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Section 1: A Blueprint for Government

Section 2: An Enduring Document

Section 3: Applying the Constitution

Chapter 3: The Constitution

Section 1 at a GlanceA Blueprint for Government• The Constitution establishes six goals for the U.S. government to

meet.• The Constitution outlines six basic principles of U.S. government and

a system that safely and fairly distributes and balances power.• Under the Constitution, the powers of government are limited in order

to protect individual rights.• The Constitution divides the powers of government among three

separate branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.• The Constitution includes checks on and balances of government

power to prevent any one branch of government from overpowering the others.

Reading Focus• What are the six goals of the Constitution?

• What are the six principles of government in the Constitution?

• What is popular sovereignty?

• What is limited government?

Main IdeaDrawing lessons from history, the Framers wrote a constitution that divided, limited, and balanced power among three branches of government.

A Blueprint for Government

Reading Focus (cont’d)• How does the Constitution create a separation of the powers of

government?

• How does the system of checks and balances limit the powers of government?

• Why is the principle of judicial review so powerful?

• Why is the principle of federation still a topic of debate?

A Blueprint for Government

The Framers stated six goals in the Preamble:form a more perfect union; establish justice; ensure domestic tranquility; provide for the common defense; promote the general welfare; and secure the blessings of liberty

Goals of the Constitution



• Raise an army• Pay its bills• Conduct relations with foreign

countries

Government tasks



• Raise an army• Pay its bills• Conduct relations with foreign

countries

Government tasks

• Some Framers with strong reservations

• Some completely opposed• Worried about strong national

government

Concerns

The Framers were concerned with government suppressing the liberty of its citizens.

Governing after a Revolution



• Framers fought American Revolution to stop British government from infringing on natural rights

• Were students of political philosophy and history

• Achievements and failures of past governments well-known

British legacy



• Framers fought American Revolution to stop British government from infringing on natural rights

• Were students of political philosophy and history

• Achievements and failures of past governments well-known

British legacy• Greek city-states

• Roman Empire

• European monarchies

• Constitution of the Iroquois League

• Decisions with long-lasting consequences—no repeat of past mistakes

Examples

Dilemma of democratic government• Allowing people substantial freedom• Controlling worst aspects of human behavior• Author of Federalist Paper No. 51 describes dilemma• System of law essential

Addressing the Problem of Governing

Dilemma of democratic government• Allowing people substantial freedom• Controlling worst aspects of human behavior• Author of Federalist Paper No. 51 describes dilemma• System of law essential

Addressing the Problem of Governing

Government obliged “to control itself”• Locke, “where there is no law, there is no freedom”• Laws help maintain order, protect rights, property, and lives• Laws must be enforceable, with explicit threat of punishment• Power to make laws and punish lawbreakers• Must keep government in check

Framers’ solution• Create governing document

• Divide, distribute, and balance governmental power

Principles of Government in the Constitution



Principles of Government in the ConstitutionUses of power

• Government power subject to will of the people

• Power as voters





• Power as voters

Bill of Rights• Final check on power

• Inclusion of Bill of Rights in 1791





• Power as voters

Bill of Rights• Final check on power

• Inclusion of Bill of Rights in 1791

Restraints • Placed specific restraints on power

of government

• Cannot violate basic rights of citizens

4,500 words• Constitution blended ideas from the

past with uniquely American principles of governing

• Three main parts

• Preamble—states broad goals

• The seven articles—create structure of the U.S. government

• The amendments—27 changes added during the nation’s history

The Constitution is the Blueprint







The Constitution is the BlueprintBasic principles

• Structure and language expresses six basic principles

Popular sovereignty

Limited government

Separation of powers

Checks and balances

Judicial review

Federalism







The Constitution is the BlueprintBasic principles

• Structure and language expresses six basic principles

Popular sovereignty

Limited government

Separation of powers

Checks and balances

Judicial review

Federalism

Framers believed if federal government reflected and remained true to basic principles, goals of U.S. Constitution could be accomplished.

Popular Sovereignty• Government gets its authority from the people• Ultimate political power remains with the people• Creating a republic established the people’s authority

– Citizens did not have unlimited power– Not a direct democracy– Placed constitutional limits on popular sovereignty

• James Madison felt republic best way to guard against the dangers of factions

– Defined as number of citizens united by common interest– Could be minority or majority– Might act in a way that hurt the rights of other citizens or the interests of

the nation

• Since factions certain to exist, must limit their effects

Republican form of government • Elected leaders represent broad and diverse group of citizens with

competing interests

• Tend toward factions with broad interests

• Not narrowly partisan ones

Popular sovereignty at heart of government • Each election is chance for citizens to exercise sovereignty• Elected leaders work for you; can vote to “fire” elected officials when

you step into voting booth• Important power—important responsibility• Citizens have obligation to vote wisely; choose leaders after

thoughtful deliberation

Republican form of government • Elected leaders represent broad and diverse group of citizens with

competing interests

• Tend toward factions with broad interests

• Not narrowly partisan ones

Limited GovernmentOpposition to control

• Most Americans opposed too much government control of business or private activities

• Framers felt limited government promoted goals, protected individual rights

Limited GovernmentDefinition

• Principle that powers and functions of government are restricted

• Also know as rule of law—concept that every member of society must obey the law; is never above it

Opposition to control






Part of Constitution• Principle of limited government

spread throughout • List of powers extensive, but

powers not listed are excluded• Powers are explicitly denied• Bill of Rights a safeguard







Part of Constitution• Principle of limited government

spread throughout • List of powers extensive, but

powers not listed are excluded• Powers are explicitly denied• Bill of Rights a safeguard

Vigorous civil society• Works to constrain government

power; part of political process, helping educate and inform the citizenry

• Holds government accountable when it fails or exceeds power




Separation of PowersThree distinct branches

• Created to ensure powers of government not concentrated in hands of a few officials or agencies

• Principle of separation of powersgoverning duties divided among three branches

Separation of PowersArticle I

• Creates and empowers Congress, the lawmaking body of the nation

• House of Representatives and Senate; each with special powers

• House has “power of the purse”

Three distinct branches• Created to ensure powers of

government not concentrated in hands of a few officials or agencies






Article II• Establishes duties of the executive

branch; the president, the vice-president, and the many executive departments

• Carries out laws passed by legislative branch








Article II• Establishes duties of the executive

branch; the president, the vice-president, and the many executive departments

• Carries out laws passed by legislative branch

Article III• Establishes the judicial branch,

including the Supreme Court

• Exercises the judicial power of the United States; interprets and applies the law




• Each branch with own area of governmental responsibilities

• Not completely separate from each other

• Designed so none can dominate; no branch can control

• “Common good” maintained—policies and actions that benefit all of society, such as health, safety, and defense programs

Checks and Balances





Checks and Balances

• Checks and balances—each branch of government has the power to change or cancel acts of another branch

• System prevents exertion of too much power

System established





Checks and Balances

• Checks and balances—each branch of government has the power to change or cancel acts of another branch

• System prevents exertion of too much power

System established• Congress checks executive by

controlling taxes and spending

• Can reject nominations; approve treaties

• Congress given power to declare war; limits president’s power

Balance

Political Oversight

Other branches have checksExecutive branch

• Power to veto, or reject, legislation

• Threat of veto sometimes sufficient to push revision of legislation so it has better chance of getting signed

• President can exercise veto power

Other branches have checksVeto limited

• Congress can override veto with two-thirds majority of both houses

• If Congress can muster enough votes, the bill passes

Executive branch• Power to veto, or reject, legislation






Unconstitutional• Judicial branch can declare acts

unconstitutional—the power of judicial review

• Federal judges given lifetime terms; insulated from undue political influence







Unconstitutional• Judicial branch can declare acts

unconstitutional—the power of judicial review

• Federal judges given lifetime terms; insulated from undue political influence

Judicial review balanced• President has power to make

federal judicial nominations

• Congress has power to approve all federal judicial nominations




Presidential frustrations• Famous example of annoyance at Supreme Court in 1930s

– President Franklin Roosevelt convinced Congress to pass measures to combat the Great Depression

– Court declared some measures to be unconstitutional

• Roosevelt responded by introducing legislation to reorganize the federal judiciary

– Wanted to increase the size of the Court by adding new justices– Result would be larger Supreme Court with favorable majority

• Critics claimed Roosevelt trying to change balance of power with “court-packing” plan; Senate passed a watered-down plan

– Plan never implemented– In second term, Roosevelt able to replace five of the Supreme Court

justices; gained a sympathetic majority which upheld New Deal programs, including Social Security

Judicial ReviewDeciding constitutionality • Courts exercise judicial review—power to determine whether

actions of legislative and judicial branch are constitutional

• Any law or government action (federal or state) found to violate a part of the Constitution is said to be unconstitutional; act deemed illegal and cannot be enforced or carried out by the government

Judicial Review

Judicial review not mentioned in Constitution• Writers of Federalist Papers made it clear courts were to have such

power; an independent judiciary would serve as precaution against one branch becoming predominant over the others

• In 1803 the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review with the landmark case Marbury v. Madison

Deciding constitutionality • Courts exercise judicial review—power to determine whether

actions of legislative and judicial branch are constitutional

• Any law or government action (federal or state) found to violate a part of the Constitution is said to be unconstitutional; act deemed illegal and cannot be enforced or carried out by the government

Landmark Supreme Court CasesMarbury v. Madison (1803)

Why It Matters: Marbury v. Madison established the Supreme Court’s power to decide whether laws are constitutional. This power, called judicial review, is a basic principle of American government.

• The powers of government are distributed between the national government and state governments—federalism

• Framers struggled to find acceptable distribution of powers with the rights of states and sufficient national government strength

• Two clauses spell this out, Article I, Section 8 and Article VI

Federalism




Federalism

• Advocates for states rights found clauses troubling—where was limit to federal power

• Amendment X addresses issue

• Powers not delegated are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people

Supremacy clause




Federalism

• Advocates for states rights found clauses troubling—where was limit to federal power

• Amendment X addresses issue

• Powers not delegated are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people

Supremacy clause

• Language allows for strong federal government but guarantees states retain powers and rights

• Strong federal authority for national defense, disaster response, and highway construction accepted; disagreement with other issues

Flexibility

Debating the Issue: The Constitution and Privacy

Does the Constitution protect your right of privacy?

The Constitution does not explicitly mention such a right, but many people argue that the Constitution and Bill of Rights, whenread as a whole, protect an implied right of privacy.

This approach to constitutional interpretation is sometimes called “loose construction.”

Other people, calling for “strict construction,” argue that the Constitution should be read literally: The words on the page mean exactly—and only—what they say. When the Constitution is read strictly, people argue, it is improper to protect a broad right to privacy.

Debating the IssueThe Constitution and Privacy

Section 2 at a Glance

An Enduring Document• The Constitution is an enduring document that

has the ability to grow and change over time.• The Constitution includes a formal process for

adding amendments to the Constitution.• The Constitution has been amended 27 times.

The first 10 amendments are known as the Bill of Rights.

Reading Focus

• How did Jefferson and Madison differ in their views on amending the Constitution?

• Why might the Constitution be called a document for all time?

• By what processes can the Constitution be amended?

• What types of amendments have been added to the Constitution over the last 220 years?

Main IdeaThe Constitution is both a product of its time and a document for all time. It can be changed as society’s needs change.

An Enduring Document

A Constitution for All Generations

Jefferson and Madison on Amending the Constitution


Jefferson’s views• Jefferson felt Constitution should

not be changed on a whim but could be changed as society and circumstances changed

• Believed in each generation as “a distinct nation,” with the right to govern itself but not to bind succeeding generations

• Jefferson made his arguments in exchange of letters with fellow Virginian James Madison


Jefferson’s views• Jefferson felt Constitution should

not be changed on a whim but could be changed as society and circumstances changed

• Believed in each generation as “a distinct nation,” with the right to govern itself but not to bind succeeding generations

• Jefferson made his arguments in exchange of letters with fellow Virginian James Madison

Madison’s views• Madison felt laws and constitutions

grow in authority and acceptance the longer they go unchanged

• Worried that changing Constitution too often could split the country into factions

• Feared sectional rivalry would leave the nation prey to foreign powers and influence

• Madison feared periods of chaos might occur between periods of revision

A Document for All Time• Original Constitution a product of its time

– Reflects wisdom and biases of the Framers; relatively few changes in over 220 years

– Survived the Civil War, presidential assassinations, and economic crises to become world’s oldest written constitution

• Original document not perfect– Perpetuated injustices with compromises permitting slavery and the

slave trade

– States given power to set qualifications for voting; women, nonwhites, and poor people denied right to vote

– Decisions reflected societal attitudes of the times

• Ability to incorporate changing ideas of freedom and liberty keeps document relevant to each new generation since 1789

• Gives Americans the power to change the Constitution

• Is difficult in order to prevent momentary passions and prejudices of the majority from violating the rights of the rest of the citizens

• Might threaten the democratic structure of the government

The Amendment Process





• Describes process for amending the Constitution

• States that amendments must first be proposed, then ratified, or approved

• Provides two ways of proposing and two ways of ratifying

Article V





• Describes process for amending the Constitution

• States that amendments must first be proposed, then ratified, or approved

• Provides two ways of proposing and two ways of ratifying

Article V

• Two-step process required ratification by the states and so restricted power of Congress to change the Constitution

• Ensured that any change would reflect national will

• Supported principle of popular sovereignty

Different paths

• Each step in process requires supermajority—a majority that is larger than a simple majority

• Difficult process would weed out frivolous amendments

Supermajority required




Two ways can be proposed:

• by Congress, with the approval of at least two-thirds of the House and two-thirds of the Senate

• by delegates at a national convention that is called by Congress at the request of at least two-thirds of the state legislatures

Proposing an Amendment




Two ways can be proposed:

• by Congress, with the approval of at least two-thirds of the House and two-thirds of the Senate

• by delegates at a national convention that is called by Congress at the request of at least two-thirds of the state legislatures

Proposing an Amendment

• All of the amendments to the Constitution have been proposed by Congress

• Required number of states for a national convention has been nearly reached twice

• Convention supporters have never persuaded the last few needed states

Facts

Issues of convention• Wording of Article V does not

specify if convention is limited to proposing only the amendment it was called to consider

• Nonspecific wording could allow rest of Constitution to be opened for reconsideration and change

• Problem—convention could propose amendment to repeal First or Fourteenth Amendments that provide foundation for many rights enjoyed today

• Method of national convention has remained unused

Ratifying an Amendment• Congress sends proposed

amendment to 50 states for ratification; states can ratify in two ways—Congress determines which way is to be used

• To be voted on by state legislatures; at least three-fourths of state legislatures must approve an amendment

• Citizens elect delegates to conventions called in each state specifically to consider the amendment; passage requires approval by conventions in at least three-fourths of the states.

Issues of convention• Wording of Article V does not

specify if convention is limited to proposing only the amendment it was called to consider

• Nonspecific wording could allow rest of Constitution to be opened for reconsideration and change

• Problem—convention could propose amendment to repeal First or Fourteenth Amendments that provide foundation for many rights enjoyed today

• Method of national convention has remained unused

Rise and fall of prohibitionExample

• Passage and repeal of amendment on prohibition good example of ratification methods

• Prohibition—ban on production, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages

Rise and fall of prohibitionReformers

• 1800s and early 1900s: WCTU and Prohibition Party campaigned to outlaw alcoholic beverages

• Argued drinking alcohol led to idleness, violence, and increase in crime

Example• Passage and repeal of amendment

on prohibition good example of ratification methods





Eighteenth Amendment• 1917: Responding to public

demand, Congress proposed amendment

• 1919: Enough state legislatures had ratified the proposal to make it the Eighteenth Amendment; but drinking alcohol not banned







Eighteenth Amendment• 1917: Responding to public

demand, Congress proposed amendment

• 1919: Enough state legislatures had ratified the proposal to make it the Eighteenth Amendment; but drinking alcohol not banned

Prohibition unpopular• Lucrative trade in illegal alcohol; led

to organized crime, political corruption, and violence

• Groups of citizens led movement for reform; used many of same arguments




Twenty-first Amendment• Congress responded to new reform

movement

• Proposed to repeal prohibition and to give states power to regulate transportation and distribution of alcoholic beverages

• To repeal a law—to cancel or revoke it by a legislative act

• Only time method of ratification by state conventions of delegates elected specifically to vote on the issue used

• 36 states ratified within the year; Amendment XVIII was repealed by Amendment XXI

The Fate of Amendments• Changing the Constitution difficult

• More than 10,000 attempts have been suggested or proposed

• Only 33 amendments have been passed by Congress and sent to states for ratification

• 27 amendments have been adopted

• 6 have been rejected

Twenty-first Amendment• Congress responded to new reform

movement

• Proposed to repeal prohibition and to give states power to regulate transportation and distribution of alcoholic beverages

• To repeal a law—to cancel or revoke it by a legislative act

• Only time method of ratification by state conventions of delegates elected specifically to vote on the issue used

• 36 states ratified within the year; Amendment XVIII was repealed by Amendment XXI

• Process of adding to the Constitution began with the first ten amendments—the Bill of Rights; 17 more amendments added

• Identify, support, and protect some of most important rights

More than 200 Years of Amendments




• Designed to protected specific individual freedoms

• Various states offered up a total of 210 suggestions for amendments

• 12 amendments drafted; Congress passed them and sent on to states

• 10 of the 12 amendments were ratified; Bill of Rights adopted 1791

The Bill of Rights




• Designed to protected specific individual freedoms

• Various states offered up a total of 210 suggestions for amendments

• 12 amendments drafted; Congress passed them and sent on to states

• 10 of the 12 amendments were ratified; Bill of Rights adopted 1791

The Bill of Rights

• Restrictive; declares what federal government may not do

• Intended to guarantee individual’s exercise of certain basic freedoms

• First Amendment—right to practice religion freely, protects freedom of expression, and the right to ask the government to correct injustices

First Amendment

Amendment Guarantees• 2nd gives right to bear arms

• 3rd prohibits government from forcing citizens to quarter, or shelter, military troops in their homes

• 4th protects individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures of private property

• 5th and 6th guarantee due process of law; no self-incrimination; right to a speedy trial and the right to an attorney

• 7th through 10th protect rights or powers that belong to the states and to the people

The Other Amendments• After Civil War amendments

passed to ban slavery, to recognize all African Americans as U.S. citizens, and to give African American men various rights, including the right to vote

• Not often enforced from 1877 to 1965 in the South; Jim Crow laws put into effect

• Vigorous social reform; prohibition came and went

• Popular election of senators; women granted right to vote

• Constitution provides stable, flexible government

Amendment Guarantees• 2nd gives right to bear arms

• 3rd prohibits government from forcing citizens to quarter, or shelter, military troops in their homes

• 4th protects individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures of private property

• 5th and 6th guarantee due process of law; no self-incrimination; right to a speedy trial and the right to an attorney

• 7th through 10th protect rights or powers that belong to the states and to the people

Section 3 at a Glance

Applying the Constitution• Over time, the three branches of government—legislative,

executive, and judicial—have expanded the scope and application of the Constitution.

• Political parties, customs, and traditions have affected how the Constitution is applied and carried out.

• Political scholars have debated what some see as disadvantages of the framework of government established by the Constitution.

Reading Focus

• How have the three branches of government applied the Constitution?

• How have political parties, customs, and traditions changed how the Constitution is applied?

• What criticisms have some people made of the Constitution?

Main IdeaThe scope and impact of the Constitution have expanded as it has been put into practice, interpreted, and applied to new or changing social and political challenges.

Applying the Constitution

A Few Words, a Long Reach

• Framers created framework to be followed and filled in by citizens then and in later generations; put into action, the Constitution has been extended in reach and meaning

The Federal Government Applies the Constitution



• Section 1, Article III created the Supreme Court; Congress authorized to create “such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish”

• With Judiciary Act of 1789 created system of lower-level federal courts

• Congress has expanded the judicial branch as needed

Legislative Action



• Section 1, Article III created the Supreme Court; Congress authorized to create “such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish”

• With Judiciary Act of 1789 created system of lower-level federal courts

• Congress has expanded the judicial branch as needed

Legislative Action

• The executive branch is defined by the Constitution

• Two passing references made to executive departments

• Congressional legislation brought today’s department and agencies into being

• Congress pushes into areas where Constitution is silent

Creating and Defining

Uncertain ground• New technologies—personal

computers, cell phones

• Threatening international circumstances—possible attacks by terrorists

• Factors push Congress to test constitutional boundaries

• Supreme Court can strike down a new law; the Constitution remains unchanged

• Court upholds a new law; the application of the Constitution changes slightly

Executive Implementation • Presidents make executive

agreements—arrangements or compacts with foreign leaders or foreign governments

• Power not found in Constitution text; derived from acknowledged constitutional powers

• Executive agreements important to conducting foreign policy; can bypass long, formal treaty process

• Executive agreement used in 1990; created international coalition that defeated the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait

Uncertain ground• New technologies—personal

computers, cell phones

• Threatening international circumstances—possible attacks by terrorists

• Factors push Congress to test constitutional boundaries

• Supreme Court can strike down a new law; the Constitution remains unchanged

• Court upholds a new law; the application of the Constitution changes slightly

• Executive agreement has the force of a treaty; does not require Senate ratification

• Congress has authorized majority in advance or has approved themafter signing; most require subsequent congressional action



• Actions of the executive department and agencies change way the Constitution applied or interpreted

• Agencies must define their operations; carry out programs Congress has assigned to them



• Actions of the executive department and agencies change way the Constitution applied or interpreted

• Agencies must define their operations; carry out programs Congress has assigned to them

• Executive branch agencies usually have rule-making power; rules have force of law; examples are medicine we take and tap water

• Code of Federal Regulations, collection of all of the rules made by executive agencies; about 135,000 pages long

Judicial Interpretation• Modern-day cases a challenge

• “Unreasonable searches and seizures” in an era of airport screening devices, cell phones, and wireless Internet access

• Courts must interpret the Fourth Amendment in light of changing conditions; judges to apply the Constitution’s prohibitions to new technologies.

• Setting legal standards for law-enforcement to follow when intercepting private conversations, monitoring e-mail, and using other “searching” methods

How to Interpret• “Strict” versus “loose” construction

of the Constitution

• Strict interpretation of the Constitution means giving the words in the document only their literal meaning

• Loose construction means following the words plus any reasonable inferences that can be drawn from them

• In debates over national bank Thomas Jefferson was a strict constructionist; Alexander Hamilton was a loose constructionist

Judicial Interpretation• Modern-day cases a challenge

• “Unreasonable searches and seizures” in an era of airport screening devices, cell phones, and wireless Internet access

• Courts must interpret the Fourth Amendment in light of changing conditions; judges to apply the Constitution’s prohibitions to new technologies.

• Setting legal standards for law-enforcement to follow when intercepting private conversations, monitoring e-mail, and using other “searching” methods

• Political parties and entrenched customs and traditions affect how the Constitution is interpreted, applied, and carried out.

Political Parties, Customs, and Traditions



Political Parties• Political party—an organized

group that seeks to win elections in order to influence the activities of government

• Parties help determine the choice of candidates, policies, and programs presented to the voters

• Parties also help shape the judicial branch; deeply affect how government operates



Political Parties• Political party—an organized

group that seeks to win elections in order to influence the activities of government

• Parties help determine the choice of candidates, policies, and programs presented to the voters

• Parties also help shape the judicial branch; deeply affect how government operates

Legacy of Political Movements• Populists supported bank

regulation; government regulation of railroads; unlimited coinage of silver; direct election of senators

• Progressives took same causes as Populists; helped the urban poor

• Federal government regulated banks, food and drug safety, railroads, and business monopolies

• Now have PACs, online political commentators, and bloggers

Customs and Traditions

Customs and Traditions• Strongly influence how American government behaves

• Constitution authorizes the president to “require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments”

• Washington relied on language in Article II to create a cabinet—a group of advisers consisting of the heads of the executive departments; in time tradition of cabinet and cabinet meetings born

Customs and Traditions• Strongly influence how American government behaves

• Constitution authorizes the president to “require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments”

• Washington relied on language in Article II to create a cabinet—a group of advisers consisting of the heads of the executive departments; in time tradition of cabinet and cabinet meetings born

• Some traditions have become law; no president served more than two terms in office until Roosevelt broke with tradition with third and fourth terms as president in the 1940s

• Many Americans concerned; Congress passed the Twenty-second Amendment

• Presidents limited to two terms, formalizing the custom that began with Washington

Criticisms of the ConstitutionImperfections

• Brevity, insight, and flexibility commands respect

• Some agree with Jefferson’s prediction that “the imperfections of a written Constitution will become apparent”

Criticisms of the ConstitutionA System That Creates Gridlock

• Inability to govern effectively due to separation of powers—gridlock

• Can bring government to a standstill; 1995 budget dispute shut down the federal government for 27 days

Imperfections• Brevity, insight, and flexibility

commands respect





Questions about Representation• Constitution falls short of truly

representative democracy

• Most obvious in Senate; states with small populations have far more relative influence than residents of states with large populations


commands respect





Questions about Representation• Constitution falls short of truly

representative democracy

• Most obvious in Senate; states with small populations have far more relative influence than residents of states with large populations

The Electoral College• Electoral college—the body of 538

people elected from the 50 states and the District of Columbia

• Critics point to the fact that the winner of the popular vote may not win the presidency


commands respect


Winner-Take-All Elections• In elections for U.S. Congress, the candidate who receives the most votes is

elected to the House or Senate; candidate who comes in second or third goes home—even if he or she receives a large number of votes

• This type of election known as the winner-take-all system

• Many European parliaments use proportional representation

• Voters choose from party lists of candidates; seats are given to each party according to the percentage of the total votes they win

• More-popular parties will have a larger number of seats, but less-popular parties will not be entirely shut out of the parliament

• Supporters of proportional representation say it allows a larger variety of viewpoints to gain representation in the legislature

• Defenders of the U.S. system respond that proportional representation leads to fractured legislatures with many small parties, while the American process allows the party with the most support to govern

We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution

A New Constitution and a New GovernmentThe Constitution was a plan for the new national government thatdescribed the new government, its powers, and the limits on it. The Framers wrote the Constitution as a general framework and left out details they knew would be added in the future.

• What are Congress’s constitutional powers?• What are the president’s constitutional responsibilities?• What are the constitutional powers of the Supreme Court?

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