sampling techniques and data collection

11. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

AND DATA COLLECTIONC. THE OBSERVATION METHODS AND TOOLS (TYPES, RATING

SCALES)D. THE INTERVIEW (TYPES, QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES)E. THE QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPES, RESPONSE FORMATS,

MAXIMIZING RETURNS)

C. THE OBSERVATION METHODS AND TOOLS (TYPES, RATING

SCALES)OBSERVATION IS WAY OF GATHERING DATA

BY WATCHING BEHAVIOR, EVENTS, OR NOTING PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THEIR NATURAL SETTING.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONNATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

NATURAL OBSERVATION INVOLVES OBSERVING BEHAVIOR AS IT TAKES PLACE IN THE ENVIRONMENT,

TYPES OF NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

•OVERT (EVERYONE KNOWS THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED)

•COVERT (NO ONE KNOWS THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED AND THE OBSERVER IS CONCEALED).

THE BENEFIT OF COVERT OBSERVATION IS THAT PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY TO BEHAVE NATURALLY IF THEY DO NOT KNOW THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED. HOWEVER, YOU WILL TYPICALLY NEED TO CONDUCT OVERT OBSERVATIONS BECAUSE OF ETHICAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO CONCEALING YOUR OBSERVATION.

EXAMPLESAN EXAMPLE OF AN OVERT OBSERVATION WOULD BE

WILLIAMS, 1986 STUDY ON THE MEDIA EFFECTS ON ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN. IN THIS STUDY 6-11 YEAR OLD CHILDREN FROM AN ISOLATED SOCIETY WERE ASSESSED ON THEIR LEVELS OF AGGRESSION AFTER THE INTRODUCTION OF TV. THE CHILDREN KNEW THEY WERE BEING STUDIED AND SO THEY MAY HAVE SHOWN DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS OR SOCIAL DESIRABILITY EFFECTS.

OVERT OBSERVATION

EXAMPLESCOVERT OBSERVATION

AN EXAMPLE OF A COVERT OBSERVATION WOULD BE THE FAMOUS BANDURA’S 1961 BOBO DOLL STUDY. IN THIS STUDY, AFTER WATCHING A MODEL ACT VIOLENTLY THE CHILDREN WERE UNKNOWINGLY OBSERVED AS THEY PLAYED WITH TOYS, SO THE RESEARCHER COULD MEASURE THE CHILDREN'S LEVEL OF AGGRESSION AFTER WATCHING A MODEL ACTING AGGRESSIVELY. THE CHILDREN WERE UNAWARE THAT THEY WERE BEING OBSERVED AND THE REASONS WHY THEY WERE INVOLVED IN THIS STUDY AND THEREFORE THEY WOULD MORE LIKELY TO SHOW NATURAL DISPLAYS OF BEHAVIOR.

A CONTRIVED SETTING IS ONE WHERE THE SPECIFIC SITUATION BEING STUDIED IS CREATED BY THE OBSERVER (AN ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT). THE CONTRIVED SETTING OFFERS YOU, THE OBSERVER, GREATER CONTROL OVER THE GATHERING OF DATA AND SPECIFICALLY WILL ENABLE YOU TO GATHER THE INFORMATION MORE QUICKLY AND EFFICIENTLY. HOWEVER, IT MAY BE QUESTIONABLE AS TO WHETHER OR NOT THE DATA COLLECTED DOES TRULY REFLECT A "REAL LIFE" SITUATION.

EXAMPLE: A FOOD TASTING SESSION.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONCONTRIVED OBSERVATION

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS ARE MADE WHEN THE DATA THAT IS BEING COLLECTED CAN BE ORGANIZED INTO CLEAR CATEGORIES OR GROUPS SO THAT THE OBSERVER CAN RECORD THE DATA BY SIMPLY MARKING OFF OR CHECKING A CATEGORY ON AN OBSERVATION FORM. THIS IS MORE LIKE A SURVEY, WHERE EVERY RESPONDENT IS ASKED THE SAME SET OF QUESTIONS. BUT IN THIS CASE, QUESTIONS ARE NOT ASKED. INSTEAD, PARTICULAR TYPES OF BEHAVIOR ARE LOOKED FOR AND COUNTED.

NON-STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS ARE NOT LOOKING FOR SPECIFIC FACTS OR ACTIONS, BUT RATHER ARE CAPTURING EVERYTHING THAT OCCURS. THE RESEARCHER MONITORS ALL ASPECTS OF THE PHENOMENON THAT SEEM RELEVANT. IT IS APPROPRIATE WHEN THE PROBLEM HAS YET TO BE FORMULATED PRECISELY AND FLEXIBILITY IS NEEDED IN OBSERVATION TO IDENTIFY KEY COMPONENTS OF THE PROBLEM AND TO DEVELOP HYPOTHESES. THE POTENTIAL FOR BIAS IS HIGH. OBSERVATION FINDINGS SHOULD BE TREATED AS HYPOTHESES TO BE TESTED RATHER THAN AS CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONNON-STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

WHEN SUBJECTS DO NOT KNOW THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED, THIS IS CALLED A DISGUISED OBSERVATION. SUBJECTS IN DISGUISED OBSERVATIONS TEND TO ACT MORE NATURALLY AND THE DATA COLLECTED TENDS TO REFLECT THEIR TRUE REACTIONS. THE PRIMARY CONCERN WITH DISGUISED OBSERVATION IS THE ETHICAL CONCERN OVER RECORDING BEHAVIORAL INFORMATION THAT WOULD NORMALLY BE PRIVATE OR NOT VOLUNTARILY REVEALED TO A RESEARCHER. HOWEVER, IF YOU ARE SIMPLY OBSERVING A SUBJECT'S BEHAVIOR IN A PUBLIC SETTING THEN BY DEFINITION, THEIR BEHAVIOR IS NO LONGER PRIVATE.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONDISGUISED OBSERVATION

WHEN SUBJECTS KNOW THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED, THIS IS CALLED A NON-DISGUISED OBSERVATION. USING THE NON-DISGUISED OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE ALONE ALLEVIATES ETHICAL CONCERNS, HOWEVER, SINCE THE SUBJECTS ARE AWARE THAT THEY ARE BEING WATCHED, THE ADVANTAGES OF USING THE OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUE ARE NEUTRALIZED AND A SURVEY TECHNIQUE WOULD BE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE. THERE IS ONE EXCEPTION: THE NON-DISGUISED APPROACH OFFERS THE ADVANTAGE OF ALLOWING THE RESEARCHER TO FOLLOW UP THE OBSERVATIONS WITH A QUESTIONNAIRE IN ORDER TO GET DEEPER INFORMATION ABOUT A SUBJECT'S BEHAVIOR.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONNON-DISGUISED OBSERVATION

IN PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION, THE RESEARCHER BECOMES, OR IS, PART OF THE GROUP THAT IS BEING INVESTIGATED. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION HAS ITS ROOTS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES (STUDY OF MAN AND RACES) WHERE RESEARCHERS WOULD LIVE IN TRIBAL VILLAGES, ATTEMPTING TO UNDERSTAND THE CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES OF THAT CULTURE. IT HAS A VERY EXTENSIVE LITERATURE, PARTICULARLY IN SOCIOLOGY (DEVELOPMENT, NATURE AND LAWS OF HUMAN SOCIETY) AND ANTHROPOLOGY (PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MAN). ORGANIZATIONS CAN BE VIEWED AS ‘TRIBES’ WITH THEIR OWN CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONPARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

IN NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION, THE OBSERVER DOES NOT NORMALLY QUESTION OR COMMUNICATE WITH THE PEOPLE BEING OBSERVED. HE OR SHE DOES NOT PARTICIPATE. THE OBSERVER IS AN EAVESDROPPER, SOMEONE WHO ATTEMPTS TO OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT INTERACTING WITH THEM WITHOUT THEIR KNOWLEDGE THAT THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED. THIS IS USED MOST ROUTINELY BY PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDYING CHILDREN AND ANIMALS.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONNON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

D. THE INTERVIEW (TYPES, QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES)THIS METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA

INVOLVES PRESENTATION OR ORAL-VERBAL STIMULI AND REPLY IN TERMS OF ORAL-VERBAL RESPONSES. IT IS WHERE INTERVIEWER ASKS QUESTIONS (WHICH ARE AIMED TO GET INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR STUDY) TO RESPONDENT

TYPES OF INTERVIEW METHOD USED IN DATA

COLLECTIONA. ACCORDING TO THE FORMALITYa)FORMAL INTERVIEW

SET OF WELL-DEFINED QUESTIONS ARE PRESENTED BY THE INTERVIEWER.

ANSWERS ARE NOTED DOWN ACCORDING TO THE GIVEN RULES.

b)INFORMATION INTERVIEW FULL AUTHORITY IS WITH THE INTERVIEWER FOR

CARRYING OUT THE NEEDED ALTERATIONS IN THE VARIOUS QUESTIONS.

a)PERSONAL INTERVIEW SINGLE PERSON IS

INTERVIEWED.CLOSE PERSONAL

CONTRACTS BETWEEN THE INTERVIEWER AND THE INTERVIEWEE CAN BE ESTABLISHED.

UNECONOMICAL OF TIME AND MONEY.

INTIMATE AND THE PERSONAL ASPECTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL

CAN BE OBTAINED.b)GROUP INTERVIEW

TWO OR MORE PERSONS ARE INTERVIEWED.

HELPS IN GATHERING THE ROUTINE INFORMATION.

ECONOMICAL OF TIME AND MONEY.

INFORMATION OBTAINED IS VERY SUPERFICIAL IN NATURE.


COLLECTIONB. ACCORDING TO NUMBER

a)DIAGNOSTIC INTERVIEW HELPS IN KNOWING THE CAUSES

OR THE CAUSE OF A MALADY. USEFUL IN THE CLINICAL

PSYCHOLOGY AND ALSO IN THE PSYCHOANALYSIS.

b)TREATMENT INTERVIEW ON THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE CAUSE

OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MALADY FURTHER INTERVIEWS ARE CONDUCTED.

BY THESE INTERVIEWS, PATIENT COMES TO KNOW ABOUT HIS MALADY WHICH MAY BE DUE TO THE MENTAL, COMPLEX OR THE

FAULTY LIFE STYLE.c)RESEARCH INTERVIEW

HELPS TO COLLECT THE DATA ABOUT A PARTICULAR RESEARCH PROBLEM.

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED DURING THE INTERVIEW ARE PRE-DETERMINED.

d)INTERVIEWS TO FULFILL CURIOSITY USED TO SATISFY SOME OF THE

QUESTIONS THAT ARE LURKING IN THE MIND OF A SCIENTIST.


COLLECTIONC. ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

a) SHORT CONTACT INTERVIEW HELPS IN FILLING UP THE SCHEDULES, TABLES ETC.

A SHORT DURATION OF SUCH AN INTERVIEW IS SUFFICIENT.

b) PROLONGED CONTACT INTERVIEW IN CONTACT WITH RESEARCH BY SCHEDULE, THE CASE HISTORY METHOD NEEDS PROLONGED INTERVIEWS.


COLLECTIOND. ACCORDING TO THE PERIOD OF

CONTACT

a)QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW INVOLVE NON

QUANTIFIABLE SUBJECT MATTER.

FOR E.G. INTERVIEWS HELD FOR THE CASE STUDIES.

b)QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW CERTAIN FACTS

FOR A LARGE NUMBER OF PERSONS ARE GATHERED.

FOR E.G. CENSUS INTERVIEWS.

c)MIXED INTERVIEW BOTH ROUTINE

AND SPECIALIZED DATA IS SOUGHT.

SOME OF IT MAY BE QUANTIFIABLE WHILE SOME OF IT MAY BE NON-QUANTIFIABLE.


COLLECTIONE. ACCORDING TO SUBJECT MANNER

a)NON – DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW ALSO CALLED FREE OR

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW. INTERVIEWER HAS NO CONTROL

OVER THINGS IN SUCH AN INTERVIEW.

INTERVIEWER PROVIDES NO DIRECTION.

INTERVIEWER HAS NO PREDETERMINED SET OF QUESTIONS FOR ASKING.

THE INFORMANT IS FREE TO EXPLAIN OR TELL HIS EXPERIENCE.

b)FOCUSED INTERVIEW FOCUSES ATTENTION ON THE

GIVEN

EXPERIENCE OF THE RESPONDENT AND ITS EFFECTS.

INTERVIEWER KNOWS IN ADVANCE ABOUT THE ASPECTS OF THE QUESTION HE HAS TO COVER.

USED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYPOTHESIS.

c)REPEATED INTERVIEW HELPS IN UNDERSTANDING THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCESSES.

HELPS IN KNOWING THE ASPECTS AFFECTING THE BEHAVIOR PATTERN.


COLLECTIONE. ACCORDING TO ROLE

sampling techniques and data collection

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