceaswavesmovingatthespeedoflight.Thisledhimtoproposethatlightwaselectromagneticradiationandpredictedtheexistenceofradiowaves.<Back>

HermannvonHelmholtz(1821–94)Likemanyscientistsoftheday,Helmholtzworkedinmultiplefields,includingphysiology,optics,meteorology,hydrodynamicsandthephilosophyofscience.HeisbestknownfortheLawofConservationofEnergy.Between1869and1871,hestudiedelectricaloscillation,andhenotedtheoscillationsofelectricityinacoilwhenitwasconnectedtoaLeydenjar.Hesoughttomeasurethespeedofelectromagneticinduction,butleftthedeterminationofthelengthofelectricwavestohisstarpupil,HeinrichHertz.<Back>

HeinrichHertz(1857–94)AfterstudyingunderHelmholtz,HertzbeganhisinvestigationofthetheoriesofJamesClerkMaxwell.Hedevelopedprimitiveequipmenttogenerateelectromagneticwavesandmeasuredtheirwavelengthsandvelocity.Demonstratingthattheycouldbereflectedandrefractedlikelightandradiantheat,heshowedthatlightandheatwerealsoelectromagneticwaves.Hewasjust36whenhedied.<Back>

Michelson-MorleyExperimentDevisedbyA.A.MichelsonandlaterrefinedwithEdwardMorley,theMichelson-MorleyexperimentsoughttodetectthevelocityoftheEarththroughtheall-pervadingetherwhichHelmholtzandHertzmaintainedelectromagneticwaveswerepropagatedthrough.Asensitiveinterferometerwasusedtocomparethespeedoflightintwodirectionsatrightanglestoeachother.Iftheuniverseisfilledwithether,thespeedoflightalongtheEarth’sdirectionoftravelshouldbelessthanitsvelocityatrightanglestoit.Nodifferencewasdetected.Ergotheetherdidnotexist.<Back>

GuglielmoMarconi(1874–1937)In1894,Marconibeganexperimentingwithaninductioncoil,aMorsekeyandasparkinggap,alongwithasimpledetector,athisfather’sestatenearBologna.Devisingasimpleaerial,heincreasedtherangeto1.5miles(2.4km).HemovedtoLondonwherehefiledhisfirstpatentinJune1896.Usingballoonsandkites,heincreasedtherangestillfurther.In1899,signalsweresentacrosstheEnglishChannelandtheAmerica’sCupusedMarconi’sequipmentforship-to-shorecommunication.ThefollowingyearMarconitookoutpatentNo.7777,whichenabledseveralstationstooperateondifferentfrequencies.ThiswasoverturnedbytheUSSupremeCourtin1943whenitwasshownthatTeslaandothershadalreadydevelopedradio-tuningcircuits.

InDecember1901,MarconitransmittedasignalacrosstheAtlanticfromCornwallinEnglandtoNewfoundlandinCanada.ThisledtothediscoverythatthecurvatureoftheEarthhadprovednoobstaclebecauseradiowavesreflectedoffionizedlayersintheupperreachesoftheatmosphere.Marconicontinuedtoimprovetherangeandefficiencyofwirelessdevicesandsetupcompaniestoexploithisdiscoveries.In1909hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforphysicsandin1932theMarconicompanywonthecontracttoestablishshort-wavecommunicationbetweenEnglandandthecountriesoftheBritishEmpire.<Back>

MarkTwain(1835–1910)BornSamuelLanghorneClemens,TwainwasanAmericanhumoristandwriter

whofoundworldwidefamewithTheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876)andTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn(1885).Hewasalsoknownforhistravelwriting–TheInnocentsAbroad(1869),RoughingIt(1872)andLifeontheMississippi(1883).<Back>

JosephRudyardKipling(1865–1936)BorninBombay(Mumbai),India,Kiplingwasashort-storywriter,poetandnovelistwhochronicledtheBritishEmpireattheheightofitspower.Healsowroteforchildren.PrincipallyrememberedfortheadventurenovelKim,TheJungleBook,JustSoStories,theshort-storyTheManWhoWouldbeKingandthepoemsMandalay,GungaDin,TheWhiteMan’sBurdenandIf–,hewontheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1907.<Back>

JohnMuir(1838–1914)BorninScotland,MuiremigratedtotheUSwithhisfamilyin1849.AfterstudyingscienceattheUniversityofWisconsin,hefoundworkinafactorywhereheadaptedandimprovedmachinery.Anaccidentnearlycosthimhissight.Initsaftermathheundertookawalkofnearly1,000miles(1,600km)fromIndianatoFlorida.In1868,hearrivedintheYosemiteValleyinCaliforniaandbecameanadvocateforthepreservationofthewildernessthere.Duetohislobbying,NationalParksweresetupatYosemite,Sequoiaandelsewhere.In1903,heaccompaniedPresidentTheodoreRooseveltonacampingtripintheYosemiteregion.<Back>

RichmondPearsonHobson(1870–1937)GraduatingfromtheUSNavalAcademyin1889,HobsonwasgiventemporarycommandofthecollierMerrimacduringtheSpanish-AmericanWar.OffCuba,hisshipwasdisabledbyenemyfireandhescuttledherintheentrancetoSantiagoHarbour,blockadingtheSpanishFleet.HeandhiscrewofsixwereimprisonedinMorroCastle.Whenhewasreleasedinaprisonerexchangein1898,hereturnedtotheUStoahero’swelcome.Womenadmirersflockedtohimandhebecame‘themostkissedmaninAmerica’.AwardedtheMedalofHonor,hebecameacongressman.OneofTesla’sclosestfriends,hesaidthe

inventoroncetoldhimthathehad‘nevertouchedawoman’.<Back>

TheX-RayMan–WilhelmRöntgen(1845–1923)In1895,whilehewasprofessorofphysicsatWürzburg,Germany,Röntgennoticedthatwhenherananelectriccurrentthroughapartiallyevacuatedglasstubeitgaveoffamysteriousradiationthataffectedphotographicplates.Unlikelightthispassedthroughpaper,woodandaluminium,sohecalledthemX-rays.Soonafter,hetookapictureofthebonesinhiswife’shand.NewsofhisdiscoveryspreadquicklyroundtheworldandhewasawardedthefirstNobelPrizeinphysicsin1901.<Back>

HammondandSonMiningengineerandphilanthropistJohnHaysHammond(1855–1936)gaveTesla$10,000todevelophisTelautomaton.Laterhisson,John(Jack)HaysHammondJr(1888–1965),developedTesla’sideasandbecameknownas‘TheFatherofRemoteControl’.AtYale,Jackdevelopedelectricallycontrolledsteeringandenginecontrolforaboat,controllingthemechanismsatadistanceusingawirelessdevice.In1909,hegothisfathertoarrangeameetingforhimwithTeslabecausetherewassome‘importantinformation’heneededfromhim.WithMarconiwireless,whichitselfusedTeslaCoils,attachedtotwo360-ft(110m)towers,Jackcouldcontrolacrew-lessboatfromalookoutstationnearhislaboratoryatFreshwaterCove.Later,JackinvitedTeslatospeakathisgraduationfromYale.<Back>

Tesla,aboxingfanTeslaclaimedtohavemadeastudyofheavyweighttitlefightsafterthe1892matchwherestreet-fighterJohnL.Sullivan(1858–1918),whohadheldtheworldtitlefor10years,wasknockedoutbycollege-educated‘GentlemanJim’Corbett(1866–1933).In1927,hemadeheadlinespredictingtheoutcomeoftherematchbetweenGeneTunney(1897–1978)andthe‘ManassaMauler’JackDempsey(1895–1983)who,thoughhehadlostthetitleayearearlier,wasaheadinthebetting.

TheNewYorkHeraldTribunesaid:‘SittinginthissuiteattheHotelPennsylvania,the71-year-oldinventordidnothedgeorpussyfoot,butdeclaredthatTunneywas‘atleast10to1favourite’.Onthebasisofmechanics,Teslasaid,‘TunneywillhitDempseycontinuouslyandatwill’.HeaddedthatTunneyalsohadtheadvantagebecausehewassingle.‘Otherthingsbeingequal,’Teslasaid,‘thesinglemancanalwaysexcelthemarriedman.’Inhislateryears,Teslawouldbeseendiningwithotherboxers,includingthe‘MidlandMauler’JimmyAdamickandYugoslavwelterweightFritzieZivic.<Back>

J.P.Morgan(1837–1913)Thesonofasuccessfulfinancier,JuniusSpencerMorgan(1813-90),JohnPierpontMorganbeganhiscareerin1857withtheNewYorkbankingfirmofDuncan,ShermanandCompany,whichwastheUSrepresentativeoftheLondonfirmGeorgePeabodyandCompany.By1871hewasapartneratDrexel,MorganandCompany,soonthepredominantsourceofgovernmentfinancing.In1895,itbecameJ.P.MorganandCompany,andoneofthemostpowerfulbankinghousesintheworld.BecauseofhislinkswithPeabody,MorganwasabletoprovidetherapidlygrowingUSindustrialcorporationswithcapitalfromBritishbanks.

Investinginrailroads,by1902,hecontrolledsome5,000miles(8,000km)oftrack.In1891,hearrangedthemergerofEdisonGeneralElectricandThomson-HoustonElectricCompanytoformGeneralElectric.Inthedepressionthatfollowedthepanicof1893,heformedasyndicatetoresupplytheUSgovernment’sdepletedgoldreserve.HavingfinancedthecreationoftheFederalSteelCompanyin1898,hemergeditwiththegiantCarnegieSteelCompanyin1901toformUSSteelCorporation.Thefollowingyear,heformedtheInternationalHarvesterCompanyandtheInternationalMerchantileMarine,whichdominatedtransatlanticshipping.Heledtheattempttoavertageneralfinancialcollapsefollowingthestockmarketpanicof1907.Thenhebeganamassingbanksandinsurancecompanies.Thisgavehimcontroloverthenation’sleadingcorporationsandfinancialinstitutions.<Back>

LeeDeForest(1873–1961)

LikeTesla,DeForestwasthesonofachurchministerwhohopedhissonwouldfollowhimintotheministry.LeespentmuchofhisyouthatTalladegaCollege,traditionallyanAfrican-Americanschoolwherehisfatherwaspresident.In1893,heenrolledattheSheffieldScientificatYalewherehestudiedengineering.SixyearslaterhewasawardedaPhDforathesisentitledReflectionsofHertzianWavesfromtheEndsofParallelWires.

Experimentinginradio-telegraphy,hemanagedtointeresttheUSArmyandNavyinhisapparatus.HisequipmentwasusedbyEuropeanreporterstosenddespatchesduringtheRusso-JapaneseWarof1904–05.In1906,DeForestfiledapatentforavacuumtubediodetodetectradiowaves.Thefollowingyear,hepatentedthetriodeorAudionvalve.Thisplacedagridbetweentheelectrodeswhichalloweditamplifyfeebleelectriccurrents.Whileothersdevelopeditsfullpotential,itwasthemainstayofamplificationuntiltheinventionofthetransistor.In1912,DeForestwasindicted,andsubsequentlyacquitted,ofmailfraudbyseekingtopromotethis‘worthlessdevice’.Histriodemadetranscontinentalwirelesstelephonypossible.

Seekingtopromoteradioasanewmedium,in1910,DeForestbroadcastaliveperformancebyItalianoperastarEnricoCarusofromtheMetropolitanOperaHouse.TwoyearslaterDeForestfoundhecouldboostaweaksignalfurtherbyfeedingtheoutputofonetubetothegridofthenext,andsoon.HealsofoundthatbyfeedingtheoutputofanAudiontubebacktoitsowngrid,hecouldproduceastableoscillatorwhosesignalcouldbemodulatedtocarryspeechandmusic.

Inthefaceofastormofinfringementsuits,hesoldhispatentstootherstoexploit.Hewentontoinventasystemforrecordingsoundonfilm,makingthetalkiespossible.<Back>

ReginaldFessenden(1866–1932)BorninQuebec,Fessendenstudiedmathematics,butleftuniversitywithoutadegree.In1886,hemovedtotheUSandwenttoworkforThomasEdison.Heworkedonaseriesofprojects,butin1890,whenEdisonsufferedafinancialsetback,hewaslaidoff.Afterworkinginvariousmanufacturingcompanies,hebecameprofessorofelectricalengineeringatPurdueUniversity,movingontotheWesternUniversityofPennsylvania–nowPittsburghUniversity–thefollowing

year.

From1900to1902,heworkedfortheWeatherBureau,adaptingwirelesstelegraphyforweatherforecastingandstormwarnings.In1900hewasgrantedapatentforasensitivedetectorthatmadewirelesstelephonepossibleandinventedtheheterodynereceiverwhichcombinestwohigh-frequenciestoproduceanaudibletone.WithtwoPittsburghfinanciers,heformedtheNationalElectricSignalingCompanyin1902,whichtransmittedthefirstvoicesignalsoveradistance.In1906,hemadethefirsttwo-waytransatlantictransmission.Buthefelloutwithhisbackersandthecompanyendedupbankrupt.

DuringhiscareerFessendenfiledsome300patents,manyweresubjecttolitigation.HesuedRCAfor$60million,settlingoutofcourtin1928foralargecashpayment.AmonghisadmirerswasElihuThomsonwhocalledFessenden‘thegreatestwirelessinventoroftheage–greaterthanMarconi’.<Back>

FritzLowenstein(1874–1922)BorninCarlsbadintheAustro-HungarianEmpire(nowKarlovyVaryintheCzechRepublic),LowensteinstudiedengineeringinEuropebeforeemigratingtotheUSin1899wherehewenttoworkforTesla.HehelpedbuildandoperatethemagnifyingtransmitterinColoradoSprings.‘Possessedofthehighesttechnicaltraining,’Teslasaid,hebecameacloseconfidant,discussingtheprojectwithhimeverydayoverlunchanddinnerattheAltaVistaHotel.TheypartedwhenLowensteinreturnedtoGermanytomarry,butTeslare-employedLowensteinin1902toworkatWardenclyffe.HealsoworkedwithJackHammondandAlexanderGrahamBell,andsubsequentlybeganacompanymakingradiosetsfortheUSNavyduringWorldWarI,payingroyaltiestoTeslafortheuseofhispatents.<Back>

BenjaminFranklinMiessner(1890–1976)MiessnerstudiedelectricalengineeringatPurdueUniversityandworkedfortheUSNavyin1908beforebecomingchiefassistantintheTesla-HammondlabatGloucester.Heworkedonthedevelopmentoftheelectricdogandsuperheterodynereception.Thisimprovedtheamplificationinawirelesssetfifty-foldandallowedthemtoworkwithoutalongaerial,essentiallyturningthe

wirelessreceiverfromanexperimentalapparatusintoadomesticappliance.Heisalsocreditedwithinventingthe‘cat’swhisker’detectorinearlycrystalsets,whichhesoldfor$200,andtheelectricorgan.Apioneerinaircraftradioanddirectionalmicrophonesinsubmarines,hesoldmorethantwohundredpatents,makingover$2million.<Back>

SirOliverLodge(1851–1940)Lodgeenteredhisfather’sclaybusinessinStaffordshire,Englandwhenhewas14.ThenonavisittoLondonheheardprominentphysicistJohnTyndall(1820–93)lectureattheRoyalInstitution.Thispiquedhisinterestinscienceand,attheageof22,heresumedhiseducation.In1890,theFrenchscientistÉdouardBranly(1844–1940)showedthatironfilingsinaglasstubecoalesced–or‘cohered’–undertheinfluenceofelectromagneticwaves.Lodgeaddeda‘trembler’thatshookupthefilingsbetweenwavesandmadeotherimprovements,makinganeffectivedetector.

FollowinginthefootstepsofHertz,hestudiedstandingwavesinconductingwires.AfterHertz’suntimelydeathin1894,hegavealectureattheRoyalInstitutioncalledTheWorkofHertz.Whenthiswaspublished,ithadawidespreadinfluenceacrossEurope.Healsofiledanumberofimportantpatents.WhenhissonRaymondwaskilledinWorldWarI,hebecameinterestedinspiritualismandservedaspresidentoftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch.<Back>

MichaelPupin(1858–1935)BorninBanat,abufferzonebetweentheOttomanandtheAustrianEmpires,PupinwasaSerblikeTesla.HisparentswereilliterateandsenthimtoPrague.Afterayear,notyet16,hewentalonetoAmerica,arrivinginNewYorkin1874.For5years,hetookaseriesofoddjobs,whilestudyingatnightforadmissiontoColumbiaCollege,nowColumbiaUniversity.HewentontostudyinCambridgeandBerlin,whereheworkedunderHelmholtz.HereturnedtoNewYorktoteachmathematicalphysicsatthenewlyformeddepartmentofelectricalengineering.In1901,hewasmadeProfessorofElectromechanics,apositionhehelduntilheretiredin1931.

In1896,hediscoveredthatatomsstruckbyX-raysemitsecondaryX-rayradiationandworkedonX-rayfluoroscopy.Fiveyearslater,theBellTelephoneCompanyboughtthepatentsforhismethodofextendingtherangeoftelephonecommunicationbyplacingloadingcoilsatspecificdistancesalongtheline.In1924,hewasawardedaPulitzerPrizeforhisbest-sellingautobiographyFromImmigranttoInventor.

PupinsidedwithElihuThomsoninthecontroversyoverwhoinventedtheACpolyphasesystemandTeslaaccusedPupinofstealinghiswork.InthelongpassagesonthedevelopmentofACinFromImmigranttoInventor,Teslaishardlymentioned.WhenworkingwithX-rays,PupinagainignoredTesla’scontribution.ItwasPupinwhointroducedMarconitoTeslain1900,buthealsohelpedfacilitateMarconi’scooperationwithEdison,earninghim,oncemore,theenmityofTesla.

WhenPupinwasonhisdeathbedin1935,hegothissecretarytovisitYugoslavdiplomatStankoStoilkovicandaskhimtopleadwithTeslatovisitPupinwhowantedtomakepeacewithhimbeforehedied.TeslasaidthathewouldhavetothinkaboutPupin’srequestovernight.Thefollowingday,Teslaturnedupatthehospital.InPupin’sroomheapproachedthebedwithhishandextendedandsaid:‘Howareyouoldfriend?’

Pupinwasovercomewithemotion.Theywereleftalonetotalk.Teslasaidtheyhadagreedtheywouldmeetupagain,butPupindiedimmediatelyafterTesla’svisit.Reconciledatlast,Teslaattendedhisfuneral.<Back>

KarlFerdinandBraun(1850–1918)BorninGermany,BraunreceivedhisdoctoratefromtheUniversityofBerlinin1872andheldanumberofacademicpostsbeforebecomingdirectorofthePhysicalInstituteandProfessorofPhysicsattheUniversityofStrasbourgin1895.In1897,hedevelopedthefirstoscilloscope,orBrauntube,tostudyalternatingcurrentsusingabeamofelectronsinacathoderay.Fromthis,televisiontubesweredeveloped.Hewentontostudywhyearlywirelesstransmissionwaslimitedto9.5miles(15km),concludingthatthelimitingfactorwasthelengthofthespark.Thesolutionwastointroduceasparklessantennacircuit,whichhepatentedin1899.Healsodevelopedanantennathatdirectedthetransmissioninonedirection.TheNobelCommitteerecognizedthathehad

madeconsiderableimprovementstoMarconi’sapparatusandawardedtheNobelPrizetothemjointlyin1909.

BrauntravelledtoNewYorkin1915.WhentheUSjoinedtheAlliesinWorldWarIin1917,hewasdetainedasanenemyalienanddiedbeforethewarended.<Back>

JohnStoneStone(1869–1943)BorninAmerica,butbroughtupinEgyptandEurope,Stone,whowasfluentinArabic,FrenchandEnglish,wasbroughthometotheUStostudyintheschoolofminesatColumbiaandJohnsHopkinsUniversity,beforeenteringtheBellLabsinBoston.In1899,hesetuptheStoneTelegraphandTelephoneCompany.LecturingonelectricaloscillationsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,hefiledapatentontuningin1902.Healsodevelopedawirelessdirectionfinder,workedontheuseofloadingcoilsontelephonelinesbeforePupinandbecamepresidentoftheInstituteofRadioEngineersandtheAIEE.Heholdsmany‘spacetelegraphy’patents.<Back>

BernardA.Behrend(1875–1932)BorninVilleneuve,Switzerland,BehrendstudiedengineeringinBerlinbeforeemigratingtotheUSin1894.HewasoneofthefirsttounderstandTesla’sworkwithalternatingcurrentsandbeganpublishingarticlesontheapplicationsofACin1896.HistreatiseTheInductionMotorwaspublishedbyElectricalWorld&Engineerin1901.Itwasexpandedandpublishedasabook,TheInductionMotorandOtherAlternatingCurrentMotorsin1921.BehrendmetTeslain1901whenhewasassignedtodesignamotorforWardenclyffe.InBehrend,Teslafoundalike-mind.Behrendwastheinventorofnumerouselectricaldevicesandtookoutover70patents.Afteraperiodofill-healthhecommittedsuicideathishomeinMassachusetts.<Back>

ArthurE.Kennelly(1861–1939)BorninIndiaofIrishparents,KennellystudiedinLondonbeforegoingtoworkforEdisoninNewJerseyasamathematician.WithHaroldP.Brown,heworked

onthedevelopmentoftheelectricchair.HealsodevelopedtheuseofcomplexnumbersinanalyzingACcircuits.In1901,henoticedthatMarconi’ssignalsarrivedinNewfoundlandingreaterstrengththanexpectedandpostulatedthattheyhadbeenreflectedfromanionizedlayerintheupperreachesoftheatmospherepredictedbyEnglishelectrical-engineerOliverHeaviside(1850–1925).ThisbecameknownastheKennelly-Heavisidelayer.ProfessorofElectricalEngineeringatHarvard,KennellyservedaspresidentoftheAIEE(1898–1900)andtheInstituteofRadioEngineers(1916).HewasawardedtheEdisonMedalin1933.<Back>

HugoGernsback(1884–1967)BornHugoGernsbacherinLuxembourg,GernsbackhadheardofTeslaasachild.HestudiedelectronicsinBingenTechnicuminGermany,beforeemigratingtotheUSin1903.HeimportedelectroniccomponentsfromEuropeand,in1908,foundedthemagazineModernElectrics.TheElectricalExperimenterfollowedin1913andScienceandInventionin1920.Thesemagazinesbegantocarryscience-fictionstories,startingwithhisownRALPH124C41+setintheyear2660,whichwasserializedinModernElectronicsin1911.

Hebeganthefirstdedicatedscience-fictionmagazine,AmazingStories,in1926.Despitehisreputationfordubiousbusinesspractices,hecontinuedtowriteandpublish.TheHugoAwards,presentedannuallybytheWorldScienceFictionConvention,werenamedafterhimand,in1960,hereceivedaspecialHugoAwardasthe‘FatherofMagazineScienceFiction’.<Back>

FrankR.Paul(1884–1963)Oneofthemostinfluentialsciencefictionillustratorsofhistime,FrankPaulwasborninAustriaandstudiedartinVienna,ParisandNewYork.HewasworkingasanillustratoronaruralnewspaperwhenGernsbackemployedhimtoworkonElectricalExperimenter.HeproducedthecoverillustrationforGernsback’sRALPH124C41+whenitappearedinbookformin1925.HealsoworkedforAmazingStories,ScienceWonderStories,PlanetStories,SuperworldComics,ScienceFictionmagazineandMarvelComics.Pauliscreditedwiththe

firstdepictionofaflyingsaucer,aspaceshipandaspacestation.<Back>

AlbertEinstein(1879–1955)BorninGermany,EinsteincompletedhiseducationinSwitzerlandandtookajobinthepatentofficeinBern.Itwasthereherealizedthat,ifthespeedoflightwasanabsolute,IsaacNewton’slawsofmotionmustberewrittentoaccommodateMaxwell’sequations.Theresultwashistheoryofspecialrelativity,whichhepublishedin1905.Hethenrealizedthatthisdidnotdealwithaccelerationorgravity.Hecombinedthosetomakehistheoryofgeneralrelativityin1915.Thiswasconfirmedbyastronomicalobservation4yearslaterandhewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforphysicsin1921.

In1933,heemigratedtotheUnitedStates,settlinginPrinceton.Einstein’sequationE=mc2predictsthepossibilityofmakinganatomicbomb.FearingthatNaziGermanymaywellhavebeenontheirwaytodoingso,EinsteinwaspersuadedtosignalettertoPresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltwarninghimofthepossibility.Hespenttherestofhislifetryingtodevelopaunifiedfieldtheorythatwouldcombinealltheforcesofmotionintoonetheoreticalframework.<Back>

GeorgeSylvesterViereck(1884–1962)OneofTesla’smoreunusualfriendstowardstheendofhislifewasthepoetandauthorGeorgeSylvesterViereck.BorninMunich,hewasthoughttohavebeentheillegitimategrandsonofKaiserWilhelmI,anideaheencouraged.HeemigratedtotheUSwithhisfamilyin1896andpublishedhisfirstbookofpoetryGedichtein1904whilestillastudentattheCollegeoftheCityofNewYork.Itreceivedsomefavourablecriticalattentionandhequicklybuiltareputation.ButthencameWordWarI.Hesaid:‘InspiteofmystaunchsupportoftheAmericanwareffort,Iwasdecriedasanisolationistandapro-German.Iwasboycottedbythewarparty.Fivecelebratedauthorsbandedthemselvestogetherundertheslogan,NeverAgainViereck.MyversewasdroppedfromanthologiesandmynamefromWho’sWhoinAmerica.IwasexpelledfromthePoetrySocietyofAmericawhichoweditsexistencelargelytomyeffortsandfromtheAuthor’sLeague.Iwasnowapoetwithoutalicence.’

Hethenlabouredtobuildareputationasanovelistand,asajournalist,interviewedSigmundFreud,GeorgeBernardShaw,Mussolini,Hindenburg,GrandDukeAlexanderofRussia,Einstein,HenryFordand,ofcourse,Tesla.WiththeadventofWorldWarII,hewasagainthoughttobepro-German.Thistimewithgoodreason.HewasfoundtohaveacceptedmoneyfromtheNaziPartytospreadpropagandaintheUSandwasjailed.Afterthewar,hismemoirofhisprisonexperiencesMenIntoBeastsoldwell,butheneverregainedhisliteraryreputation.Teslaknewallhispoemsbyheart.<Back>

ElmerGertz(1906–2000)AnotherofthedinnerguestsTeslametatViereck’shouseonRiversideDrivewastheattorneyElmerGertz.HewasafriendofthepoetCarlSandburg(1878–1967)andthebiographerandagentofBritishjournalistandvoluptuaryFrankHarris(1856–1931).HealsodefendedtheworkofAmericanwriterHenryMiller(1891–1980)inobscenitytrials,murdererNathanLeopold(1904–71)inthe1924LeopoldandLoebcaseandclubownerJackRuby(1911–67)whomurderedPresidentKennedy’sassassinLeeHarveyOswald(1939–63).HewasimpressedthathehadseenTeslainthesamehouseasnovelistSinclairLewis(1885–1951),Einsteinandcountlessothers.Hesaid:‘Inacommunicativemood,Teslatoldhislifestoryunostentatiously,simply,withquieteloquence.Hetoldofhisplatonicaffairsoftheheart…explainedtheinventionsthathavemadetheworldhisdebtor…andtoldofhisplans,ofhiscredo,ofhisfoibles.Itwasataleofwonder,toldwithguilelesssimplicity.’

EdwinArmstrong(1890–1954)Attheageof14,ArmstrongreadoftheachievementsofMarconiandsetaboutbuildingwirelessequipmentintheatticofhisfamilyhomeinNewYork.HestudiedunderPupinatColumbia,wherehedevelopedtheregenerative,orfeedback,circuitusingDeForest’sAudiontube.Thisincreasedtheamplificationathousand-fold.Signalsthatcouldbarelybedistinguishedthroughheadphonescouldnowbeheardacrosstheroom.Atitshighestamplification,thecircuitbecameanoscillatorthatgeneratedradiowavesandbecamethebasisofradioandtelevisionbroadcasting.However,ArmstrongwaschallengedbyDeForestinaseriesofpatentsuitswhichdraggedonfor14years.

InthearmyduringWorldWarI,ArmstrongimprovedFessenden’sheterodynecircuittomakethesuperheterodynecircuit,whichagaingreatlyimprovedthesensitivityandstabilityofradiosignalsthatunderliesnearlyallradio,radarandtelevisionreceptionovertheairwaves.HesoldthepatentstoWestinghouse,whichmadehim,briefly,amillionaire,andhemarriedMarionMacInnis,secretarytoDavidSarnoff,thengeneralmanagerofRCA.

ArmstrongwentontoinventFM,orfrequencymodulation.Bymodulatingthefrequencyofthesignalratherthanitsamplitude,orstrength,asinAM,high-fidelitybroadcastingbecamepossible.ButthewellestablishedAMbroadcasterswereresistant.Armstronghadtospend$300,000onbuildinganFMstationtoproveitsworth.AfterWorldWarII,Armstrongbeganapatent-infringementsuitagainstRCAwhohadadoptedFMfortelevision.Impoverishedbylitigation,Armstrongjumpedtohisdeathfroma13thstoreywindow.<Back>

Tesla’sInventions........................................Tesla’sThermo-magneticMotorWhenironmagnetsareheatedtheylosetheirmagneticstrength.Tesladevisedasmallmotorwithonefixedmagnetandasecondmovingmagnetattachedtoaflywheelandapivotarmthatpushedagainstaspring.Atroomtemperature,theattractionbetweenthetwomagnetswasenoughtocompressthespringandpullthemovingmagnetintotheflameofaBunsenburner.Thiswouldheatupthemagnet.Itwouldlosestrength.Thespringwouldthenpushthemagnetback,turningtheflywheel.Withthemagnetnowoutoftheflame,itcooleddown.Itsmagneticstrengthwasrestoredandthecyclebeganalloveragain.<Back>

Tesla’sPyromagneticGeneratorTeslatookalargehorseshoemagnet.Acrossitspolesrananumberofhollowirontubeswhichweremagnetizedandhadcoilsofwirewrappedaroundthem.Underthecentreofthetubeswasafirebox.Abovetherewasaboiler.Thecoalfireinthefireboxheatedtheirontubesuntiltheyreachedabout600°C(1,112°F)andglowedadullred.Asthetubesheatedup,theywouldlosetheirmagnetismandthecollapsingmagneticfieldwouldinduceanelectriccurrentinthecoils.Thenavalvewasopenedandsteam,at100°C(212°F),wouldcirculatethoughthetubes,coolingthem.Asthemagnetisminthetubeswasrestored,electriccurrentwouldagainbeinducedinthecoils.<Back>

InsideanInductionMotorAnelectricalmotorworksthroughtheinteractionoftwosetsofmagnets–onestationary,thestator,andoneabletomovefreely,therotor.Forpracticalmotors,electromagnetsareusedastheydon’tweakenovertime.Permanentmagnetsdo.Soboththestatorandrotorareessentiallycoilsofwirearoundmetalcores.However,evenelectromagnetshavenoreasontosettherotorspinning.Butmagneticattractionwilldrawanorthpoleontherotortowardsasouthpoleonthestator.Tokeepthemotorturning,thepolarityoftheelectromagnetshasto

keeponswitching.InearlyDCmotorsthiswasdonebyasplitringcommutatorsupplyingcurrenttotherotor.Tesla’sgeniuswasthatherealizedthatyoudidnothavetosendelectricitytotheelectromagnetsontherotoratall.Ifyousuppliedalternatingcurrenttothecoilsonthestator,themagneticfieldcreatedwouldinduceanelectriccurrentinthecoilsoftherotor.Themagneticfieldproducedwouldopposethatonthestatorandthemotorwouldturn.

Essentially,adynamoorgeneratorisamotorworkedinreverse.Withamotoryousupplyelectricityandgetamechanicalturningforce.Inadynamoyousupplythemechanicalturningforceandgetelectricity.AddinthetransformerandTeslahadcreatedacompletesystemofgenerating,transmittingandutilizingpower.<Back>

TheLegendaryTeslaCoilTeslahadusedcoilsandcapacitorswhenexperimentingwithrotatingmagneticfieldsforhismotors.Hecontinuallyrefinedthecomponents,particularlythespecialtransformer,orcoil,attheheartofthecircuit,takingouthisfirstpatentforadevicetorunanewandmoreefficientlightingsystemin1891.Thebasiccircuitconnectedapowersupplytoalargecapacitor,thecoilorinductorandtheelectrodesofanadjustablespark-gap.Asthecapacitorchargesup,thevoltagelagsbehind.Inaninductor,voltageisfeltimmediatelywhilecurrentisheldbackasithastoworkagainstthemagneticfielditsownpassagecauses.

Ifthesizeofthecoilandcondenserareselectedtohaveexactlyoppositetiming–withvoltagepeakinginthecapacitorjustasitreachesaminimuminthecoil–currentandvoltagecanbemadetochaseeachotherbackandforth.Thisoscillationisinitiatedbythesparkgap.Whenthevoltageinacapacitorbuildsup,itreachesalevelwhentheairinthegap,whichactsasaninsulator,breaksdownduetoionizationandletscurrentflow.

InaTeslaCoiltheinductoristheprimarycoilofatransformer.Whenthecircuitsparks,alltheenergystoredoverseveralmicrosecondsisdischargedinapowerfulimpulse,producingahighvoltageinthesecondarycoil.Oncetheenergyhasbeendischarged,thevoltageacrossthesparkgapfallsandtheairbecomesaninsulatoragain,untilthevoltageinthecapacitorbuildsuptotherequiredlevelagain.Thiswholeprocesscanrepeatitselfmanythousandsoftimespersecond.

InaTeslaCoil,secondarywindingisdesignedtoreactquicklytoasuddenenergyspike.Theseelectricalimpulsespropagatealongthewindingaswaves.Thelengthofthecoiliscalculatedsothat,whenthewavecrestsreachtheendandarereflectedback,theymeetandreinforcethewavesbehindthem,soitappearsthatthevoltagepeaksarestandingstill.Ifthehigh-voltageendofthesecondarycoilisattachedtoanaerial,itbecomesapowerfulradiotransmitter.Intheearlydecadesofradio,mostpracticableradiotransmittersusedTeslaCoils.Teslahimselfusedlargerorsmallerversionsofhisinventiontoinvestigatefluorescence,X-rays,radio,wirelesspowerandeventheelectromagneticnatureoftheearthanditsatmosphere.<Back>

DevelopingElectricLightingTheinventorsofearlyelectriclightingknewtwowaystoproduceillumination–eitherbycreatingaspark,orarc,betweenelectrodesorbyrunningacurrentthroughawireorfibre,heatingitupuntilitglowed.Arclampsareverybrightandwereusedinsearchlights,floodlights,lighthousesandmovieprojectors.Theywerenotsuitablefordomesticuse.Butheatedfilamentsalsohavetheirdrawbacks.Mostmaterialsdon’tbehavewellwhenheatedneartheirmeltingpoints.Theyoxidize,unlesssurroundedbyvacuumorinertgas,orbreakapartthroughinternalstress.JosephSwan(1828–1914)in1878andThomasEdisonthefollowingyearindependentlydevelopedthecarbon-filamentbulb.Thiswassupersededbythemoreefficienttungsten-filamentbulbin1908.

However,thereisanotherproblemwithincandescentlamps.Inadomestic60-wattlightbulb,forexample,nomorethanafewpercentoftheenergyradiatedisvisible.Mostislostasheat.Butin1859,Alexandre-EdmondBecquerel(1820–91)discoveredthatcertainsubstancesfluorescedwhenacurrentwaspassedthroughaGeisslertube–thatis,apartiallyevacuatedglasscylinder.

Tesladevelopedthisintothephosphorescentlamp–phosphorescentsubstancesareslowertoemitlightthanfluorescentonesandcontinuetoglowforsometimeafterthepowerisswitchedoff.Hebeganbypoweringconventionalfilamentorarclampswithhigh-frequencycurrents.Thiscausedthediffusegasesinsidetoglowandmadecertainsolidmaterialsgiveofflight.Thebulbsremainedcoldbecausemostoftheelectricalenergypassedthroughthemturnedintolight,ratherthanheat.Consequently,theyweremuchmoreefficient.Butalthoughhe

usedtheseexperimentstoillustratehiscelebratedlectures,heseldompatentedthem.

Havingdevelopedapparatusthatproducedhigherfrequenciesandvoltagesthanwereavailabletoanyoneelse,by1890,hewasabletolightphosphorescenttubeswithoutconnectingwires.Theenergywastransmittedtothematradiofrequencies.Athigherenergies,Tesla’stubesgaveoffX-rays.<Back>

Tuning-IntoEarlyRadioRadiocommunicationuseselectromagneticwavesintherangeoffrequencieslyingbetweenaroundonehertz,oronecyclepersecondandafewgiga-hertz,orathousandmillioncyclespersecond.Thewavelengthofelectromagneticradiationisthedistancefromonecresttothenext.InanordinaryAMbroadcastsignal,sayabout1,000kHzontheAMdial,wavecrestsarespacedatabout969ft(295m)apart.Thenumberofcrestsgoingbyinonesecondiscalledthefrequency.Inallwaves,thefrequencymultipliedbythewavelengthequalsthevelocity.Thevelocityofradiowavesisthespeedoflight.

Theheightofawaveiscalleditsamplitude.Inradiowavesthatisgiveninvolts.Forwavesofthesamevoltageoramplitude,themoreofthemthatarrivepersecondthehighertheenergy,sohigherfrequencygivesmorepower.Asingleburstofhigh-frequencygammaraysisextremelydangerous,whilethelowerfrequenciesofradiodispersemoreeasilyandpacklessofapunch.

Radiocommunicationrequiresatransmitterthatproducesasignalpowerfulenoughtobedetectedsomedistanceaway,whileatthesametimeincorporatingusefulinformationinthatsignal.Thereceivermustbeabletopickupthatsignalandextracttheinformation.Oncescientistshadunderstoodthenatureofelectromagneticwavesanddetectedthem,theracewasontoproducefrequenciesandvoltageshighenoughtomakewirelesstransmission.Withwhathecalledthe‘magnifiercoil’–nowknownastheTeslaCoil–Teslahadfoundawaytoproduceboth.

ItquicklybecamecleartoTeslathat,onceradiotransmissionhadbecomepracticable,theairwaveswouldbefullofsignals.Whatwasneededwasawaytodevelopcircuitsthatworkedonpre-selectedfrequenciessothatthedesiredsignalcouldbepickedoutfromamongabackgroundofstaticandunrelated

radiotraffic.Teslaperfectedtuningwhichliesattheheartofallcommunicationsystemstoday.<Back>

TheRemoteControlBoatTesla’stub-likecraftwaspoweredbylargebatteriesonboard.Radiosignalsactivatedswitches,whichcontrolledtheboat’spropeller,rudderandrunninglights.Butevenregisteringthearrivalofaradiosignalpulsetaxedtherudimentarytechnologyof1898.Teslahadtoinventanewkindofcohereroraradio-activatedswitchtoachievethis.Thecohererwasacanisterwithalittlemetaloxidepowderinit.Thepowderorientsitselfinthepresenceofanelectromagneticfield,suchasradiowaves,andbecomesconductive.InTesla’scoherer,thecanisterflipsoverafterthesignalhaspassed,restoringthepowdertoarandom,non-conductivestate.

Eachsignaladvancedadisconestep,makinganewsetofcontacts.Soifthecontactshadpreviouslygiventhecombination‘rightrudder/propellerforwardfull/lightoff’,thenextstepmightcombine‘ruddercenter/propellerstop/lightson’.Theconnectedcircuitsoperatedlevers,gears,springsandmotors,thenflippedthecohereroversoitwasreadytoreceivethenextinstruction.Teslaassumedthatthissystemcouldbeusedonradio-guidedtorpedoes.Butitwastoofaraheadofitstime.TheUSNavydidfinancesometrialsin1916,butthemoneywenttooneofTesla’scompetitorsashispatenthadexpired.Nevertheless,asthe20thcenturyprogressed,moreandmoreuseswerefoundforremotecontrol.<Back>

OzoneTherapyIthadlongbeenthoughtthatozonehadhealingpropertiesandTeslapatentedanozone-generatingmachinein1896,formingtheTeslaOzoneCompanyin1900.Hisportable‘ozonizers’wereusedtodisinfectroomsasozonekillsgerms.Heisalsothoughttohaveozonatedoliveoil.Hegaveoneofhismachinestohislong-servingsecretaryGeorgeScherffforhiswifewhowasillatthetime.‘IbelievethatitwilldoyouandMrsScherffalotofgood,’hewrote,‘unlessyouhavenoelectricitysupplycircuitinyourhouse,inwhichcase,itwillbenecessarytomoveintootherquarters.’<Back>

FurtherReadingAstor,JohnJacob,AJourneyinOtherWorlds(NewYork:D.Appleton&Co.,1894)

Beckhard,ArthurJ.NikolaTesla:ElectricalGenius(London:DobsonBooksLtd.,1961)

Behrend,BernardA.,TheInductionMotorandOtherAlternatingCurrentMotors(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1921)

Carlson,W.Bernard,Tesla:InventoroftheElectricalAge(Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,2013)

Cheney,Margaret,Tesla:ManOutofTime(EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1981)

Hunt,InezandDraper,WanettaW.,LightninginHisHand:TheLifeStoryofNikolaTesla(Hawthorne,California:OmniPublications,1977)

Jones,Jill,EmpiresofLight:Edison,Tesla,Westinghouse,andtheRacetoElectrifytheWorld(NewYork:RandomHouse,2003)

Josephson,Matthew,Edison(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCo.,1959)

Koenigsberger,Leo,HermannvonHelmholtz(NewYork:DoverPublications,1965)

Lomas,Robert,TheManWhoInventedtheTwentiethCentury:NikolaTesla,ForgottenGeniusofElectricity(London:HeadlineBookPublishing,1999)

Miessner,BenjaminFranklin,OntheEarlyHistoryofRadioGuidance(SanFrancisco:SanFranciscoPress,1964)

Miessner,BenjaminFranklin,Radiodynamics(London:CrosbyLockwood&Son,1917)

O’Neill,JohnJ.,ProdigalGenius:TheLifeofNikolaTesla(London:GranadaPublishingLtd.,1968

Peat,David,InSearchofNikolaTesla(Bath:AshgrovePress,1983)

Pupin,MichaelIdvorsky,FromImmigranttoInventor(NewYork:Scribner,1923)

Roslavcev,Sanja,Tesla,RelationswithSerbia(Belgrade:ElectricPowerIndustryofSerbia,2006)

Seifer,MarcJ.Wizard:TheLifeandTimesofNikolaTesla,BiographyofaGenius(Secaucus,NewJersey:BirchLanePress,1996)

Stewart,DanielBlair,Tesla:TheModernSorcerer(Berkeley,California:FrogLtd.,1999)

Tate,AlfredO.,Edison’sOpenDoor:TheLifeStoryofThomasA.Edison,AGreatIndividualist(NewYork:E.P.Dutton&Co.,1938)

Tesla,NikolaandChildress,DavidH.,TheFantasticInventionsofNikolaTesla(Stelle,Illinois:AdventuresUnlimited,1993)

Tesla,Nikola,MyInventionsandOtherWritings(NewYork:PenguinBooks,2011)

www.teslauniverse.com(Onlineresource)