Scientific English

The nature of scientific English

Scientific English is impersonal, objective, formal, direct and precise.Degrees of objectivity and formality differ from topic to topicThis depends on the authors perception and purpose.

Specific features of scientific discourse

Use of impersonal/objective languageUse of passive constructionsScientific /formal vocabularyDirect stylePrecisionLogical organization

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Use of languageMany linguistic devices are used to achieve objectivity and formality in scientific discourseThese devices include the following:Use of impersonal passiveFormal/technical wordsDirect languageTechniques of precision

Use of passive construction

Most important linguistic device that makes scientific English impersonal and objective.It is generally used to describe scientific experiments, rules, procedures and processes. ExampleActiveWe can change a solid into liquid by heatingPassiveA solid can be changed into a liquid by heatingActiveWe must not allow water to come into contact with sodiumPassiveWater must not be allowed to come into contact with sodium

Scientific/formal vocabulary

Only use formal words and technical terms. Informal and casual words in scientific writing are not used.

Example

Starting from around seven centuries ago, scientists were busy doing experiments with a variety of things. They were trying to find a way for changing cheap and readily available metals like copper into costly and expensive gold. In these experiments, they tried all the methods they knew- mixing, heating and separating materials. They could not succeed in making gold. However in the process, they created a wealth of information, which help to increase our vision of nature.

Doing conducting, things substances, way method, changing converting, costly precious, created generated, increase develop, vision understanding

Direct language

Scientific language is concerned with the description, narration, explanation and analysis of facts. For this it uses direct language in order to avoid confusion.There is no scope for artificial eloquence, ornamentation, exaggeration or any other literary devices.

Passage A

A computer is an electronic data processing device, which has memory to store data, ability to process data into meaningful information and ability to perform fast and accurate calculations. It consists of input devices, output devices and a central processing unit (CPU).The input device which includes keyboard and floppy disk drives, convert information to data and send it to the CPU for further processing. The output devices include Visual display unit (VDU) and printers. The information that has been entered by the user using the input devices can be viewed on the VDU. Printers are used to get the out put from the computer. The CPU includes the control unit, the memory unit and the arithmetic/logic unit. The information/data is received by the control unit and is sent to the memory unit for storing. Finally the control unit sends the data from the memory unit to the logic unit.

Passage B

Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere. I do not know what to tell you and how to say it. Our beloved leader Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that. Never the less, we will not see him again as we have seen him for past these years. We will not run to him for advice and seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not to me but to millions and millions in this country. And it is very difficult to soften the blow by any other advice that I or anyone else can give you.

Observation

Passage AMatter of fact description giving an account of different components of a computer.Present tense and passive voice is used.Direct in style and no ornamental language is used.Passage BDifferent style altogether.Charged with emotionAim is not to give information but to appeal to the emotions of the audience.Has repetition of words and parts of sentences.

Techniques of precision

Scientific writing is not only factual and objective, it is also precise and to the point.The various techniques that could be used to make a passage precise are:Avoiding repetition or restatementSeparating essential from non-essential pointsSeparating details and supporting points from main ideasUsing appropriate transitional and linking devicesLogically organizing informationUsing appropriate grammatical featuresUsing appropriate words and phrasesAvoiding wordinessEnsuring unity and coherence in writing

Organization

Science involves facts and scientific writing is always purposive.All scientific compositions are organized and logically structured.They reflect unity and coherence.

Unity and coherence in scientific English

A writing which does not have unity distracts the reader and ceases to be purposive.It is important to examine different ways of ensuring unity in writing.Those ways are:

contd..

Unity of theme

Make sure that the composition is about a single theme.This enables the writer to examine an aspect of a topic in some detail.Focusing on a single aspect of the topic helps the writer unfold the theme logically.Any scientific article should have only one controlling idea or theme

Unity in a paragraph

Each paragraph should deal with on theme.No paragraph should be allowed to lead the reader away from the controlling idea.Each Para should strengthen the main idea by contributing only to that aspect of the topic.

Sense of directionEvery scientific composition should have a sense of direction.There should be no digression.The main idea should be not sidelined or forgotten.ClarityThere should be clarity of thoughtClarity of expression.

Completeness

The most important factor to ensure unity is completeness.Every scientific composition should have all three main parts i.e. the introduction, the body and the conclusion.

Coherence

Shows a logical relationship between the elements and the construction.Unity is concerned with singleness, coherence is concerned with relatedness.That is how the words, the sentences and the paragraphs are connected.One word in a sentence leads to another, one sentence should lead to another and one paragraph in a composition should lead to another.Many linking devices (connectives) are employed to achieve the effect of coherence and to achieve a logical progress of ideas in the text.

ConnectivesFollowing types are used to show relation in scientific English:Subordinators [because, after, as, although, etc. ]Coordinators [but, and, yet, or, nor, etc.]Sentence connectors [moreover, however, therefore, for example, etc.]

Subordinators

Shows additive relation: also, as well, besides.Indicates cause/effect: so, so that, such that, because of, as a result of, because, since, in consequence ofShows comparison : as, like, as if, as thoughShows contrast : although, while, though, whereasIndicates temporal relation : as, after, before, since, till, until, when, while, as soon as, by the timeExpresses condition : if, provided that, unlessExemplifies : namely, such as

Coordinators

Shows additive relation : and, or, norShows contrast : yet, but

Sentence Connectors

Shows additive relation: moreover, in addition, next, likewise, then, furthermore, additionally, finally, alternativelyExemplifies: that is, for example, in other words, as an example.Indicates cause/ effect: hence, for that reason, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, thus, consequently, as follows, accordingly.Shows comparison: similarly, also. Likewise, too, correspondinglyShows contrast: on the other hand, in contrast, by comparison, on the contrary, however, nevertheless, conversely.Shows Conclusions: to conclude, in conclusion, in summary, to sum up, to summarize.Shows sequence: first, finally, first of all, secondly, next, second, third, thirdly, last, lastly, finally

Example:The atmosphere is an insulating blanket, which protects the earth; it softens the intense light and heat of the sun. Its ozone layer absorbs most of the very deleterious ultraviolet rays from the sun and thus protects living organisms from extinction. The atmosphere is bound to the earth by gravity. Satellites like the moon, which have low gravitational power, cannot or do not hold an atmosphere.The atmosphere is composed of various gases and water vapour, and in its uppermost reaches, it is charged with subatomic particles. Water vapour is present in the lower atmosphere; say up to 12 km, in the concentration ranging from 0.01% to 1 %. Although, the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is very small, its importance is very great, for without vapour in the atmosphere, there would be no water on earth. The connectives used in the above passage connect the phrases and sentences together and show a logical relation between them. Thus ensuring order and continuity of thought.

Paragraph StructureAny piece of writing is divided into paragraphs.A paragraph may be defined as a piece of writing, with one controlling theme or central idea.In scientific compositions, the paragraphs have a logical structure, The sentences in the paragraphs are logically and thematically linked to each other.

Read the following paragraph:Heating the substance increases the energy of its molecules. In a solid the molecules of atoms are arranged in a regular lattice in three dimensions, and heating leads to an expansion of the lattice resulting in the increase of the distance between the molecules. In a liquid, heating leads to easier flow and thinning down, or a decrease in the viscosity. In a gas, the increase in kinetic energy of the molecules upon heating increases the pressure of the gas inside a closed container.

The information in the paragraph is organized in the form of cause and effect relationship.Sentence 1 introduces the topic, which is the effect of heating substances.Sentence 2, 3, 4 describes the effect of heating, on a solid, a liquid and gas.Thus, each paragraph contains a topic sentence that introduces the central/controlling idea of the paragraph.This sentence is generally placed at the beginning of the paragraph.However, sometimes it may be placed either at the end or in the middle of the paragraph.

Read the following passage:Vehicular pollution causes serious health problems.

Carbon monooxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons emitted by motor vehicles trigger off a complex chain reaction resulting in dangerous pollutants such as ozone, aldehydes and ketones. The prolonged inhalation of carbon monooxide present in the toxic fumes reduces carbon carrying capacity of the blood, and many cause headache, sickness and even death. Likewise, unburned fragments of hydrocarbons help to form smog and thicken the atmosphere with elements that may cause cancer.

Graphite is a soft black substance with atoms hexagonally arranged in parallel sheets. Each sheet is only loosely bound one to another.. In diamond, on the other hand, atoms are so tightly bound to one another that it makes it the hardest known substance. Another important difference between diamond and Graphite is that of electrical conductivity. Diamond is a non - conductor while graphite conducts in the direction parallel to the hexagonal sheets. If fact these

two elementary forms of carbon , diamond and graphite, have very different properties.Topic sentence in the first paragraph is placed in the beginning.Topic sentence in the second paragraph is placed in the end.In both the cases topic sentence is developed and supported by specific details.

Paragraph development and thematic organizationA paragraph can be developed in a number of ways.This depends on the theme and purpose.The two most important methods of paragraph development generally employed in scientific writing are Description and Narration.The aim is not merely to describe or narrate things.It is primarily to analyze and explain.Facts, principles, processes, methods, materials or ideas.This is done by applying various techniques of exposition.Exposition means to explain something or to make it clear.

The techniques of exposition include the following:DefinitionGeneralizationExemplificationClassificationComparison and contrastExplanationInstructionAnalysisInterpretation

Logical OrganizationThere are various ways of logically organizing information in a passage.General to specific general points are followed by specific points or details.Specific to general specific details followed by general statementMore important to less important information is organized according to importance.Less important to more importantChronological events are organized in the order in which they occur in time.

General to SpecificAll matter occupies space. The space occupied by a quantity of matter is called its volume, and this is usually measured in cubic meters or cubic centimeters .Solids have a definite volume and shape, liquids have a definite volume and no shape; the latter takes on the shape of the container in which they are kept. Gases have no definite volume and no shape

Specific to GeneralGasoline, kerosene and diesel oil provide fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks, aircrafts and ships. Fuel oil and natural gas are used to heat home s and commercial buildings. Petroleum products are used in the manufacture of synthetic fibers, and in plastics, paints, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps and synthetic rubber. Moreover, fuels that are derived from petroleum supply more than half of the worlds total supply of energy. In fact, petroleum is enormously important from an economic, technological and social standpoint.

More important to less importantTwo pieces of platinum foil were connected to a battery. One piece was connected to the positive terminal and the other to the negative. They were then placed in blue copper sulphate solution contained in a beaker. A test tube was filled with the solution and fixed over the anode. When the current was switched on, it passed from the anode to the cathode through the solution. It was seen that the blue solution of copper sulphate gradually became paler and decomposed as the electric current passed through them.

Less important to more importantThe internet gives each of us the option to be a publisher of our information and ideas. In addition, as the number of people on it multiplies, and the commerce transforms the internet, the opportunities are getting larger. The internet, in fact, has added a new dimension to our existence by placing within easy reach an overwhelming range of information. It has changed life as few things have done.

ChorologicalThe space age began on October4, 1957, when Russia launched Sputnik1 into orbit. This was followed a month later by Spurtnik2 which carried the dog Laika. However, the first US satellite. Explorer1 did not follow until January 31, 1958, but its instruments made the first major discovery of the space age- the Van Allen radiation belts around the earth, where electrons and protons from the sun are trapped by the earths magnetic field. Soon after, probes were sent to explore the moon and the planets, and on the way, they detected their solar wind of sub-atomic particles streaming from the sun.

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