scientific research in medecine
TRANSCRIPT
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ScientificResearch in Medecine
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1. STAGES AND ELEMENTS WITHIN THE
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH- GENERALCONSIDERATIONS
1.1. Choosing the topic
1.2. Defining the work theory
1.3. Elaborating the plan
1.4. Bibliographical documentation
1.5. The development of the research
plan
1.6. The analysis of the results
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1.1. Choosing the topic
- the interest for a specific field - individual
motivation
- the amount of general theoretical knowledge - the amount of theoretical knowledge in the
field (to inquire into the field individually)
- documentation possibilities
- prior knowledge
- practical aptitudes
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1.2. Defining the work theory
Consideration points: - defining aspects on the subject
- the existence of former concerns - suggestions of solutions - the existing unknown quantity
- possible difficulties On the bases of this, there can be
formulated at least one theory of work
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1.3. Elaborating the plan
- setting out the manner for planned research:experiment, direct observation, inquiry,comparative analysis
- estimating the period of time necessary forthe development of the research
- identifying some intermediary stages/phases-allow the periodical evaluation of the results andthe acomplished progress
- estimating the necessary material andequipement, in accordance with the
organization on intermediary stages/phases
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1.4. Bibliographical
documentation
- knowledge of the preocupations and recent
results on the themes approached
- access to the bibliographic sources specific tothe themes, known as international scientific
authorities (high reputation magazines, recent
editions of some monographs, volumes of
works presented within some congresses, sitesthat belong to institutions with programs of
research on the subject )
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1.5. The development of the research
plan
The Experiment
- a phenomenon created in experimental
conditions which are known, by eliminating as
many outside influences as possible - it is created under strit observation to
emphasize the relations between phenomena
- it requires knowing in detail the technical
methods used in order to be able to estimatethe limits and the precision degree that can be
achieved.
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Fundamental rules in the organization
and development of experiments
- the variability of one agent ( modern statistic methods allow the
testing of a larger nomber of variables at the same time)
- the systematic elimination of various alternatives in the
interpretation of the relation cause- effect thus obtaining a limitedarea upon which the research can be concentrated
- the possibility of repetition - hard to achieve in the case of
the biological experiment
- registering every detail
- objectivity in the interpretation and evaluation of results - disregarding these fundamental rules > the stoppage of the
research
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The reproduction of an
experiment
- the results vary in the case of the
constant maintenance of known agents
> one or more than one unknownagents alter the results > interesting
discovery
> technical error > examination ofthe technical details is very important
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The "controlled" experiment - the
basis of experimental studies
- uses similar groups (randomly chosen, as similar as possible onall accounts, except for the variable agent on study)
- group "controll", "witness" - standard - group "test", "experimental" - subjected to a procedure which has
an effect that is expected to be known - selecting the groups: - logic, common sense - statistic methods to decide the criteria > distribution - random selection - one group = a sample from a
hypothetical population, infinetely large (special techniques tochoose a random sample and estimate the necessary size for it tobe representative)
- the variability of the biological material - limited controllover the subjects, mathematic techniques of correcting the
differences
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A classification of
experiments a) the crucial experiment - verifies if the main hypothesis is true or not b) the preliminary experiment - economic nature - achieves a partial evaluation
- subtypes: - the pilot experiment- provides information about the opportunity of a field experiment on
a large scale - the acknoledgement experiment- offers the necessary data to orientate the planning of
the main experiment - the selection experiment- tests a large nomber of substances to discover which of them
can be later on selected for a purpose.
c) the simple, one- variable experiment - tests a single variable d) the complex, multi- variable experiment - includes more than one variable in the same experiment - economy of time and effort
- offers a larger amount of information in comparison to the information received if every
variable would be treated separately.
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1.6. The analysis of the
results
- objective quantitative determinations - mathematical statistis methods: - utilizable in the examination of a hypothesis - limited significance, does not initiate a discovery - the medium value of the results offers a small
amount of information - more useful: the curve of the frequence
distributions, concrete numerical values with referenceto individual cases
- the error degree tolerated in the result -correlated with the precision imposed by the purpose of
the research
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2. THE MOTIVATIONSAND THEQUALITIES OF
THE RESEARCH WORKER
- the challenge of the unknown (personal,
intelectual)
- ambition - the professional schooling (as a future
practitioner medical examiner, for the didactic
carrier, for the CV)
- the education of the way of thinking
- to achieve a name in the medical community
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2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THEQUALITIESOF
THE RESEARCHWORKER
- open, curious mind, independent thought - logical thinking - objectivity - imagination - close analysis of the documentation with a certain degree of skepticism
- solid knowledge, in order to be able to understand the existing information in the specializedliterature
- discipline - tenacity, perseverance - ambition - ingenuity - self-evaluation, knowing one's limits
- perceptive faculty - adventureous spirit - initiative - patience (whole years of waiting) - taking chances - personal sacrifices - power to work
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3. THEORIES AND OBSERVATIONS AS
ORIGIN OF THE RESEARCH APPROACH
3.1. The hypothesis - assumption, temporary explanation, stated on the basis of some facts,
connections or known laws regarding some connections betweenphenomena, at the cause or the intern mechanism which produces it
- mental technique is the most important device the researcher can use - every scientific theory appears at the beginning under the shape of a
hypothesis (the natural selection theory) - objective thinking is to be kept at all times ( attachment, modification or
elimination; avoiding the misinterpretation of the observations and thepersonal interpretations in favour of the hypothesis)
- the purposes of the hypothesis: - (i) to descipher the meaning of a phenomenon/ event that is
insufficiently known; - (ii) to lead to new observations and new experiments
- types of hypothesis: a) correct; b) incorrect; c) personal; d) taken over.
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Objective thinking
a) abandoning or modifying an incorrect hypothesis - the facts must be interpreted objectively and not in accordance
with the hypothesis - the value of the visible proof (negative) - avoiding the auxiliary hypotheses, complicated or improbable
(saving device) - the difference between: - maintaining a hypothesis contradicted by evidence
- maintaining a hypothesis (difficult to demontrate) againstwhich there is no evidence
- the hypothesis goes beyond the technical/ data level of theauxiliary domains (necessary for verification) existing at a certain
point
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Objective thinking
b) objectivity - hypothesis = assumption
- personal opinions > subordinated to theobjective evidence - the respect for the truth - not altering the results
- the principle of the multiple hypotheses - the principle of the successive order of the
hypotheses - the value of the information that is not in
accordance with the hypothesis
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Objective thinking
c) estimating an idea - not every idea can become a hypothesis - the grounds on which an idea can become a scientific
hypothesis are: - it has to be in accordance with the factual
material for the explanation of which it was formulated - verifiable on principle
- it has to be explainatory for a sphere as large aspossible of phenomena, not only for the restricted groupon the basis of which it was initially formulated
- the danger of the "clear" ideas
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Correct/ incorrect hypothesis
( correctness)
a) Correct hypothesis - verified through experiment > concordant results > necessary
other experimental evidence for certitude
- veracity - established for those particular circumstances whichprevale in the achieved experimental conditions - an immediate solution of the problem under study is obtained - the arrival to a different hypothesis > different directions > new
directions of investigation, available in as many as possibleparticular cases
- the work hypothesis ( temporary aspect, formulated on the basisof the experimental data existing at a certain point, orientates thedevelopment of new directions in research)
- validity in any given conditions > theory > law
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Correct/ incorrect hypothesis
( correctness)
b) Incorret hypothesis - can be productive > descoveries
- verified through experiment >nonconcordant results > renounciation? - the contradictory results can be brought into
unison with another auxiliary hypothesis,
playing an explanatory part - the main hypothesis > the new hypothesis
( synthesizes the added data)
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Personal/ taken over
hypothesis (originality)
- the motivation of confirmation is
stronger for the personal hypothesis;
- the confirmation of a hypothesis thatwas taken over > reward for the actual
author
- the hypothesis that was taken over > byinducing, not imposing
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3.2. The observation
- an active intelectual process, not passsive visualization - a device for the scientific knowledge > the methodical and
deliberate contemplation of an object or process according to apurpose
- very difficult, subjective ( depending on the person that observes- the degree of the observation of details, the direction of theobservation according to personal interests)
- very simple phenomena are difficult to notice and hard todescribe with precision
- depending on the degree of novelty of the element ( it is possibleto see an element more than one time without mentaly registeringit), on the interest of the observer
- the observers:
- attentive, focused ( watching, searching)
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3.2. The observation
- calm, relaxed - prepared ( for the expected elements as well as for the
unforeseen ones) - there still appear errors that they are not aware of - the efficient observation = to signal a certain element, to point out
the meaning connecting it with something that was priorly known - the risk of making a false observation: sensorial, of reason ( the
mind has the involuntary tendency to fill out the gaps in knowledgewith information in accordance with the prior experience or
knowledge, or with some conscious expectations) - elements that are involved: - sensorial - perceptive ( visual, etc. ) - intelectual - partially conscious, partially uncounscious
- the field of observation: selective, without neglecting the whole
and the unexpeted elements
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Types of observation
a) Spontaneous or passive observation - requires the establishment of facts as they happen naturally, without the
intervention of the subject > significant, if related to the memory(theoretical, practical data) or if they trigger the formulation of a hypothesis
- the purpose of the ovservation in the establishment of correlationsbetweeen things apparently not connected
- the accuracy and selection of information depends on: - the experience of the "trained" observer (details, signification) - the capacity to pass judgement
- the level of training - the ditributive attention > the observation of exceptions - intelectual, speculative-contemplative attitude - useful: notes, drawings
- allows the development of the hypothesis from which the observer
started on or the development of other hypotheses
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Types of observation
b) Induced or active observation
- deliberately searched for, usually on the
basis of a hypothesis - the experiment = provoked observation
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4. INTUITION AND IMAGINATION IN
THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
4.1. Intuition - its origin is in the subconscious
- clearing up or quick understanding of a situation
- the moment can be dependent or independent of the pursuit of aproblem
- not every intuitive thought is correct
- circumstances that lead to the emergence of the intuitive thought:
- a period of concentration on one subject - the will to finalize it
- professional discussions, elaborating material in writing or
reading some articles - on different subjects
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INTUITION
- the principle of temporary detachment: a consecutive period ofpause, with the orientation of the attention to some other directionbecause the messages from the subconscious may not bereceived if the conscious thinking is constantly occupied or too tired
- different influences: the interruption, competing interests,personal problems
- the scientific flair - instinctive - "scientific instinct", scientific sense - practical: - the choice for a productive direction in the investigation
- the capacity to anticipate the directions of development ofthe subject, using the imagination for a perspective view
- recognizing the best solutions - eliminating the hypotheses that need too many
modifications
- forming an oppinion concerning some new discoveries
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4.2. Imagination
- mental process of creation of some new ideas orrepresentations, on the basis of the prior perceptive andcognitive experience
- based on reality, essential moment of the creativethinking - types: (I) reproductive( mental representation of some
objects or phenomena which are not directly perceived,on the basis of descriptions), (ii) creative( elaborating
images and original new ideas) - educated, controlled by critical spirit and judgement
- uneducated > false leads, incorrect results
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4.3. Characteristics of the
way of thinking
Inventive thinking
- the information/ unknown elements, difficulties > the stimulus >
the idea ( conscious thinking, unconscious thinking, imagination) >
reason > examining the idea >accepting it/ rejecting it
Productive thinking
- operates with a large nomber of various combinations
Conditioned thinking
- instinctively, the same route is fallowed every time > the risk of
the persistence of error - solution > a different way of approach, relaxing the thinking,
discussion
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5. REASONINGS AND STRATEGIES IN SETTING OUT
THE METHODOLOGY OF WORK AND THE
EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS
- research and actions orienting agent
- logical thinking
- occurs in descoveries, along with theexperimental results, unexpected
observations, intuition
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5.2. Reasoning
- verifies, interprets, develops descoveries,building a general theoretical scheme
- consciously/ subconsciously influenced byfeelings, prejudices, past experiences
- medical sciences > complex phenomena =incompletely defined premise > uncertainargument
- high degree of probability > argument/speculation (upon something)
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Types of reasoning
a) inductive reasoning - from particular cases to general principles,
from facts to theories - more productive > new theories - its value is debatable > uses a series of facts
from which more possible theories result, not all
of these theories can be true - it does not rely on the mecanic application of
logic, but on intuition - personal judgement hasits part
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Types of reasoning
b) deductive reasoning
- from general to particular, applying the
theory to a particular case - does not lead to new general
conclusions
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Types of reasoning
c) reasoning by analogy - similarity appears mostly between the
systems of relations of things, than betweenthings
- gives suggestions about clues andhypotheses for the phenomena and eventswhich we can not directly perceive
- limits: may lead to error; does not giveevidence
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5.3. Strategy
- planning the research: useful or not? - is best elaborated by the researcher commited to that theme - major descoveries are seldomly the result of the systematic
accumulation of data in accordance with some planning - there are no general rules - general strategy: following an objective, but at the same time
having the availability to notice any unexpected favourable event - three distinctive levels of planning: - (i) on short term ( the concrete way of performance;
available only for the experiment it was created for) - (ii) on long term ( perspective approach, on larger
coordinates)
- (iii) planning policy > commitee (investigating problems,
approving projects, supporting researchers)
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Research as teamwork
- the part played by the leader is important, aswell as the personality of every member of theteam
- distribution of responsabilities, without anydetailed and rigid planning of the taskseveryone has to fulfill within the general plan ofthe team, this way not only does every member
have to undestand the problems asigned tohim/her but have a general view of the theme
- the utility of the planning, the flexibility - conditions that contribute to the learning of
the the research technique
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5.4. Types of research
The Applied research - deliberate investigation of a problem of practical importance
- it horizontally passes through many fundamental sciences
- the objective is pre-established, the means to reach it are looked for - after the arrival to a solution of imediat interest, there follows an
understanding of the basic principles > the results will have larger general
applicability
- the "transfer" method: the central idea is given by the application of a
new principle or technique, discovered in a different domain > manydiscoveries have applications in other domains rather than the domains
they were discovered in> once applied, they are instruments with the help
of which other discoveries can be obtained
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Types of research
The Fundamental research
- the objective is the scientific knowledge
per se - it begins with un interesting,
unexpected lead, without trying to obtainresults having a practical value
- first there is the discovery, afterwards autility for the discovery is searched for
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Types of research
The Exploration research
- approaches new theories
- is independant and has its risks - may lead to major discoveries or to
nothing
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Types of research
The Progress research
- approaches a field already won over,
consolidates the progress made, uses inpractice the results obtained through the
exploration research
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Types of research
The Frontier research
- implies a gathering of more than
onesciences, or branches of one science - uses and binds together knowledge
6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE
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6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THEDOCUMENTATION IN THE RESEARCH
ACTIVITY
- selecting the bibliographical material inaccordance with the type of research
- the systematization of all the sources
containing the data and existing information - the synthesizing and analysis of the resulted
material from the documantation
- the formulation, as precise as possible, of theresearch theme and the connections that mustbe followed with the results that are reported inliterature