• Various combinations of abiotic and biotic factors interact in different places around the world.

Life in a Community

• The result is that conditions in one part of the world are suitable for supporting certain forms of life, but not others.

Life in a Community

• Factors that affect an organism’s ability to survive in its environment, such as the availability of water and food, predators, and temperature, are called limiting factors.

Limiting factors

• A limiting factor is any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms.

Common Limiting FactorsSunlightClimateAtmospheric gasesTemperatureWaterNutrients/FoodFireSoil chemistrySpaceOther organisms

Limiting factors

Limiting factors• Factors that limit

one population in a community may also have an indirect effect on another population.

Ranges of tolerance• The ability of an organism to withstand fluctuations

in biotic and abiotic environmental factors is known as tolerance.

Limits of ToleranceOrganisms

absent Organisms infrequent

Greatest number of organisms

Organisms infrequent

Organisms absent

Zone of intolerance

Zone of Physiological

stress Optimum range

Lower limit Upper limitRange of tolerance

Popu

latio

n

Zone of Physiological

stress

Zone of intolerance

Succession: Changes over Time• Ecologists refer to the orderly, natural changes and

species replacements that take place in the communities of an ecosystem as succession.

• Succession occurs in stages. At each stage, different species of plants and animals may be present.

Succession: Changes over Time• As succession progresses, new organisms move in.

• Others may die out or move out.

• There are two types of succession—primary and secondary.

• The colonization of barren land by communities of organisms is called primary succession.

• Primary succession takes place on land where there are no living organisms.

Primary succession

Primary succession• The first species to take hold in an area like this are

called pioneer species.

• An example of pioneer species is a lichen, which is a combination of small organisms.

• Decaying lichens, along with bits of sediment in cracks and crevices of rock, make up the first stage of soil development.

• New soil makes it possible for small weedy plants, small ferns, fungi, and insects to become established.

Primary succession

• As these organisms die, more soil builds.

­

Exposed rock Primary succession

MossLichen

Pioneer species

Primary succession

• After some time, primary succession slows down and the community becomes fairly stable, or reaches equilibrium.

Primary succession

• A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species is a climax community.

Secondary succession Climax community

Primary succession

Secondary succession• Secondary succession is the sequence of changes

that takes place after an existing community is severely disrupted in some way.

• Secondary succession, however, occurs in areas that previously contained life, and on land that still contains soil.

Secondary succession• Because soil

already exists, secondary succession may take less time than primary succession to reach a climax community.

Question 1

D. limiting factor

C. tolerance factor

B. biotic factor

A. abiotic factor

A(n) _____ is something that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction or distribution of organisms.

The answer is D. A limiting factor may be a abiotic factor. Tolerance refers to an organism’s ability to withstand fluctuations of environmental factors.

Common Limiting FactorsSunlightClimateAtmospheric gasesTemperatureWaterNutrients/FoodFireSoil chemistrySpaceOther organisms

Question 2

D. mature trees growingC. pine seedlings sprouting

B. wildflowers growing where forest fires had burned

A. lichen growing on a lava bed

Which of the following best illustrates primary succession?

The answer is A. Primary succession is the colonization of barren land by pioneer species, such as moss or lichens.

Question 3What is required in order for secondary succession to occur?

Secondary succession occurs in areas that previously contained life. Soil must be present on this land, and the species that grow will differ from pioneer species.

Question 4

D. estuary

C. climax community

B. primary community

A. photic zone

A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species is a(n) _____.

The answer is C. Even though a climax community is stable, balanced change continues.

Secondary succession Climax community

• Compare and contrast the photic and aphotic zones of marine biomes.

Section Objectives:

• Identify the major limiting factors affecting distribution of terrestrial biomes.

• Distinguish among biomes.

• A biome is a large group of ecosystems that share the same type of climax community.

• There are terrestrial biomes and aquatic biomes, each with organisms adapted to the conditions characteristic of the biome.

What is a biome?

What is a biome?• Biomes located on land are called terrestrial

biomes.

• Oceans, lakes, streams, ponds, or other bodies of water are aquatic biomes.

Aquatic Biomes• Approximately 75 percent of Earth’s surface is

covered with water.

• Most of that water is salty.

• Freshwater is confined to rivers, streams, ponds, and most lakes.

• As a result, aquatic biomes are separated into marine biomes and freshwater biomes.

• Different parts of the ocean differ in biotic and abiotic factors (salinity, depth, availability of light, and temperature) found there.

• One of the ways ecologists study marine biomes is to make separate observations in shallow, sunlit zones and deeper, unlighted zones.

Marine biomes

Marine biomes• The portion of the marine biome that is shallow

enough for sunlight to penetrate is called the photic zone.

Marine biomes• Deeper water

that never receives sunlight makes up the aphotic zone.

• An estuary is a coastal body of water, partially surrounded by land, in which freshwater and salt water mix.

• The salinity, or amount of salt, in an estuary ranges between that of seawater and that of freshwater, and depends on how much freshwater the river brings into the estuary.

Estuaries—Mixed waters

Estuaries—Mixed waters• Estuaries, may contain

salt marsh ecosystems, which are dominated by salt-tolerant smooth cordgrass, salt marsh hay, or eelgrasses.

• Daily, the gravitational pull of the sun and moon causes the rise and fall of ocean tides.

• The portion of the shoreline that lies between the high and low tide lines is called the intertidal zone.

• Intertidal ecosystems have high levels of sunlight, nutrients, and oxygen.

The effects of tides

The effects of tides• Intertidal zones differ in rockiness and wave action.

• If the shore is rocky, waves constantly threaten to wash organisms into deeper water.

• If the shore is sandy, wave action keeps the bottom in constant motion.

The effects of tides

• The photic zone of the marine biome includes the vast expanse of open ocean that covers most of Earth’s surface.

• Most of the organisms that live in the marine biome are plankton.

In the light

In the light

• Plankton are small organisms that drift and float in the waters of the photic zone.

In the light

• Plankton are important because they form the base of all aquatic food chains.

• Baleen whales and whale sharks, some of the largest organisms that have ever lived, consume vast amounts of plankton.

• Although the summer sun heats the surface of a lake the water a few feet below the surface remains cold.

• These temperature variations within a lake are an abiotic factor that limits the kinds of organisms that can survive in deep lakes.

Freshwater biomes

Freshwater biomes• Another abiotic factor that limits life in deep lakes

is light.

Greatest

Warmer layer

Colder layer

Least

Greatest species

diversity

Oxy

gen

and

light

pen

etra

tion

Other aquatic biomes• Other places where land and water meet are called

wetlands, but there are several different kinds of wetlands. Swamps have trees.

• Marshes do not, but both usually have water flowing through them.

• Other wetland areas, called bogs, get their water supply from rain. Water does not flow through bogs.

Terrestrial Biomes: Latitude and climate• Latitude

describes your position in degrees north and south of the equator.

O

North pole

South pole

Sun’s rays

Sun’s rays

Sun’s rays

Equator

66.5o

66.5o

23.5o

23.5o

o0

Terrestrial Biomes: Latitude and climate• At different

latitudes, the sun strikes Earth differently.

O

North pole

South pole

Sun’s rays

Sun’s rays

Sun’s rays

Equator

66.5o

66.5o

23.5o

23.5o

o0

• As a result, the climate—wind, cloud cover, temperature, humidity and precipitation in that area—are different.

Terrestrial Biomes: Latitude and climate

Terrestrial Biomes: Latitude and climate• Latitude and

climate are abiotic factors that affect what plants and animals will survive in a given area. A

nnua

l pre

cipi

tatio

n (c

m)

Tundra

Taiga

Temperate forest

Woodland Savanna

Desert

Tropical seasonal forest

Tropical rain

forestTemperate rain forest

400

300

200

100

-10 0 10 20 30

Average temperature (oC)

Annual Precipitation vs. Temperature for Various Biomes

Grassland Shrubland

Life on the tundra• The tundra is a

treeless land with long summer days and short periods of winter sunlight.

Life on the tundra• Because of its latitude, temperatures in the tundra

never rise above freezing for long, and only the topmost layer of soil thaws during the summer.

• Underneath this top layer is a layer of permanently frozen ground called permafrost.

• The soil is lacking in nutrients.

Life on the tundra• Lack of nutrients limits

the types of organisms the tundra can support.

• The short growing season limits thetype of plants found in this biome to grasses, dwarf shrubs, and cushion plants.

Life on the tundra• Hordes of mosquitoes and black-flies are some of

the most common tundra insects during the short summer.

• The tundra also is home to a variety of small mammals, including ratlike lemmings, weasels, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares, and even birds such as snowy owls and hawks.

Life on the tundra• Musk oxen, caribou and reindeer are among the

few large animals that migrate into the area and graze during the summer months.

Life on the taiga

• Just south of the tundra lies another biome that circles the north pole.

• The taiga (TI guh) also is called the boreal or northern coniferous forest.

• Common trees are larch, fir, hemlock, and spruce trees.

Life on the taiga

• Because of their latitude, taiga communities usually are somewhat warmer and wetter than tundra.

Life on the taiga

• The topsoil, which develops slowly from decaying coniferous needles, is acidic and poor in minerals.

• However, the prevailing climatic conditions are still harsh, with long, severe winters and short, mild summers.

Life on the taiga

• More large species of animals are found in the taiga as compared with the tundra.

Life on the taiga

Life in the desert• The driest biome is

the desert biome. A desert is an arid region with sparse to almost nonexistent plant life.

• Deserts usually get less than 25 cm of precipitation annually.

Life in the desert

• With rainfall as the major limiting factor, vegetation in deserts varies greatly.

• The driest deserts are drifting sand dunes.

Life in the desert

• The leaves of some desert plants curl up, or even drop off altogether, thus reducing water loss during extremely dry spells.

• Many desert plants are annuals that germinate from seed and grow to maturity quickly after sporadic rainfall.

• Many desert mammals are small herbivores that remain under cover during the heat of the day, emerging at night to forage on plants.

Life in the desert

• Coyotes, hawks, owls and roadrunners are carnivores that feed on the snakes, lizards, and small mammals of the desert.

Life in the desert

Life in the grassland• Grasslands are large

communities covered with rich soil, grasses, and similar plants.

• Grasslands, occur principally in climates that experience a dry season, where insufficient water exists to support forests.

• Grasslands contain few trees per hectare.

Life in the grassland

• The soils of grasslands have considerable humus content because many grasses die off each winter, leaving byproducts to decay and build up in the soil.

• At certain times of the year, many grasslands are populated by herds of grazing animals.

Life in the grassland

• Other important prairie animals include jack rabbits, deer, elk, and prairie dogs.

• Many species of insects, birds, and reptiles, also make their homes in grasslands.

Life in the grassland

Life in the temperate forest• When precipitation

ranges from about 70 to 150 cm annually in the temperate zone, temperate deciduous forests develop.

• Temperate or deciduous forests are dominated by broad-leaved hardwood trees that lose their foliage annually.

• The soil of temperate forests usually consists of a top layer that is rich in humus and a deeper layer of clay.

Life in the temperate forest

• The animals that live in the temperate deciduous forest include squirrels, mice, rabbits, deer, and bears.

Life in the temperate forest

• Many birds, such as bluejays, live in the forest all year long, whereas other birds migrate seasonally.

Life in the temperate forest

Life in rain forests

• Temperate rain forests are found on the Olympic peninsula in Washington state and in other places throughout the world, such as South America, New Zealand, and Australia.

• There are two types of rain forests in the world—the temperate rain forest and the more widely known tropical rain forest.

• As their name implies, tropical rain forests have warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant growth.

Life in rain forests

• The average temperature is about 250C.

Life in rain forests

• One reason for the large number of niches in rain forests is vertical layering.

• Rain forests receive at least 200 cm of rain annually; some rain forests receive 600 cm.

Life in rain forests

• The tree tops are exposed to rain, sunlight, and strong winds.

• The canopy layer, 25-45 meters high, is a living roof.

• A few giant trees called emergents pole through the canopy.

A Tropical Rain Forest: Canopy

A Tropical Rain Forest: Canopy

• Birds, such as scarlet macaws, live on the fruits and nuts of the trees.

• Monkeys frequently pass through.

• Leaf cutter ants harvest leaves and bring them to the ground.

• In the understory, the air is still, humid, and dark. Vines grow from the soil to the canopy.

• Plants include ferns, broad-leaved shrubs, and dwarf palms.

A Tropical Rain Forest: Understory

• The limbs of the trees are hung with a thick layer of epiphytes, plants that get most of their moisture from the air.

• Insects are common in the understory.

• Birds and bats prey upon the insects.

A Tropical Rain Forest: Understory

• Reptiles include chameleons and snakes.

• Tree frogs are common understory amphibians.

A Tropical Rain Forest: Understory

A Tropical Rain Forest: Ground

• Leaves and other organic materials decay quickly.

• The ground layer is a moist forest floor.

• Roots spread throughout the top 18 inches of soil

• There is great competition for nutrients.

A Tropical Rain Forest: Ground

• Ants, termites, earthworms, bacteria, and fungi live in the soil and quickly decompose organic materials.

• Mammals living on the ground include rodents and cats, such as the jaguar.

Life in rain forests• Some rain forest plants are important sources of

medicinal products and hardwood trees and have provided a source of income for people.

Life in rain forests• Agricultural land is not common in rain forests.

Life in rain forests

• Without organic matter, once rain forest soil is exposed and farmed, it becomes hard, almost brick-like, and nutrient-poor in a matter of a few years.

• Soils in rain forests do not have substantial amounts of organic matter because leaf matter, which contains nutrients, disappears so quickly.

Question 1

D. populations

C. terrestrial

B. biomes

A. stable

Groups of ecosystems that reach similar climax communities are ________.

The answer is B. There are terrestrial and aquatic biomes, each with organisms adapted to the characteristics of the biome.

Question 2Explain the difference between the photic and aphotic zones of a marine biome.

The photic zone is the part of the marine biome that is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate.

Deeper water that never receives sunlight makes up the aphotic zone.

Question 3Compare an estuary to an intertidal zone.

Estuaries are coastal bodies of water that form where rivers meet oceans, and in which freshwater and salt water mix. Intertidal zones are the portions of ocean shorelines that lie between the high and low tide lines.

Question 4

D. plankton

C. barnacles

B. foraminiferans

A. tide pool collections

The floating protists, animal eggs and larvae in the photic zone are known as ________.

The answer is D. Plankton are small organisms that drift in the photic zone and form the base of all aquatic food chains.

Question 5Describe the oxygen levels at different depths of a freshwater lake.

Shallower waters are exposed to more sunlight, are warmer and contain more oxygen. Deeper layers are colder and contain less oxygen.

Question 6

D. desert

C. savanna

B. taiga

A. tropical rain forest

Which of the following biomes has the lowest annual precipitation?

The answer is D. Deserts are the driest biomes.

• Communities, populations, and individual organisms interact in areas where biotic or abiotic factors fall within their range of tolerance. Abiotic or biotic factors that define whether or not an organism can survive are limiting factors.

Communities

• The sequential development of living communities from bare rock is an example of primary succession. Secondary succession occurs when communities are disrupted. Left undisturbed, both primary succession and secondary succession will eventually result in a climax community which can last for hundreds of years.

Communities

• Biomes are large areas that have characteristic climax communities. Aquatic biomes may be marine or freshwater. Estuaries occur at the boundaries of marine and freshwater biomes. Approximately three-quarters of Earth’s surface is covered by aquatic biomes, and the vast majority of these are marine communities.

Biomes

• Terrestrial biomes include tundra, taiga, desert, grassland, deciduous forest, and temperate and tropical rain forests. Latitude influences the angle at which the sun reaches Earth and is a strong factor in determining what a particular biome is like. Two climatic factors, temperature and precipitation, are major limiting factors for the information of terrestrial biomes.

Biomes

Question 1Grasslands are another name for which of the following?

D. temperate forest

C. tundra

B. taiga

A. savannas

The answer is A. Grasslands are also called prairies, steppes, pampas, and savannas.

Question 2

Monthly temperature range (0C)

Monthly precipitation (cm)

Key

The answer is C. Because tropical rain forests are near the equator, they have consistently warm temperatures.

Monthly temperature range (0C)

Monthly precipitation (cm)

Key

Question 3In which layer of a tropical rain forest are you most likely to find tree frogs?

D. root

C. ground

B. understory

A. canopy

The answer is B. Insects, amphibians and reptiles are commonly found in the understory.

Question 4Describe the importance of bacteria in a healthy ecosystem.

AnswerBacteria help decay dead organisms and releases nutrients, recycling them through the food web.

Question 5As you travel north from a tropical rain forest, what are some of the variations you would observe?

AnswerAs you travel north, you would observe decreasing average temperatures and drier weather. Biodiversity would decrease.

Question 6In which biome would you expect the greatest biomass?

D. taigaC. desert

B. temperate deciduous forest

A. tropical rain forest

The answer is A. In tropical rain forests, sunlight, moisture and nutrients are available in abundance. These biomes are the most species-rich places on Earth, and the biomass is high.

Question 7In which biome would you expect to find only shallow-rooted grasses and small plants?

D. tundra

C. taiga

B. deciduous forest

A. grassland

The answer is D. Tundra has little topsoil and lacks nutrients.

Photo Credits

• Corbis• Digital Stock• PhotoDisc• Alton Biggs

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