SCIENCE OF NUTRITION AND NUTRIENTS

Science of Nutrition: The study of nutrients in foods and the bodily processes used to handle them (including ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, metabolism, storage and excretion). Food is nutritive material, i.e., it contains the nutrients taken into the body for the maintenance of life and the growth and repair of tissues. Nutrients are substances obtained from food and used in the body to promote growth, maintenance and/or repair. Food contains nutrients and non-nutrients. The nutrients can be divided into organic ones (carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, and vitamins) and inorganic ones (water and minreals). On the other hand, nutrients can be divided into substances that are energy-yielding (proteins, carbohydrates, fats and oils) and non-energy yielding (vitamins, water, and minerals). Also, they can be divided into essential nutrients, those the body cannot make for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs and therefore should be obtained from food (i.e., certain amino acids and certain fatty acids) and non-essential nutrients, which the body can itself produce adequately. Food:

NUTRIENTS

NON-NUTRIENTS

Organic

Inorganic

Endogenous

Exogenous

Useful Harmful Protein Water Cellulose Cholesterol Food additives

Carbohydrate Minerals Cyanide Fats & Oils Vitamins

Proteins: Proteins are polymer of amino acids. Amino acids* contain a carbon chain to which an amino group (nitrogen-containing group) and an acid group (carboxyl group) are connected. Amino acids, by joining together, form lager entities as shown below: One amino acid

Monomer (one part)

Amino acid

Two amino acids Dimer (two parts) Dipeptide Three amino acids

Trimer (three parts)

Tripeptide

4 – 10 amino acids

Oligomer

Oligopeptide

More than 10 amino acids

Polymer

Polypeptide

*Amino acids:

Side chain (variable) ⏐

Amino group ⎯ C ⎯ acid group ⏐ H

The amino acids join together as beads in a necklace. There are 20 different amino acids, which in combination of greater than ten, form polypeptide, just like having 20 different colors of beads and combining them to form necklaces greater than ten beads long but in almost an infinite number of combinations in color and length. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptides and may include non-protein constituents such as vitamins or minerals. Two examples of oxygen-carrier proteins are myoglobin and hemoglobin. Myoglobin is the oxygen carrier in muscle and is made up of one polypeptide and a heme (organic moiety with iron). Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrier in blood, is made up of four polypeptides and four heme groups. Because of their complexity, proteins have four levels of structure: Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids. Secondary and tertiary structures make up the polypeptide’s three-dimensional structure. Quaternary structure, for multi-subunit proteins, shows the relationship of different subunits to each other. As a polypeptide is formed in a cell, its molecules twist and turn to acquire a characteristic three-dimensional structure. Its shape is the determinant of its function. Just as a hand, because of its shape and components, functions to hold things, a protein, because of its shape, does certain functions. To extend the analogy, when the shape or components of a hand are distorted, it will lose its normal function. Similarly, if the shape of the protein is

distorted (it loses its 3-D shape), and it will lose its ability to perform its function The most important function of proteins is their ability to speed up the rate of reactions, acting as so-called enzymes. Sugar, when left alone, will remain as it is for many years. However, the same sugar, when ingested, is converted into carbon dioxide and water (the same way it burns) in a few hours. The reason that the cell is able to break down the sugar so fast is explained by the action of the many enzymes (protein catalysts) in the body. For an analogy, imagine that the task is to remove the cover of a pen. If left alone, the process will never be accomplished. However, with your hands, the cover is easily removed. The enzyme first binds to the sugar molecule just as your hand holds the pen. Then it changes the shape, facilitating the chemical reaction that changes the sugar molecule, just as the altered shape of the other hand is used to remove the cover from the pen. Another major function of proteins is to receive a stimulus that results in a change of its three-dimensional shape and brings about a physiological process. The special site on the protein that receives the stimulus is called a receptor, and the protein itself is termed the receptor protein. In an analogous way, when an object is looked at, light reflected from it reaches your retina, resulting in a change in the shape of photoreceptor molecules that cause sequence of changes in the channels so that the message can reach the brain and the object is seen. In the same way, when the adrenaline concentration in the blood goes up due to a dangerous situation, it binds to a receptor protein, and the protein, by changing its shape, causes the physiological fight/flight action. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates or sugars are considered sweet chemicals, which produce energy in the body. However, not all carbohydrates are sweet, and the ones that are sweet vary in the intensity of their sweetness. Depending on carbohydrates having one unit, two units, or many units, they are divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. (As noted below, almost all sugars end with “ose”).

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

(single sugars)

Disaccharides

(double sugars)

Polysaccharides

(complex carbohydrates)

Simple sugars

Glucose Fructose Galactose (all have formula C6H12O6)

Maltose: (made up of two glucose units) Sucrose: table sugar (made up of glucose and fructose) Lactose: Milk sugar (made up of glucose and galactose)

Starch: plant storage Glycogen: animal starch Cellulose: plant structure (all are polymers of glucose)

As the above scheme shows, sucrose, the sugar we normally use as sweetener in tea and coffee, is made up of a glucose and a fructose. What is the difference between ingesting a glucose and fructose molecule, and ingesting a sucrose molecule? In sucrose, the two monosaccharide units are connected to each other so that sucrose has different properties from either glucose or fructose. Besides, in order to convert sucrose into a glucose and a fructose, the body has to break sucrose down. The enzyme performing this function is sucrase. Enzymes usually end with the suffix “ase”, as shown below:

Sugars

Enzymes

Maltose Sucrose Lactose Cellulose

Maltase Sucrase Lactase Cellulase

When a sweet food is ingested, in order for its molecules to be absorbed, larger molecules (dimers, trimers, oligomers, and polymers) have to be broken down into smaller molecules (monomers). This process is called digestion. Simply, the large sugar molecules are just too large to enter the gut surface. The enzymes maltase, lactase, sucrase and many others break down these larger molecules. Certain people have either a partial or complete deficiency of certain enzymes in their digestive system and the corresponding sugar cannot be digested and be absorbed. The existence of these sugars in the large intestine causes diarrhea, bloating, and eventually dehydration. The most common shortage is called “lactose intolerance” which is caused by lactose deficiency (the individual has insufficient lactase). At least 90% of people suffer from a partial deficiency of this enzyme. The extreme cases are mostly seen in

Mediterraneans, Jews, and blacks. To help these people, the enzyme lactose is added to their diet. The “lactaid” pill contains this enzyme. Also, they could use lactose-free milk and dairy products. Cellulose, which is the major portion of fiber or roughage, cannot be digested and is excreted. However, it aids the bowel movement and frequent usage has shown to lower the incidence of constipation, certain cancers, and coronary heart disease. Lipids: Lipids are a group of water-insoluble molecules which are sources of energy in the body. Different categories of lipids are listed below: Fatty acids Waxes Glycerides: Fats and oils Phospholipids: Lecithin Steroids: Cholesterol Fatty acids: Fatty acids are molecules containing a long chain of carbon atoms with attached hydrogen atoms and have an acid (carboxyl) group at the end. When the chain of carbon is short of hydrogens, it is said to contain double bonds and is termed an unsaturated fatty acid. When the fatty acid is completely filled with hydrogens, it is called saturated. The degree of unsaturation makes them monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are generally solid at room temperature and unsaturated ones are generally liquid. Waxes: Waxes are made up of a fatty acid connected to a fatty alcohol (an alcohol with a long chain of carbons). They are used for protecting plants against abrasion or loss of water by evaporation. Glycerides: Glycerides are made from glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerin or glycerol is a thick liquid often used in hand creams. Glycerol has three “hooks”, which can connect with up to three fatty acids (forming monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides). The more unsaturated the fatty acids, the more liquid (or oily) the consistency of the glyceride, and the more saturated fatty acids it

contains, the more solid its consistency (fat). Most plant glycerides are oils, such as corn oil, olive oil, etc. Most animal glycerides are fats, such as lard (pig fat) and tallow (beef fat). There is less of a chance of coronary heart disease when oils are ingested than when fats are used. The oily glycerides with unsaturated fatty acids go through a hydrogenation process by which their fatty acids become more saturated, thereby turning into solid fat. In this way, one can produce solid Crisco and margarines from cheaper vegetable oils. In this process, one may end up with “trans”fatty acids (normally unsaturated fatty acids are generally “cis” meaning both carbons around the double bond are on one side). The trans fatty acids are thought to cause formation of plaque in blood vessels. Phospholipids: Phospholipids contain glycerol and fatty acids like glycerides but also a phosphorus group (phosphate). Also, they contain an alcohol base such as choline connected to the phosphate. The most known phospholipids are lecithin and cephalin, which are used as emulsifying agents (making oil and water mix and form one phase) in salad dressings and candies. Phospholipids also make up a major portion of cell membranes. Steroids: Steroids are a category of lipids, which are water insoluble and have four fused hydrocarbon (made up of carbon and hydrogen) rings. The major steroid is cholesterol from which steroid hormones are made. Too much cholesterol causes atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in certain blood vessels).

CALORIC VALUE OF NUTRIENTS AND FOOD GROUPS

Foodstuffs, when ingested, produce energy in our system. Generally, the foodstuffs are metabolized and burned into carbon dioxide and water, and a portion of energy released is used to produce ATP, the chemical energy unit of living systems. Assuming that all the food ingested is absorbed and burned, each kind of energy producing nutrients or (non-nutrients) releases different amounts of energy as the table below shows:

FOOD ENERGY RELEASED Protein

4 Calories per gram

Carbohydrate

4 Calories per gram

Fats and oils

9 Calories per gram

Alcohol

7 Calories per gram

A calorie is a unit of heat energy which is defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. One gram of water is like a few drops, and one degree Celsisus increase cannot even be felt. Therefore, as can be realized, one calorie is a very small unit of energy. A larger, more useful measure of heat energy is the kilocalorie unit, used to designate 1000 calories. The nutritional unit of Calorie (notice the capital C) is 1 kilocalorie. Although this may seem a little confusing, every time one encounters Calorie with a capital C, think of nutritional Calorie which is 1 kilocalorie. According to nutrients available in foodstuffs, the latter are divided into several food groups: 1. Breads, cereals, and other grain products, including whole grains

(wheat, oats, barley, millet, rye, & bulgur), enriched breads, rolls, tortillas, breakfast cereals, bagels, rice, pastas (macaroni, spaghetti, etc.), crackers, low-fat cookies, biscuits, presweetened cereals, croissants, rice and granola. These products contain mostly complex carbohydrates, starch and roughage (fiber or cellulose).

2. The vegetable group includes almost all vegetables and contains

mostly complex carbohydrates, starch, but less fiber than grains. 3. The fruit group includes almost all fruits which typically contain

complex carbohydrates (as in vegetables) and some simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose that make them taste sweet.

4. Meat, poultry, fish and their alternatives form a group that contains

much protein and variable amounts of fat. Legumes, which are vegetable products, are considered in this group because of their high protein content, but they contain very little fat. Processed meats such as hot dogs, luncheon meats, sausage, bacon, and nuts, including peanut butter, are in this group.

5. The dairy product group encompasses all milk products, including soymilk, custard, pudding, ice cream, milk shakes, and sherbet. These foods contain mostly protein, fat, and may be high in lactose.

6. Fats, sweets, and alcoholic beverages are included in a mixed group

that includes margarine, salad dressings, oils, mayonnaise, cream, cream cheese, butter, gravy and sauces, which are high in fat, cake, pie, cookies, doughnuts, sweet rolls, candy, soft drinks, jelly, syrup, gelatin, deserts, sugar and honey which are high in sucrose, and alcoholic beverages, which contain ethanol (alcohol).

One might question the relationship between a foodstuff and biomolecules such as proteins and carbohydrates. Just as a human is made up of many organ systems, the foodstuff is made up of different amounts of biomolecules. As an example, an average size fresh apple is made up of 138 gram of water, less than 1 gram of protein, 21 grams of total carbohydrates, 3 grams of fiber and less than 1gram of fat, in addition to other ingredients present in smaller amounts. The different food groups have been shown in a food pyramid in 1992 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to indicate which categories should be taken more and which less. The idea is that the larger base of the pyramid indicates which food should be consumed more, and the smaller tip shows which foods should be consumed less. Do not be confused. In this quantitative analogy, the apex of the pyramid is its least important part. This food pyramid is shown below:

The food pyramid had several flaws. First, it did not differentiate between good oils, such as olive oil or fish oil, and bad fats such as saturated tallow (beef fat) and lard (pig fat). Although bad fats should be avoided as much as possible, the good oils should be consumed moderately. Second, it did not differentiate between fiber-rich whole grains, which should be consumed abundantly, and refined flour and simple sugar, which should be avoided as much as possible. These flaws caused an epidemic of obesity and diabetes. Also, it did not stress the importance of exercise. In 2003, the FDA came up with a new food pyramid, which is shown below:

In this food pyramid, exercise has been highly encouraged and is shown at the bottom layer of the food pyramid. At the next level, whole grain and plant oils are shown, which should be consumed with all meals. Then, fruit and vegetables are shown, and then nuts and legumes, etc.

The latest food pyramid produced in 2005 by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is a custom made pyramid depending on sex, age and the amount of physical activity. This pyramid is shown below: Healthy Eating for Lifetime What are healthy food choices?

In April of 2005, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) released a new food guidance system, MyPyramid, based on the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. According to the USDA, the MyPyramid “symbolizes a personalized approach to healthy eating and physical activity”. The USDA encourages beginning with one small change each day to make improvements in your health. Visit: http://www.mypyramid.gov/

GRAINS Make half your grains whole

§ Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta every day

§ 1 ounce is about 1 slice of bread, about 1 cup of breakfast cereal, or 1/2 cup of cooked rice, cereal or pasta

Eat 6 ounces every day *

VEGETABLES Vary your veggies

§ Eat more dark-green veggies like broccoli, spinach, and other dark leafy greens

§ Eat more orange vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes § Eat more dry beans and peas like pinto beans, kidney beans,

and lentils

Eat 2-1/2 cups every day *

FRUITS Focus on fruits

§ Eat a variety of fruit § Choose fresh, frozen, canned, or dried fruit § Go easy on fruit juices

Eat 2 cups every day *

MILK Get your calcium-rich foods

§ Go low-fat or fat-free when you choose milk, yogurt, and other milk products

§ If you don't or can't consume milk, choose lactose-free products or other calcium sources such as fortified foods and beverages

Get 3 cups every day; for kids aged 2 to 8, it's 2 cups *

MEAT & BEANS Go lean with protein

§ Choose low-fat or lean meats and poultry § Bake it, broil it, or grill it § Vary your protein routine -- choose more fish, beans, peas, nuts

and seeds

Eat 5-1/2 ounces every day * *For a 2,000-calorie diet, you need the amounts listed above from each food group.

Find balance between food and physical activity

§ Be sure to stay within your daily calorie needs. § Be physically active for at least 30 minutes most days of the week. § About 60 minutes a day of physical activity may be needed to prevent weight gain. § For sustaining weight loss, at least 60 to 90 minutes a day of physical activity may be

required.

§ Children and teenagers should be physically active for 60 minutes every day, or most days.

Know the limits on fats, sugars and salt (sodium)

§ Make most of your fat sources from fish, nuts, and vegetable oils. § Limit solid fats like butter, margarine, shortening, and lard, as well as foods that contain

these. § Check the Nutrition Facts label to keep saturated fats, trans fats, and sodium low. § Choose food and beverages low in added sugars. Added sugars contribute calories with

few, if any nutrients.

The Canadians have come up with a similar system, but the information is organized in a different paradigm as shown below:

A group of qualified nutrition experts selected by the government periodically get together and discuss nutritional needs of the population. They have come up with RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance) for each nutrient. The RDA’s represent the daily need of a healthy, average person for each age group from infant to adults, from male to female, etc. The table below shows the total daily Calorie intake for each age group:

AGE

YEARS

CALORIES PER DAY

Infants 0.0 – 1 650 – 850 Children 1 – 3 1300 Children 4 – 6 1800 Children 7 – 10 2000 Males 11 – 14 2500 Males 15 – 50 2900 – 3000 Males 51 + 2300 Females 11 – 14 2200 Females 15 – 50 2200 Females 51 + 1900

These values are calculated from bell-shaped curves derived from the needs of a population of individuals within each age group. The RDA for energy-producing nutrients will be the mean value (because if the maximum is taken in, the average person will gain weight continuously), and for non-energy-producing nutrients, the maximum value for the RDA is chosen. The idea that more is better is not medically true. If too much of anything is taken, there will be the danger of toxicity. On the other hand, the idea that less is better is also not true since that with less than adequate amounts of nutrients, there is the danger of deficiency. The U.S. Government has come up with a food labeling system representing the nutrition facts of the foods as shown in the following scheme:

First of all, the serving size should be reasonable and clearly defined. Then, the total Calories for a given serving size and Calories from fat are noted on top. Also, the total fat, as well as, saturated, trans fat, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat should be clearly quantified, and the cholesterol and sodium contents should be given. And at last, the total carbohydrate, fiber (not included in total carbohydrate), sugars (simple sugars, included in total carbohydrates), and protein content are shown. For each item above and for vitamins and minerals, the percentage RDA value is given. As an example, a serving of “roasted garlic and three cheese potato chips” uses up 5% (sodium) of RDA. For the potato chips in the following scheme, one can show that the total Calories is: 7 grams of fat x 9 Calories + 17 grams of carbohydrates x 4 Calories + 2 grams of protein x 4 Calories = 63 + 68 + 8 = 139 Calories A new feature added to nutrition facts is showing allergy-causing ingredients, such as tree nuts, milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, peanuts, soybeans and wheat. Another new feature is voluntary use of “gluten-free” on food labels. Gluten is an allergen in wheat, barley, and rye causing certain digestive conditions in some people. For natural foods, such as apples, which have no food labeling, one could refer to tables and nutrition guides. Then, what is the best food guideline for living a healthy, long life? 1. Eat from all different food groups, but moderately. 2. Avoid saturated and trans fats and limit the use of unsaturated ones. 3. Reduce cholesterol and simple sugar intake as much as possible. 4. Take lots of fiber. 5. Eat breakfast every day. 6. Sleep sufficiently. 7. Avoid smoking. 8. Exercise moderately.

Vitamins and Minerals: Vitamins are organic nutrients needed in minute quantities for the healthy functioning of organisms. Thus, iron cannot be considered a vitamin because it is inorganic, and glucose and amino acids cannot be vitamins, as they are needed in large quantities. Vitamins are divided into water-soluble and fat-soluble types as shown below:

WATER- SOLUBLE FAT-SOLUBLE B- Vitamins B1 – Thiamin Vitamin A – Retinal B2 – Riboflavin Vitamin D – Calcaciferol B3 – Niacin Vitamin E – Tocopherol B6 – Pyradoxal Vitamin K - Menadione B12 – Cobalamine Folate Biotin B5 – Pantothenic Acid Non-B- Vitamins Inosital Lipoic Acid Choline C-Ascorbic Acid Most B-Vitamins join with other groups to form coenzymes, or helpers of enzymes. Let’s assume that your job was to move telephone units from place to place. It would be an easy task if it could be done with no aid. However, if your job was to fasten bottoms onto telephone units with screws, you would need a screwdriver to do so. The screwdriver would function for you just like a coenzyme does for an enzyme. Other vitamins perform other functions such as Vitamin A (retinal), which is essential for vision. Most foods contain one or more vitamins so they are consumed as part of the nutrient. A deficiency or excess of vitamins may cause certain symptoms. For each vitamin, an RDA value is determined. The table below summarizes important data about vitamins.

VITAMIN DATA CONTINUED

OTHER NAMES

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCES

Vitamin B3

Niacin Nicotinic acid Nicotinamide

Diarrhea Black, smooth tongue Weakness Dizziness Delirium Flaky skin rash with sun exposure

Milk Eggs Meat Poultry Fish Whole-grain breads & cereals Nuts

Vitamin B6

Pyridxine Pyridoxal Pyridoxamine

Anemia Smooth tongue Convulsions Dermatitis Kidney stones

Green, leafy vegetables Meats Fish Poultry Shellfish Legumes Fruits Whole grains

Folate

Folic acid Folacin Pteroyl glutamic acid

Anemia Diarrhea/constipation Frequent infections Smooth, red tongue Depression

Leafy, green vegetables Legumes Seeds Liver

Vitamin B12

Cyanocobalamia Anemia Smooth tongue Fatigue Paralysis Skin hypersensitivity

Animal products: Meat Fish Poultry Milk Cheese Eggs

Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid

Vomiting Intestinal distress Insomnia Fatigue

Most foods

VITAMIN DATA CONTINUED

Vitamin Table Each vitamin may have a variety of forms in the body. As an example, Vitamin A may be in the form of retinol (an alcohol), retinal (an aldehyde), and retinic acid (a carboxylic acid). If you see different names for these vitamins, do not become confused. Although ingesting the RDA values of vitamins keeps people from developing deficiencies, when much more of certain vitamins are taken, they may serve a useful purpose, such as functioning as an antioxidant. Many times during metabolism, certain molecules with odd numbers of electrons are formed called free radicals. Having an uneven number of electrons makes these molecules extremely reactive so that they could damage cell membranes or alter genes which, in turn, may lead to cancer or speed up the aging process. To counteract these molecules, one can take antioxidants, which quench excess electron from the free radicals and then rearrange themselves to compensate for the process. Contrary to vitamins, which are organic, water and minerals are inorganic nutrients. Water is one of the major nutrients for the living system since about 70% of any living thing is made up of water. Water performs a variety of functions in animals including: 1. Carrying nutrients and waste products.

OTHER NAMES

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCES

Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid Anemia Hemorrhage Frequent infections Bleeding gums Muscle degeneration Joint pain Rough skin Wounds fail to heal

Citrus fruits Cabbage-type vegetables Dark-green vegetables Cantaloupe Strawberries Peppers Potatoes Papayas Mangos

2. Participating in certain chemical reactions during metabolism

(hydration/dehydration). 3. Dissolving many minerals, proteins, amino acids, and sugars. 4. Lubricating joints. 5. Absorbing shocks such as in the eye. 6. Regulating and maintaining temperatures. Minerals are inorganic ions (charged species), which perform variable functions in the body. In general, compounds are formed from two or more elements, which either form covalent bonds with each other or ionic bonds. Ionic compounds, when soluble in water, dissociate into two opposite charged ions, one positive, and the other, negative. These ions, when inorganic, are considered minerals in the body. In the table below, different elements and their functions in humans are listed:

ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY

Element

Symbol Mass in 70-Kg

Human

Comments

Organic matter and water Oxygen O 45.5 kg Found in organic chemicals and

water Carbon C 12.6 kg Found in organic chemicals Hydrogen H 7.0 kg Found in organic chemicals and

water Nitrogen N 2.1 kg Found in nucleic acids and amino

acids Phosphorous P 0.7 kg Found in nucleic acids and many

metabolites; constituent of bones and teeth

Sulfur S 0.175 kg Found in proteins and connective tissue

Abundant minerals

Calcium

Ca 1050 g

Constituent of bones and teeth; intracellular second messenger; triggers exocytosis and muscle contraction

Potassium K 245 g Principal intracellular cation (a positive ion)

Sodium Na 105 g Principal extracellular anion (a negative ion)

Chloride Cl 105 g Major extracellular anion; activates amylase

Magnesium Mg 35 g Cosubstrate for ATP and other nucleotide reactants; a calcium antagonist

Fluoride F 8 g Increases hardness of bones and teeth

Trace minerals

Element

Symbol

Mass in 70-Kg Human

Comments

Iron Fe 3000 mg Found in hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, iron-sulfur proteins

Zinc Zn 2300 mg Cofactor for carbonic anhydrase, carboxpeptidase and cytosolic superoxide dismutase

Copper Cu 100 mg Component of cytochrome a, a3, and cytosolic superoxide dismutase

Manganese Mn 20 mg Cofactor for mitochondrial superoxide dismutase

Cobalt Co 5 mg Component of vitamin B12 Molybdenum Mo Trace Component of xanthine dehydrogenase in

purine metabolism and aldehyde oxidase in catecholamine metabolism

Iodine I Trace Required for production of thyroid hormones

Selenium Se Trace Component of glutathione peroxidase Generally, minerals are not in the elemental form in the body but in ionic form, and can be divided into macrominerals or microminerals (trace), depending how much they exist or are needed in the living things. In the table below, macro and micro minerals are listed:

MACROMINERALS

MICROMINERALS OR TRACE

MINERALS Calcium Chloride Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Sulfur

Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluoride Iodine Iron Manganese Molybdenum Selenium Zinc

Minerals perform a variety of functions in the body including: 1. Constituents of the structure of body tissues, such as calcium,

phosphorus, magnesium and fluorine in bones and teeth. 2. Components of proteins, hormones, etc., which regulate body function,

such as iron in hemoglobin, and iodine in thyroid gland hormone, thyroxine.

3. Transmitters of nerve impulses and muscle contractions. 4. Maintenance of water balance by creating osmotic pressure within

tissues. 5. Maintenance of acid-based balance because of their reaction with

water (hydrolysis). In the table below, the major minerals and their functions are summarized:

MINERAL

FUNCTION

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCES

Calcium (Ca2+) Bones and teeth Muscle contraction Nerve functioning Blood clotting and pressure Immune defenses

Stunted growth in children Adult bone loss (osteoporosis)

Milk and milk products Oysters Small fish Tofu Greens Legumes

Phosphorus (P) Genes Cell membranes Energy transfer

Not known All animal tissues

Magnesium (Mg2+) Bone mineralization Protein synthesis Enzyme action Muscular contraction Nerve impulses Maintenance of teeth

Weakness Confusion Convulsions Hallucinations Growth failure in children

Nuts, legumes Whole grains Dark, green vegetables Sea foods Cocoa

Sodium (Na+) Electrolyte for acid-base Balance and nerve impulses

Muscle cramps Loss of appetite Mental apathy

Salt Soy Sauce Processed foods

Chloride (Cl-) A part of HCl

(hydrochloric acid) in stomach Nerve impulse

Growth failure in children Muscle cramps Loss of appetite Mental apathy

Salt Soy sauce Processed foods

Potassium (K+) Nerve impulse Electrolyte balance Contraction of muscles

Muscular weakness Paralysis Confusion May cause death

All whole foods: Meats Milk Fruits Vegetables Grains Legumes

Sulfur (S) Some amino acid Some vitamins Detoxification Protein stabilization

None All protein containing foods

Iodine (I -) Thyroid hormone (thyroxine)

Goiter Cretinism

Iodized salt Seafood

Iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+) Hemoglobin Myoglobin (muscle contraction) Utilization of energy

Anemia Weakness Headaches Reduce resistance to infection

Red meats Fish Poultry Shellfish Eggs Legumes Dried fruits

Zinc (Zn2+) Insulin Growth failure in Protein

Many enzymes Formation of genes and proteins Immune reaction Transport of Vitamin A Taste perception Wound healing Sperm production Normal fetal development

children Sexual retardation Loss of taste Poor wound healing

containing foods: Meats Fish Shellfish Poultry Grains Vegetables

Selenium (Se2-)

Detoxification Works with Vitamin E

Muscle discomfort Weakness Pancreatic damage Heart disease

Seafood Organ meats Grains Vegetables

NON-NUTRITIVE COMPONENTS OF FOOD The non-nutritive components of foods can be divided into those that are an inherent or natural part of any foodstuff (endogenous components) and those that are added to foodstuffs during preparation, generally processed foods (exogenous components). Each can be divided further into health-promoting, neutral, and harmful components. Moreover, exogenous non-nutrients can be divided into intentionally added components (food additives), or those incidentally added (accidentally or indirectly). The endogenous non-nutrients can be divided into naturally occurring components or those added incidentally during growth of the organism. Neutral food components are not discussed here, as their consumption does not serve any known purpose in humans. Endogenous, health-promoting non-nutritive components: The first such component in many foods is fiber or roughage. Fiber itself is made up of several compounds. The major part of fiber is cellulose. However, it contains other ingredients such as lignin, pectin and many sugars. The remaining health-promoting non-nutritive components in food are generally not well understood, and much research is needed in this field. Some of the known components are listed below:

FOOD

HEALTH-PROMOTING

COMPONENTS

THEIR EFFECTS

Broccoli

Indole Carbinol

Breaks down estrogen (a hormone that promotes tumors)

Carrots

Beta Carotene

Protects against certain kinds of cancer

Grapefruit (peel & white membrane)

Pectin

Reduces blood fat

Garlic (raw)

Allicin (diallylsulfide) Helps prevent blood clotting, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat and cholesterol, & suppresses cancer

Celery

Phthalide

Reduces cholesterol & mild sedation

Chili or hot peppers (capsicum or cayenne pepper)

Capsaicin (hot ingredient)

Acts as a stimulant and reduces pain.

Flaxseed

Linolenic acid

An unsaturated fatty acid that reduces tumor formation.

Blueberries

Pterostilbene

Reduces cholesterol

Tomatoes

Lycopene

An antioxidant that protects against certain cancers

ENDOGENOUS HARMFUL NON-NUTRITIVE COMPONENTS

These components are natural substances in foods that act as toxins, carcinogens, poisons, etc. Because of their harmful effects, they should not be consumed in large amounts even though they may be harmless in low dosages. The table below shows some of these components:

FOOD SOURCE

TOXIN

TOXIC EFFECT

Cabbage Broccoli

Goitrogens

Hypothyroidism (goiter)

Kernels of stone fruits and several varieties of beans

Hydrogen cyanide

Cyanide poisoning

Bananas, pineapple, aged cheese, wine, & chocolate

Presser Amines

Increased blood pressure

Spinach & rhubarb

Oxalates

Gastroenteritis, shock, & death

Nutmeg, parsley & carrots

Myristicin

Hallucinations

Carrots

Falcaranol

Neurotoxicity

Potato Skins

Solainine

Interferes with transmission of nerve impulses

FOOD ADDITIVES: Food additives are non-nutrients (or sometimes nutrients) that are intentionally added to processed foods in order to improve their characteristics. They effect various qualities of the food treated and can be categorized as follows: Desired flavor or taste additives:

A. Flavoring agents (both natural and artificial flavors that mimic natural ones):

Spices and aromatics, such as, vanilla, cinnamon, ginger, etc.

B. Flavor enhancers: MSG (monosodium glutamate), salt (in small

amounts), sweeteners (both natural and artificial). 1. Natural: Sucrose, fructose, and sorbitol.

2. Artificial: Saccharin, aspartame (Nutrasweet), sucralose (Splenda), Acesulfame-K.

3. Salt and pepper.

Desired color additives (both natural and artificial colors that enhance attractiveness and desirability): 1. Natural: Chlorophyll (green), beta carotene (orange). 2. Artificial: Synthetic dyes (their usage has been criticized). 3. Bleaching agents: Peroxides. Desired texture, appearance, and palatability additives:

1. Emulsifiers (for uniform texture): Lecithin, mono and diglycerides.

2. Thickeners (for proper consistency): Dextrins, starch, &

pectin. 3. Stabilizers: Agar & gums. 4. Anti-caking agents: Calcium silicate & silicon dioxide.

5. Humectants (for desired moisture level): Glycerol & sorbitol.

Desired pH and tartness additives (pH is a measure of acidity and alkalinity); 1. pH: Sodium bicarbonate & potassium hydrogentartarate. 2. Tartness: Citric acid, lactic acid, & phosphoric acid. 3. Carbonation: Carbon dioxide (CO2). Desired durability additives:

1. Antimicrobial or preservative agents: Sugar and salt in high concentrations, vinegar, sulfur dioxide, benzoic acid, propionic acid, sorbic acid, nitrates, nitrites, & radiation.

2. Antioxidants (to prevent damage from oxygen, especially

needed for fats and oils to prevent rancidity): Vitamins E and C, BHA, BHT & sulfites.

3. Chelating agents or sequestrants (bind to trace elements

to prevent their oxidative activity): Citric acid, cream of tartar (tartaric acid).

Desired nutritive value additives: 1. Vitamins 2. Minerals Desired low-calorie intake additives: 1. Artificial sugars; Nutrasweet, Saccharin, and Splenda. 2. Artificial fats: Olestra and Simplesse. 3. Artificial starches. Desired modification additives:

1. Leavening agents: Yeast, baking powder, and baking soda.

2. Curing agents: Salting, smoking, and curing.

3. Meat tenderizers. Desired effect additives: 1. Stimulants: Caffeine (methylxanthines*). 2. Sedatives: L-tryptophan.

* There are 3 methylxanthines in coffee, tea, and cocoa. They are caffeine, theobromine and theoghylline. Coffee contains mostly caffeine, cocoa, mostly theobromine and tea, theoghylline. Coffee, tea and cocoa all have caffeine. Some soft drinks also contain caffeine.

SUGARS AND ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS: The varieties of sweeteners used are either natural, such as sucrose, fructose, sorbitol, and foods containing them, such as honey, high-fructose corn syrup, or artificial sweeteners, such as saccharin, aspartame, cyclamates (no longer being used due to its carcinogenic effect), and sucralose. The degree of sweetness in these compounds is different:

Sweetener Sweetness Sucrose (table sugar) 1 X Fructose 1.7 X Glucose 0.7 X Sorbitol 0.5 X Maltitol 0.9 X High-fructose corn syrup 1 X Saccharin 400 X Aspartame (Nutrasweet) 150 X Cyclamates 55 X Sucralose (Splenda) 600 X Acesulfame-K 200 X

Artificial sweeteners are used when low-calorie food or drink is desired. Saccharin and cyclamates are both organic molecules that have no calorie value. Aspartame is a dipeptide having the calorie value of proteins (4Cal/g), but because of its intense sweetness, very little is needed, so its caloric value is negligible. It contains amino acid phenylalanine and should not be used by people with PKU (phenylketonuria). Acesulfame-K is potassium salt of a heterocyclic compound which has no caloric value. Sucralose has a formula similar to sucrose except it has 3 chlorines instead of hydroxyl groups.

Because of its high intensity sweetness (600 x sucrose), it has no caloric value.

ARTIFICAL FATS: There are two major artificial fats on the market today, Simplesse and Olestra. Simplesse, which is older, is made from milk and egg whites that form microscopic globules causing the illusory sensation of fats and oils on the taste buds. However, it should not be heated since heat causes it to lose the slipperiness of fat. Olestra is a sucrose polyester. Sucrose has eight hooks to connect with fatty acids (just as glycerol has three). When attached to fatty acids, it produces a fat-like substance that cannot be absorbed since humans lack enzymes to digest it. Thus when ingested, it enters the intestines and is eliminated, unchanged, so that it has no caloric value. Although it has the additional advantage of being suitable for cooking and heating, Olestra has two undesirable side effects. Since it moves rapidly through the intestines, it may cause soiling of the underwear. It also eliminates many of the fat soluble vitamins when it is excreted.

INCIDENTAL COMPONENTS OF FOODS: These components are chemicals, particles or any agent, which may become embedded in the food during its growth, harvesting, processing, storage, or packaging. They can be divided into several categories:

1. Environmental contaminants: Industrialization made life easier for us. Electricity, cars, a multitude of appliances, and other facilities were made available for all of us. However, the process of production, use, and disposal of these products resulted in contamination of our air, water, and soil with a variety of dangerous chemicals and toxins. Any food that is eaten can be suspected of containing lesser or greater amounts of these environmental contaminants.

The multitudes of these contaminants, including herbicides and

pesticides that are discussed below, have damaged the environment in many ways. There has been reproductive damage to humans and a wide variety of animals (fertility rates have gone down). Since many of these compounds are structurally similar to male or female hormones in certain animals, they can interact with receptors on these hormones, thus confusing the system as the sex determination and affecting fertility.

2. Production boost contaminants: To increase crop yield, farmers

use herbicides (chemicals to kill weeds), pesticides (agents used to kill pests), etc. In order to promote growth of cattle, hogs, and poultry, the industry uses growth-promoting hormones, antibiotics, etc. Herbicides and pesticides, such as DDT, increase crop yields but end up in the soil and water and are absorbed by plants. The end result is that animals, including humans, eat these crop foods and possibly suffer ill effects from these poisons.

Growth promoters and hormones, such as growth hormone and

estrogen, enhance the growth of animals, as do antibiotics, such as puromycin, tetracycline, and penicillin, which kill microbes within these organisms. The compounds, however, remain in the system, and when the animal is consumed, they would be ingested, absorbed, and might have toxic effects. Milk also contains these poisons.

3. Packaging and preparation contaminants: As the food is being processed and packaged, other ingredients may be inadvertently added at times. These could be bits of plastic, paper, tin, or other foreign bodies, as well as many preservatives used in:

a. The packaging material, such as sodium benzoate,

etc.

b. The manufacture of paper and paperboard, such as acrolin or cupric nitrate.

c. Adhesives used in the packaging process, such as

ammonium benzoate, thymol, etc. These contaminants eventually can become mixed with the foodstuff. MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OF FOODSTUFF: Food contamination by microbial agents is one of the major hazards of the world. Disease-causing organisms may be viruses, bacteria, or parasites, and the resulting illness is food poisoning. Food poisoning either can be a food-borne infection in which the person is infected by the pathogen, or a food intoxication in which the illness is caused by a toxin produced by the microbe, regardless of whether it is living or dead. The symptoms are generally diarrhea and vomiting, although sometimes fever, abdominal cramps, nausea, and gas are present as well. However, certain agents, such as clostridium botulinum, which causes botulism, or their toxin can produce other symptoms, such as double vision and speech difficulties. In order to reduce the chance of food poisoning, the following precautions should be adhered to as much as possible:

1. Always wash hands with warm water and soap before handling food, taking care to lather well in order to give the soap a chance to kill the microbes.

2. Wash utensils, dishes, cutting boards, and counter tops with a

detergent and hot water. Clean up spilled food and crevices well.

3. Wash sponges and towels often, as they can carry many

infectious agents. 4. Make sure food handlers are not suffering from infectious

diseases. Any carrier of the microbe should not sneeze or cough over the food.

5. After cutting meat and poultry, clean all contaminated areas,

especially the cutting board with a detergent before using the surface for handling other food. To do otherwise might cause cross-contamination.

6. Use utensils for mixing foods not with your bare hands. Try not

to let any of your own germs contaminate the wash surface. 7. NEVER use or buy items that appear to have been opened or

contaminated.

Make certain that canned foods do not leak or bulge. Frozen items should be kept frozen until use. Never buy frozen food that has been defrosted. In other words, avoid any food item that shows any sign of contamination.

8. Before using any food, try to smell the item. If it has a foul

smell, do not use it. Also, carefully observe whether the food exhibits any visible sign of contamination. If the food is suspect, never use or taste it. However, one should keep in mind that many contaminated foods do not have any noticeable color or smell.

9. Always read and carefully follow the instructions about storage

and preparation of foodstuffs that usually are found on the packaging.

10. Try to cook meats to at least medium well doneness. Never cook

large pieces of meat and poultry in a microwave oven. 11. Refrigerate or freeze perishable items immediately after

shopping or using.

12. Defrost meat and poultry in the refrigerator or microwave oven,

not at room temperature. 13. Use only eggs with intact shells and always cook them well as

they carry microbes such as Salmonella. 14. Never feed honey to infants as it may carry many bacterial

spores that can start to grow after eating. Infants are generally more vulnerable than adults. Avoid giving any food items to babies too early as they lack many enzymes present in adults and can become severely ill.

HERBS VERSUS THEIR ACTIVE NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC INGREDIENTS

One of the major questions in pharmacology is the difference between administering an herb or its extracted active natural or synthetic ingredients. Some patients claim that when the synthetic form of a drug, hormone or vitamin is used, they observe no appropriate relief or may even experience adverse reactions such as an allergy to the chemical. One question that arises then is that if the synthetic drug is chemically the same as naturally extracted ones, what could cause such a difference in their effect? There is no clear answer. Perhaps trace impurities in the two preparations are different from each other. However, since impurity is usually present in such low

concentration, one might look to homeopathy for the answer, even very diluted forms of chemical can have their effects. Another question is whether use of the herb is better than administering its active ingredient. Some herbologists claim that using the herb is better because of both mitigating influence of other ingredients and the possible synergistic effects of other chemicals in the herb. Since the dose can always be lowered to lessen the effect of the drug, why complicate the process by using the whole herb? However, the synergistic effect of other components may be just a coincidence, as the plants ended up containing certain ingredients that had survival value for their evolution. It was likely never intended that they contain different chemicals with synergistic effect helpful to humans or other forms of life. The answer to the question of whether herbs or their active ingredients should be used appears to depend on individual herbs. In certain cases, it is better to administer the whole herb, for others, the active ingredient only. Two examples can be given about hallucinogens, which should be used as pure rather than the whole herb. One is peyote cactus, whose ingredient is mescaline, the other is nutmeg, whose ingredient is myristin, a compound similar to MDMA* (ecstasy). The ingestion of the above herbs causes nausea, vomiting, headache and dizziness. However, the ingestion of only the active ingredient generally causes hallucinations with few side effects. *MDMA was reported to have accelerated the effects of psychotherapy considerably (a few sessions of psychotherapy rather than years). Is it not ironic that the use of MDMA was banned even for psychotherapists?