Contents

List of Contributors xxiii Preface xxix Preface to the Third Edition xxxi Dedication xxxiii

SECTION 1 F00DB0RNE DISEASE: EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DISEASE BURDEN

CHAPTER 1 Estimates of Disease Burden Associated with Contaminated Food in the United States and Globally 3 Elaine Scallan, Martyn Kirk, and Patricia M. Griffin

Introduction 3 Estimates of foodborne disease in the United States 4

Major known pathogens 4 Unspecified agents 9

Estimation in other countries 11 Global efforts 13 Methodological considerations 14 Conclusions 15 References 16

CHAPTER 2 The Foods Most Often Associated with Major Foodborne Pathogens: Attributing Illnesses to Food Sources and Ranking Pathogen/Food Combinations 19 Michael B. Batz

Introduction 19 Integrated measures of disease burden 19 Methods of foodborne illness source attribution 20 Analysis of US outbreak data for food source attribution 24 Assessing the applicability of outbreak-derived attribution estimates 26

Ranking pathogen/food combinations 27 Acknowledgments 30 References 30

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CHAPTER 3 Microbial Food Safety Risk Assessment 37 Anna Lammerding

Introduction 37 Background 38 Managing microbial food safety risks 42 The risk assessment framework 43

Hazard identification 43 Exposure assessment 43 Hazard characterization 44 Risk characterization 45

Risk assessment approaches 45 Summary 49 References 49

CHAPTER 4 Development of Risk-based Food Safety Systems for Foodborne Infections and Intoxications 53 Julie A. Caswell

Introduction 53 Building blocks for a risk-based food safety system 54 Elements of a risk-based food safety system 55

Step 1: Strategic planning 55 Step 2: Public health risk ranking 58 Step 3: Targeted information gathering and consideration

of other factors 59 Step 4: Analysis and selection of interventions 60 Step 5: Design of intervention plans 61 Step 6: Monitoring and review 61 The overall risk-based decision process 61

Challenges in implementing risk-based food safety systems 61 Summary 62 References 63

SECTION 2 FOODBORNE INFECTIONS: BACTERIAL

CHAPTER 5 Pathogen Updates: Salmonella 67 Tine Haid

Introduction 67 The disease in man 67

Symptoms and sequelae 67 Incidence and burden of human salmonellosis 68 Epidemiology and disease transmission in humans 71

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Microbiology 72 Classification 72 Characterization and virulence 73 Typing methods for tracing the sources of human infections 73

Source attribution: approaches and discussion of studies 75 Source attribution using microbial subtyping 75 Source attribution using outbreak data 79 Source attribution using systematic review of case-control studies 82 Other approaches for source attribution 83 Discussion of sources of human salmonellosis 86

Prevention and control 88 Prevention and control at the farm level 89 Control and prevention post harvest 90

Conclusions 90 References 91

CHAPTER 6 Clostridium perfringens Gastroenteritis 99 Ronald G. Labbé and V.K. J une ja

Introduction 99 Clinical features 99

Symptoms associated with foodbome illness 99 Mode of action of C. perfringens enterotoxin 99

Microbiology 100 Taxonomy 100 Location of CPE 100 Factors affecting growth 101 Growth during cooling 101 Sporulation .T 102 Enterotoxin formation during sporulation 102 Spore heat resistance 103 Spore germination 103 Detection of the organism and enterotoxin 103 Molecular methods 105

Exposure pathways 106 Reservoirs 106 Points of entry 106 Infectious dose 106

Prevention and control 107 References 107

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CHAPTER 7 Vibrios 113 Anita C. Wright and Valerie J. Harwood

Introduction 113 Clinical features 113

Disease manifestations 113 Host susceptibility 115

Microbiology 116 Genetics and evolution of pathogenic Vibrios 116 Diagnosis and species identification 118 Detection of virulence factors 119 Molecular and genomic typing 119

Exposure pathways 120 Reservoirs and entry into the food supply 120 Approaches to food attribution 121

Prevention and control 121 Hazard analysis of critical control points 121 Vibrio monitoring 121 Post-harvest processing 122

Conclusions 122 References 122

CHAPTER 8 Escherichia coli 129 Teresa Estrada-Garcia, Kim Hodges, Gail A. Hecht, and Phillip I. Tarr

Introduction 129 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) 130

Clinical features of EHEC infections 131 Microbiology of EHEC infections 131 Exposure pathways for EHEC infections 132 Prevention and control of EHEC infections 133

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 134 Clinical features of ETEC infections 134 Microbiology of ETEC infections 134 Exposure pathways for ETEC infections 135 Prevention and control of ETEC infections 136

Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) 136 Clinical features of EPEC infections 138 Microbiology of EPEC infections 138 Exposure pathways for EPEC infections 139 Prevention and control of EPEC infections 139

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Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) 139 History 139 Clinical features of EAEC infections 140 Microbiology of EAEC infections 141 Exposure pathways for EAEC infections 143 Prevention and control of EAEC infections 143

Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) 143 Clinical features of EIEC infections 144 Microbiology of EIEC infections 144 Exposure pathways for EIEC infections 144 Prevention and control of EIEC infections 145

Diffusely adhering E. coli (DAEC) 145 Clinical features of DAEC infections 145 Microbiology of DAEC infections 145 Exposure pathways for DAEC infections 145 Prevention and control of DAEC infections 146

The 2011 Escherichia coli 0104:H4 outbreak 146 Acknowledgments 147 References 148

CHAPTER 9 Campylobacter 165 Guillermo Ignacio Perez-Perez and Sabine Kienesberger

Introduction 165 The acute clinical illness 165 Sequels of infection 167 Genetics, characteristics and evolution 168 Diagnosis and identification 169

Diagnosis 169 Identification 170

Typing schemes 170 Exposure pathways—risk factors for human illness 171

Poultry consumption 171 Commercially prepared foods 172 Unpasteurized milk 172 Water 173 Zoonotic transmission 173 Foreign travel 173

Treatment indication and antimicrobial usage 173 Point of entry into the food supply and prevention 174

Processing controls 174

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Food handling 175 Zoonosis prevention 175 Food 175 Milk and water 176

Other Campylobacter species 176 C. lari 176 C. fetus subspecies fetus 176 C. hyointestinalis 177 C. upsaliensis 177

Acknowledgments 177 References 177

CHAPTER 10 Yersinia 187 Truls Nesbakken

Introduction 187 Clinical features of illness associated with infection in humans 187

Impact of host susceptibility on occurrence of illness 188 Microbiology 188

Phenotypic characterization 188 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 188 Characteristics of Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis including genetics and evolutionary considerations 189 Approaches to diagnosis and identification 189

Exposure pathways 190 Reservoirs 190 Infectious dose, pathogenesis, and immunity 192 Approaches to food attribution 192 Y. pseudotuberculosis 192 Occurrence in animals 193 Water and vegetables 193

Prevention and control 193 General control aspects connected to survival and growth of Y. enterocolitica 193 Control in the meat chain 194 Control of milk and dairy products 195 Drinking water and vegetables 195 Animal contact 196 Y. pseudotuberculosis 196

References 196

Contents xi

CHAPTER 11 Listeria 199 Siyuti Wang and Renato H. Orsi

Introduction 199 Microbiological characteristics of Listeria spp 199 Nature of infection in man and animals 202 Risks of Listeria monocytogenes contamination 203

Listeria monocytogenes as a high risk in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods 203 Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in foods 203 Quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) of L. monocytogenes in RTE foods 205 Persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in processing environments 206

Prevention and control of listeriosis 208 Detection of Listeria spp. and L. monocytogenes 208 Subtyping of L. monocytogenes 209 Prevention and treatment of listeriosis 209

Concluding remarks 210 References 210

CHAPTER 12 Shigella 217 Benjamin Nygren and Anna Bowen

Introduction 217 Clinical features of illness associated with infection 217 Microbiology 218 Exposure pathways 219 Prevention and control 220 References 221

CHAPTER 13 Streptococcal Disease 223 J. Glenn Morris, Jr.

Introduction 223 Clinical presentation 223

Streptococcal pharyngitis 223 Foodborne streptococcal disease 224

Microbiology 225 Exposure pathways 225 Prevention and control 226 References 226

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CHAPTER 14 Aeromonas and Plesiomonas 229 Christopher J. Grim

Introduction 229 Clinical features 229

Gastroenteritis 229 Extraintestinal infections 230 Host susceptibility 230

Microbiology 231 Aeromonas 231 Virulence factors of Aeromonas spp 231 Aeromonas spp. and clinical syndrome 232 Isolation of Aeromonas 232 Plesiomonas shigelloides 232 Isolation of P. shigelloides 233

Exposure pathways 233 Food attribution 234

Prevention and control 234 References 235

CHAPTER 15 Brucellosis 239 Morris E. Potter

Introduction 239 Clinical features 239 Microbiology 241 Exposure pathways 244 Prevention and control 246 Acknowledgments 249 References 249

CHAPTER 16 Cronobacter Species (formerly Enterobacter sakazakii) 251 B.D. Tall, C.J. Grim, A.A. Franco, K.G. Jarvis, L. Hu, M.H. Kothary, V. Sathyamoorthy, G. Gopinath, and S. Fanning

Introduction 251 Clinical features of illness associated with infection 251 Microbiology 252

General features 252 Thermoresistance properties 252

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Isolation and identification 252 Species-specific identification 253 Serotyping 253 Virulence mechanisms 253

Exposure pathways 254 Prevention and control 255 References 255

SECTION 3 FOODBORNE INFECTIONS: VIRAL

CHAPTER 17 Noroviruses 261 Melissa Jones and Stephanie M. Karst

Introduction 261 Clinical features 261

Disease manifestations 261 Genetic diversity 263 Epidemiology 263 Host susceptibility 265

Microbiology 265 Norovirus diagnostics 265

Exposure pathways 266 Reservoirs 266 Points of entry and movement from farm to fork 267 Approaches to food attribution 269

Prevention and control 269 Food processing to eliminate noroviruses 269 Advances in norovirus vaccination and development of therapeutics 271

References 271

CHAPTER 18 Hepatitis A 279 Umid M. Sharapov

Introduction 279 Clinical features 279 Microbiology 280 Exposure pathways 281 Prevention and control 282 References 283

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CHAPTER 19 Hepatitis E 287 Eyasu H. Teshale

Introduction 287 Clinical features 287 Microbiology 288 Exposure pathways 289 Prevention and control 289 References 290

CHAPTER 20 Astroviruses as Foodborne Infections 293 Erik A. Karlsson and Stacey Schultz-Cherry

Introduction 293 Clinical features of illness 293 Microbiology 293

Diagnosis/Detection 295 Exposure pathways 295 Prevention and control 297 References 298

CHAPTER 21 Rotavirus 303 Paul A. Gastafiaduy, Aron J. Hall, and Umesh D. Parashar

Introduction 303 Clinical features 304

Age distribution 304 Clinical presentation 304

Microbiology 304 Rotavirus structure 304 Rotavirus classification 305 Strain prevalence 305 Diagnosis 305 Immunity 306

Exposure pathways 306 Prevention and control 308

Endemic childhood rotavirus disease 308 Foodborne rotavirus disease 308

References 309

Contents

CHAPTER 22 Sapovirus 313 Aron J. Hall, Ben A. Lopman, and Jan Vinjé

Introduction 313 Clinical features 313 Microbiology 314 Exposure pathways 315 Prevention and control 317 References 318

SECTION 4 F00DB0RNE INFECTIONS: PARASITES AND OTHERS

CHAPTER 23 Toxoplasma gondii 323 Marieke Opsteegh, Joke van der Giessen, Titia Kortbeek, and Arie Havelaar

Introduction 323 Toxoplasmosis 323

Congenital toxoplasmosis 323 Acquired toxoplasmosis 324

Microbiology 325 Life cycle 325 Genetic variation 327 Subtyping 327

Exposure pathways 327 Sources of infection 327 Source attribution 328

Prevention and control 330 Primary prevention 330 Secondary prevention 331

References 332

CHAPTER 24 Mycobacterial Species 337 Michael J. Dark

Introduction 337 Clinical features 337 Microbiology 338 Exposure pathways 339 Prevention and control 340 References 340

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CHAPTER 25 Trichinella 343 Heather Stockdale Waiden

Introduction 343 Clinical features 343 Biology of Trichinella 345 From farm to fork 349 Control and prevention 349 References 350

CHAPTER 26 Food Safety Implications of Prion Disease 353 Alan J. Young and Jürgen A. Rieht

Introduction 353 Clinical features 354 Microbiology 356 Exposure pathways 359 Prevention and control 360 References 362

SECTION 5 INTOXICATIONS

CHAPTER 27 Clostridium botulinum 371 Kathleen Glass and Kristin Marshall

Introduction 371 Characteristics of the disease 371

Botulism 371 Diagnosis of botulism 373

Microbiology 373 Characteristics 373 Genetics and evolutionary considerations 375 BoNT structure and function 376 Isolation and identification of C. botulinum and botulinum neurotoxins 377

Exposure pathways 378 Reservoirs 378 Infectious dose 379 Food attribution 380

Prevention and control 381 Spore destruction 381

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Growth inhibition 382 References 384

CHAPTER 28 Staphylococcal Food Poisoning 389 Mariza Landgraf and Maria Teresa Destro

Introduction 389 Clinical features 389 The microorganism 390

Staphylococcal enterotoxins 391 Detection of S. aureus and enterotoxins 394

Exposure pathways 395 Factors influencing growth and survival 395 Reservoirs 396 Outbreaks 396

Prevention and control 397 Conclusions 397 References 397

CHAPTER 29 Bacillus cereus 401 Tarek F. El-Arabi and Mansel W. Griffiths

Introduction 401 Clinical features of Bacillus cereus food poisoning 401

Bacillus cereus diarrheal syndrome 401 Bacillus cereus emetic syndrome 402

Characteristics of Bacillus cereus 403 Growth and survival 403 Identification of Bacillus cereus 404

Presence of B. cereus in foods 404 Treatment and prevention 405 References 405

CHAPTER 30 Mycotoxins 409 John /. Pitt

Introduction 409 Aflatoxins 409

Health effects 409 Fungal species producing anatoxins 411 Aflatoxin formation in crops and its control 411

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Ochratoxin A 412 Health effects 412 Fungal species producing OTA 413 Control of OTA formation in crops 414

Fumonisins 414 Health effects 414 Fungal species producing fumonisins 415 Control of fumonisin formation in crops 415

Deoxynivalenol (DON) 415 Health effects 415 Fungal species producing DON 416 Control of DON formation in crops 416

Zearalenone 416 Health effects 416 Fungal species producing zearalenone and control 416

Methodology in mycotoxin detection 416 References 417

CHAPTER 31 Seafood Intoxications 419 Lynn Grattan, Sailor Holobaugh, and J. Glenn Morris

Introduction 419 Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) 420

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 424 Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) 425

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 425 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) 426

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 426 Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) 427

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 427 Diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) 428

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 428 Tetrodotoxin poisoning/puffer fish poisoning 428

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 429 Scombroid poisoning 429

Diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and treatment 430 Prevention of seafood intoxication 430 References 431 References related to Figure 31.1 (all accessed on 1/24/2012) 434

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CHAPTER 32 Plant Toxins 435 Ahmed. Mohamed Calai Osman, Amar G. Chittìboyìna, and Ikhlas A. Khan

Introduction 435 Alkaloids 436

Pyrrolidine alkaloids 436 Tropane alkaloids 440 Quinolizidine alkaloids 441 Glycoalkaloids 442 Pyrimidine alkaloids 443

Cyanogenic glycosides 444 Glucosinolates and isothiocyanates 445 Furanocoumarins 446 Conclusion 447 References 447

SECTION 6 POLICY AND PREVENTION OF F00DB0RNE DISEASES

CHAPTER 33 Effects of Food Processing on Disease Agents.... 455 Alfredo C. Rodriguez

Introduction 455 Food processing 456 Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) 457 Drying 457 Refrigeration 458 Freezing 458 Canning—sterilization and pasteurization 458 Trimming and cleaning 459 Fermentation 459 Nixtamalization 459

Measurement of the microbial population density 459 Relationship between the microbial population density and the probability of failure 460 Initial population density or bioburden 462 Reduction of the population density 468

Inactivation 469 Calculation of the population density 471 Cleaning 474

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Post-process growth 476 Conclusion 477 References 477

CHAPTER 34 Food Safety Post-processing: Transportation, Supermarkets, and Restaurants 479 Richard H. Linton and David Z. McSwane

Introduction 479 Transportation of food 480

Food safety risks and preventive measures during transportation 481

Retail and food service 481 Food safety risk factors for food service, restaurant, and retail food establishments 481 The Conference for Food Protection 486 The FDA Food Code 486

Food safety management programs for transportation, retail, and food service 487

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) 489 Good retail practices (GRPs) 489 Risk-based inspections 491 Global food safety initiative 492

FDA Food Modernization Act 493 Education, training, and food safety culture 493 References 494

CHAPTER 35 HACCP and Other Regulatory Approaches to Prevention of Foodborne Diseases 497 Neal D. Fortin

Introduction 497 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) 498 Pre-HACCP implementation of systems control 498 HACCP implementation 499

HACCP implementation for seafood 499 HACCP implementation for raw juice 500 HACCP implementation for meat and poultry 501 HACCP for retail food establishments 502

FSMA and new science-based, preventive controls 503 Mandatory risk-based preventive controls 503 Mandatory produce safety standards 505

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Contaminant-specific, science-based performance standards 506 Inspection and compliance 507

Some points about compliance 507 Prerequisites neglect 508 Preparing a risk control plan 508 Verification, validation, and monitoring 509

Conclusion 509 References 510

CHAPTER 36 The Legal Basis for Food Safety Regulation in the USA and EU 511 Caroline Smith DeWaal, Cynthia Roberts, and David Plunkett

Introduction 511 Early food laws in the United States 511

The advent of federal regulation 512 Meat, poultry, and eggs 513

The federal meat inspection acts 513 Additional legislation for meat, poultry, and eggs 514

Non-animal products, dairy, and seafood 515 The Pure Food and Drugs Act 515 The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) 515 Dairy 516 Seafood 517

Pesticides and food additives 517 The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) 518 The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) 518

A modern food safety system 520 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) 520 The 2011 FDA Food Safety Modernization Act 521

Development of food safety law in the European Union 522 European food law from the Middle Ages to today 522 Food safety crises 1990-2002 and modern developments ...523 Elements of European food law 523 Challenges for European food law 524

References 525

Index 529