SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND RESEARCHRESEARCH

Mukut HazarikaMukut HazarikaDepartment of EducationDepartment of Education

Dibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh UniversityEmail : Email : mukuthazarika@hotmail.commukuthazarika@hotmail.com

Man’s Search for KnowledgeMan’s Search for Knowledge

AuthorityAuthority

TraditionTradition

ExperienceExperience

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

Scientific MethodScientific Method

ExperienceExperienceConfronted with a problem , man often Confronted with a problem , man often tries to seek its answers from his or tries to seek its answers from his or other’s personal experiences.other’s personal experiences.LimitationsLimitations : :– The person may omit evidences that do not agree with The person may omit evidences that do not agree with

his opinion.his opinion.– May use measuring instruments that require many May use measuring instruments that require many

subjective estimates.subjective estimates.– Establishes a belief on insufficient evidences.Establishes a belief on insufficient evidences.– Fails to observe significant factorsFails to observe significant factors– Draws improper conclusions owing to personal Draws improper conclusions owing to personal

prejudices.prejudices.

Deductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning, the first systematic Deductive Reasoning, the first systematic approach to reasoning, is attributed to approach to reasoning, is attributed to Aristotle and the Greeks.Aristotle and the Greeks.Syllogism is a thinking process that Syllogism is a thinking process that establish a relationship between aestablish a relationship between a Major Major Premise Premise (a self-evident truth), a(a self-evident truth), a Minor Minor PremisePremise and a and a Conclusion. Conclusion.Major Premise : Major Premise : All men are mortal.All men are mortal.Minor Premise :Minor Premise : B F Skinner is a man.B F Skinner is a man.ConclusionConclusion :: B F Skinner is mortal.B F Skinner is mortal.

LIMITATIONS :LIMITATIONS :

Not fruitful in arriving at new truths.Not fruitful in arriving at new truths.

Acceptance of incomplete or false Acceptance of incomplete or false major premises may lead to a wrong major premises may lead to a wrong conclusion.conclusion.

Semantic difficulties may lead to Semantic difficulties may lead to wrong conclusion.wrong conclusion.

Inductive ReasoningInductive ReasoningFrancis Bacon was the exponent of this Francis Bacon was the exponent of this type of reasoning.type of reasoning.

In Inductive Reasoning a conclusion is In Inductive Reasoning a conclusion is reached by observing instances and reached by observing instances and generalizing from instances to the whole generalizing from instances to the whole phenomenon.phenomenon.

LimitationsLimitations : :– All the evidences may not be possible to be All the evidences may not be possible to be

observed.observed.– It can not lead beyond generalisation.It can not lead beyond generalisation.

Scientific MethodScientific Method

The scientific Method is attributed to The scientific Method is attributed to Charles Darwin.Charles Darwin.

It integrates the most important It integrates the most important aspects of Deductive and Inductive aspects of Deductive and Inductive Methods.Methods.

Steps in Scientific MethodSteps in Scientific MethodIdentification and definition of the Identification and definition of the problem.problem.Formulation of a hypothesis.Formulation of a hypothesis.Implication of hypothesis through Implication of hypothesis through deductive reasoning.deductive reasoning.Collection and analysis of evidence.Collection and analysis of evidence.Verification, acceptance, rejection Verification, acceptance, rejection or modification of the hypothesisor modification of the hypothesis..

ResearchResearch‘‘Research may be defined as the Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the observations that may lead to the development of generalisations, development of generalisations, principles, or theories, resulting in principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.’ Best and Kahn control of events.’ Best and Kahn (1989)(1989)

‘‘Scientific Research is systematic, Scientific Research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.’ Kerlinger, F.N. (1978)natural phenomena.’ Kerlinger, F.N. (1978)‘‘Research is an inquiry process that has Research is an inquiry process that has clearly defined parameters and has as its clearly defined parameters and has as its aims the discovery or creation of aims the discovery or creation of knowledge, or theory building; testing, knowledge, or theory building; testing, confirmation, revision, refutation of confirmation, revision, refutation of knowledge and theory; and / or knowledge and theory; and / or investigation of a problem for local investigation of a problem for local decision-making.’ McClure and Hersson decision-making.’ McClure and Hersson (1991)(1991)

Research is ‘an objective, Research is ‘an objective, impartial, empirical and logical impartial, empirical and logical analysis and recording of analysis and recording of controlled observations that may controlled observations that may lead to the development of lead to the development of generalizations, principles or generalizations, principles or theories, resulting to some extent theories, resulting to some extent in prediction and control of events in prediction and control of events that may be consequences or that may be consequences or causes of specific phenomena.’ causes of specific phenomena.’ Kohl (1984)Kohl (1984)

Research ProcessResearch ProcessSelection of broad Research Problem and Selection of broad Research Problem and defining it.defining it.Formulation of Research Questions Formulation of Research Questions (Hypotheses).(Hypotheses).Selection of Research Method, Design, Selection of Research Method, Design, Sample, Tools and Techniques.Sample, Tools and Techniques.Field work – data collection.Field work – data collection.Analysis and interpretation of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, drawing conclusions.drawing conclusions.Reporting the results.Reporting the results.

Characteristics of Research Characteristics of Research (Best and Kahn)(Best and Kahn)

Research is directed towards the solution of a Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.problem.Research emphasizes the development of Research emphasizes the development of generalisations, principles, or theories that will be generalisations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.helpful in predicting future occurrences.Research is based upon observable experience or Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.empirical evidence.Research demands accurate observation and Research demands accurate observation and description.description.Research involves gathering new data from Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing primary or first hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.data for a new purpose.Research is characterized by carefully designed Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures. procedures.

Research requires expertise.Research requires expertise.

Research strives to be objective.Research strives to be objective.

Research involves the quest for Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.answers to unsolved problems.

Research is characterized by patient Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.and unhurried activity.

Research is carefully recorded and Research is carefully recorded and reported.reported.

Research sometimes requires Research sometimes requires courage.courage.

Aims of Educational ResearchAims of Educational ResearchFinding truth.Finding truth.Testing hypothesis(es).Testing hypothesis(es).Establishing relationship(s).Establishing relationship(s).Theory-building.Theory-building.Verification and testing of existing facts, theories, Verification and testing of existing facts, theories, principles etc.principles etc.Revision of existing theories.Revision of existing theories.Finding solutions to problems / questions.Finding solutions to problems / questions.Providing a scientific basis for planning, decision-Providing a scientific basis for planning, decision-making, policy formulation, policy revision etc.making, policy formulation, policy revision etc.Predicting behaviours, forcasting outcomes, Predicting behaviours, forcasting outcomes, events etc.events etc.

NEED FOR RESEARCH IN NEED FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONEDUCATION

Through research we can widen the basic corpus Through research we can widen the basic corpus of knowledge in different aspects of Education.of knowledge in different aspects of Education.Education is considered both as a science and an Education is considered both as a science and an art. Research helps us to gain knowledge about art. Research helps us to gain knowledge about its ‘Science’ and ‘Art’ aspects.its ‘Science’ and ‘Art’ aspects.Research helps us to gain true knowledge in a Research helps us to gain true knowledge in a faster but accurate manner.faster but accurate manner.The concept of Education is not static but The concept of Education is not static but dynamic. To cope up with the changing needs dynamic. To cope up with the changing needs one needs to do research.one needs to do research.Research in education helps us to cope up with Research in education helps us to cope up with the rapid scientific and technological the rapid scientific and technological developments.developments.

Types of ResearchTypes of Research(on the basis of objectives)(on the basis of objectives)

Fundamental, Basic or Pure Fundamental, Basic or Pure Research.Research.

Applied Research.Applied Research.

Action Research.Action Research.

Fundamental or Basic Research Fundamental or Basic Research

Main objective is to generate new Main objective is to generate new knowledge and to develop theories knowledge and to develop theories or principles.or principles.

Carried out generally in a controlled Carried out generally in a controlled situation.situation.

Application of principles and theories Application of principles and theories is secondary consideration here.is secondary consideration here.

Applied ResearchApplied ResearchIt aims at exploring the extent of It aims at exploring the extent of applicability of new knowledge – theories, applicability of new knowledge – theories, principles, generalizations etc. to a novel principles, generalizations etc. to a novel situation.situation.Its main purpose is improving a product or Its main purpose is improving a product or a process – testing theoretical concepts in a process – testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situations.actual problem situations.Most of the educational research are Most of the educational research are applied research as they are mainly applied research as they are mainly concerned with testing of theories in concerned with testing of theories in teaching-learning processes and teaching-learning processes and instructional materials.instructional materials.

Action ResearchAction ResearchAction Research is a purposeful and goal oriented Action Research is a purposeful and goal oriented activity undertaken by practitioners with the activity undertaken by practitioners with the purpose of improving and modifying their purpose of improving and modifying their practices with a view to achieve better results.practices with a view to achieve better results.Action Research is focused on immediate Action Research is focused on immediate application, not on the development of theory or application, not on the development of theory or on general application.on general application.Its findings are evaluated in terms of local Its findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability, not universal validity.applicability, not universal validity.Its main purpose is to improve school practices Its main purpose is to improve school practices and also to improve those who try to improve the and also to improve those who try to improve the practices.practices.

Types of ResearchTypes of Research(on the basis of approach)(on the basis of approach)

Qualitative Research and Qualitative Research and

Quantitative Research.Quantitative Research.

Qualitative ResearchQualitative ResearchCharacteristicsCharacteristics– The approach is inductive.The approach is inductive.– Its focus is on specific situations, institutions, Its focus is on specific situations, institutions,

communities, groups of people etc.communities, groups of people etc.– Its focus is on causes, interpretations and Its focus is on causes, interpretations and

implications rather than quantitative scores, implications rather than quantitative scores, measurement and statistical analysis.measurement and statistical analysis.

– It emphasizes on personalized experiences It emphasizes on personalized experiences rather than structured tools.rather than structured tools.

– It is generally based on smaller number of It is generally based on smaller number of cases.cases.

PurposePurposeUnderstanding the meaning of broad terms like Understanding the meaning of broad terms like attitude, prejudice, organizational climate etc,attitude, prejudice, organizational climate etc,Understanding the context in which some Understanding the context in which some behaviour / phenomenon takes place,behaviour / phenomenon takes place,Identifying an anticipated behaviour,Identifying an anticipated behaviour,Understanding the process,Understanding the process,Developing causal explanations,Developing causal explanations,In-depth study to find out the factors of a In-depth study to find out the factors of a particular behaviour or phenomenon,particular behaviour or phenomenon,Studying inter-relationships between various Studying inter-relationships between various factors responsible for a behaviour or a factors responsible for a behaviour or a phenomenon.phenomenon.Freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis Freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis through qualitative research.through qualitative research.

Practical UsesPractical Uses

Generating theories that are Generating theories that are understandable,understandable,

Conducting formative evaluation, Conducting formative evaluation, intended to improve the existing intended to improve the existing practices rather than to simply practices rather than to simply assess the value of programme or assess the value of programme or product being evaluated.product being evaluated.

Engaging in collaborative research Engaging in collaborative research with practitioners.with practitioners.

Types of Qualitative ResearchTypes of Qualitative Research

Phenomenological ResearchPhenomenological Research

Ethnographical ResearchEthnographical Research

Case StudiesCase Studies

Historical ResearchHistorical Research

Philosophical ResearchPhilosophical Research

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative ResearchCharacteristics :Characteristics :

– The approach is deductive.The approach is deductive.– The sample studied is large.The sample studied is large.– The emphasis is on precision in describing The emphasis is on precision in describing

events.events.– The emphasis is on numbers rather than The emphasis is on numbers rather than

words.words.– A relationship between variables is anticipated A relationship between variables is anticipated

which is tested on the basis of data collected.which is tested on the basis of data collected.– An attempt is made to convert the data into An attempt is made to convert the data into

mathematical form.mathematical form.– Tools used are to be such as to yield data in Tools used are to be such as to yield data in

numerical form.numerical form.

– The conclusions drawn from the sample The conclusions drawn from the sample are applicable to the total population are applicable to the total population which the sample represents.which the sample represents.

– It helps in objective study of It helps in objective study of phenomena.phenomena.

– Data can be analysed on a computer Data can be analysed on a computer and hence inferences can be drawn and hence inferences can be drawn easily.easily.

– These can be easily replicated and These can be easily replicated and results can be verified.results can be verified.

– Personalized ingenuity and skill is less Personalized ingenuity and skill is less required for data collection.required for data collection.

PurposePurpose

Standardization of tests.Standardization of tests.

Identifying characteristics of a group Identifying characteristics of a group in quantitative terms.in quantitative terms.

Measurement of the effect of the Measurement of the effect of the experimental variables.experimental variables.

Comparison of the characteristics of Comparison of the characteristics of groups.groups.

Studying the relationships between Studying the relationships between the variables. the variables.

Types of Quantitative ResearchTypes of Quantitative Research

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

Quasi-Experimental ResearchQuasi-Experimental Research

Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies

SurveysSurveys

Rules to Define a Problem:Rules to Define a Problem:

Be sure that the topic chosen is neither Be sure that the topic chosen is neither too vague nor too broad in scope.too vague nor too broad in scope.

To make the problem clearer and more To make the problem clearer and more understandable state it as a question understandable state it as a question which requires a definite answer.which requires a definite answer.

Carefully state the limits of the problem, Carefully state the limits of the problem, eliminating all aspects and factors which eliminating all aspects and factors which will not be considered in the study.will not be considered in the study.

Define any special terms that must be Define any special terms that must be used in the statement of the problem.used in the statement of the problem.

An Analysis of the Question Papers An Analysis of the Question Papers of the B.Ed. Examination of of the B.Ed. Examination of

Dibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh University

Introduction:Introduction:

Significance of the Study:Significance of the Study:

Title of the Study:Title of the Study:

Objectives of the Study: The main Objectives of the Study: The main objectives of the present study is to objectives of the present study is to analyse the question papers of the analyse the question papers of the

B.Ed ExaminationB.Ed Examination

The specific objectives of the study The specific objectives of the study are:are:

To make an item-wise analysis of the To make an item-wise analysis of the Question papers of the B.Ed Question papers of the B.Ed Examination of Dibrugarh University Examination of Dibrugarh University on the Following aspects:on the Following aspects:

Weightage given to different Weightage given to different objectives.objectives.

Coverage of the syllabus.Coverage of the syllabus.

Weightage given to different forms Weightage given to different forms questions.questions.

Nature of options in the question Nature of options in the question papers.papers.

Difficulty level of questions.Difficulty level of questions.

Appropriateness of marks allotted to Appropriateness of marks allotted to different questions.different questions.

To study the views of the B. Ed To study the views of the B. Ed Examinees on the question Papers.Examinees on the question Papers.

To study the opinion of the Teacher To study the opinion of the Teacher Educators on the Question papers of Educators on the Question papers of the B.Ed Examination.the B.Ed Examination.

To provide suggestive measures to To provide suggestive measures to improve the question papers of the improve the question papers of the B.Ed Examination.B.Ed Examination.

Delimitations of the study:Delimitations of the study:The study is delimited to the external Theory The study is delimited to the external Theory Question papers of the B. Ed Examination only. Question papers of the B. Ed Examination only. Question papers on Internal Sessional tests and Question papers on Internal Sessional tests and Laboratory Practical Examination are not taken Laboratory Practical Examination are not taken into consideration for the present study.into consideration for the present study.The study is also delimited to analyse the The study is also delimited to analyse the question papers of the B.Ed. Examination of the question papers of the B.Ed. Examination of the new course only.new course only.Question papers of the B.Ed Examination of 2005 Question papers of the B.Ed Examination of 2005 and 2006 are selected for the present Study.and 2006 are selected for the present Study.Data are collected only from the B.Ed Examinees Data are collected only from the B.Ed Examinees of 2006 for the present tudy.of 2006 for the present tudy.

MethodologyMethodology

Method of Research FollowedMethod of Research Followed: The : The normative survey method is considered to normative survey method is considered to be the most appropriate method for the be the most appropriate method for the present study.present study.

Population of the studyPopulation of the study: The population : The population of the present study comprises of all the of the present study comprises of all the candidates of the B.Ed examination, 2006 candidates of the B.Ed examination, 2006 (New Course) of Dibrugarh University, held (New Course) of Dibrugarh University, held in the month of July, 2006.in the month of July, 2006.

Sample of the studySample of the study: Considering : Considering the objectives and nature of data to the objectives and nature of data to be collected, purposive sampling be collected, purposive sampling technique has been adopted for the technique has been adopted for the study.study.

Tools and Techniques usedTools and Techniques used: Tools : Tools and techniques used in a research and techniques used in a research study depends upon the purpose of study depends upon the purpose of the study and nature of data to be the study and nature of data to be collected.collected.

Content analysis of the Question Content analysis of the Question Papers of the B.Ed examination (2005 Papers of the B.Ed examination (2005 and 2006)and 2006)

A questionnaire for the B.Ed A questionnaire for the B.Ed Examinees prepared by the Examinees prepared by the investigator. investigator.

The questionnaire consists of both The questionnaire consists of both open ended and closed ended open ended and closed ended

questions. It includes the following questions. It includes the following aspectaspect

Coverage of syllabusCoverage of syllabusClarity and preciseness of the questionsClarity and preciseness of the questionsPrinting error in the question papersPrinting error in the question papersScope of selective readingScope of selective readingTypes of questionsTypes of questionsHigher level questionsHigher level questionsMarks allotted to questionsMarks allotted to questions