sacred sites and pilgrimage routes in the kii mountain ... · pdf filesince ancient times, the...

Makoto Motonaka

Description of the site

Historical and Spiritual Values of the site

Since ancient times, the Kii Mountain

Range has harboured a tradition of nature

worship, in which mountains, rocks,

forests, trees, rivers and waterfalls are dei-

fied and revered as objects of worship.

Located to the south of the Nara Basin,

the site of one of Japan’s ancient capitals,

this region is beloved by people from the

capital and recognised as a sacred site

where the gods descend and reside.

After Buddhism was introduced into

Japan in the sixth century, the Kii

Mountain Range became the central site

for ascetic Buddhist practices; the

Shingon school of esoteric Buddhism,

which arrived in the ninth century, also

chose this area as a place in which to per-

form its ascetic rituals.

Between the mid-tenth and eleventh cen-

turies, the Shugen school of ascetic

Buddhism established itself as the

indigenous religion of Japan. It com-

bined elements of pre-Buddhist moun-

tain worship, an esoteric form of

Buddhism called Mikkyô and the Taoist

belief in the immortal Hsien, which was

introduced from China. The followers of

the Shugen sect chose the Kii Mountain

Range as a base for their religious wor-

ship.

On the basis of the diversity of religious

beliefs and activities that have been fos-

tered by the region’s unique geology, cli-

mate and vegetation, the three out-

standing sacred sites of Yoshino and

Ômine, Kumano Sanzan and Kôyasan, as

well as the pilgrimage routes that connect

them, have all become important heritage

areas in the Kii Mountain Range.

World Heritage Values

The Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in

the Kii Mountain Range were inscribed in

the World Heritage List on the basis of

Cultural Criteria (ii), (iii), (iv) and (vi), and the

concept of Associative Cultural Lands-

capes.

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Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii MountainRange. Mie, Nara and Wakayama Prefectures, Japan

< Kii Mountans temple.

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Criterion (ii) The outstanding monuments

and the sites that form the cultural land-

scapes found at this site are a unique

fusion between Shinto, rooted in the

ancient Japanese tradition of nature

worship, and Buddhism introduced into

Japan from China and the Korean

Peninsula. These monuments are

unmatched elsewhere in the region and

illustrate the exchange process that has

occurred between religious cultures in

East Asia.

Criterion (iii) Each compound of the

shrines and temples included in the

nominated site contains the remains of

lost wooden or stone structures that

exist nowhere else and other archaeo-

logical material pertaining to religious

rituals.

Criterion (iv) Many of the temples and

shrines in the site are excellent exam-

ples of wooden religious architecture of

great historic and artistic value.

Criterion (vi) The combination of highly

sacred natural objects and sites, the

surrounding forest landscapes and the

religious rituals and festivals that are still

observed in these sacred mountains

ensures that this site possesses a high-

ly diverse mix of both tangible and

intangible elements of heritage.

Natural heritage

Most of the Kii Mountain Range is covered

by dense verdant forests. Three endemic

plants and plant communities thrive in the

forests of the site: Oyamarenge, a decid-

uous shrub belong to the Magnoliaceae

family, Bukkyougatake Genshirin, a sub-

alpine evergreen coniferous forest con-

sisting mainly of Veitch’s fir (Abies veitchii),

and the Nachi primeval forest, a laurel for-

est dominated by isunoki (the isu tree -

Distylium racemosum). They are all wide-

spread over the mountain ridge and have

been designated as natural monuments

under the Law for the Protection of

Cultural Properties.

All elements in the core area of this World

Heritage site are designated as national

historic sites, places of scenic beauty

and/or natural monuments under the Law

for the Protection of Cultural Properties.

Some of the elements of the site and its

buffer zone are protected as national

and/or quasi-national parks under the

Natural Park Law. Parts of the site’s buffer

zone are protected by the Forest Law and

the Municipal Ordinances for the

Conservation of Cultural Landscapes.

Given that the Kii Mountain Range was

included in 2004 in the World Heritage

Site list as a Cultural Heritage Site, the


Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs is

now responsible for the conservation of

the whole site from the standpoint of

national and international cultural values.

The Ministry for the Environment is in

charge of the conservation of national and

quasi-national parks, while the Japanese

Forestry Agency is in charge of the con-

servation of national forests included in

the site and the promotion of forestry

activities.

The departments for the Protection of

Cultural Properties, the Conservation of

the Natural Environment and Forestry

Promotion belonging to the three separate

prefectural governments that cover the

area of this World Heritage site are in

charge of its overall conservation.

Appropriate guidance and assistance is

also provided by the corresponding agen-

cies and the ministries of the Japanese

government.

Each local municipality is also in charge of

on-site management from a cultural and

natural point of view. Guidance and assis-

tance is provided not only by the corre-

sponding national governmental agencies

and ministries, but also by the three pre-

fectures.

The main elements of the site’s natural

heritage are the coniferous and broad-

leaved forests that cover much of the Kii

Mountains. Some of the most significant

forests (in terms of their size and/or char-

acteristics) and some of the particularly

old and/or tall trees growing in temple

and shrine compounds are highly

revered and are protected as natural

monuments.

Most of the people living in and around

this site are aware of its natural value.

Most of the pilgrims and hikers who visit

the mountain range also appreciate its

importance and sometimes express their

concern at the increasingly negative

impact of tourism. On the other hand,

some of the visitors who visit as part of

large-scale group tourism pay little atten-

tion to the natural heritage of the site.

Spiritual and Cultural values

The Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes

in the Kii Mountain Range consist of a

group of sacred sites connected by pil-

grimage routes lying in the Mie, Nara and

Wakayama Prefectures. The site is associ-

ated with the Shugen sect of ascetic

Buddhism that sprung up from a blend of

religious elements that include the wor-

ship of nature inherent in the Shinto of

ancient Japan, the Buddhism introduced

from the continent that developed in its

own particular fashion in Japan, and

Taoist beliefs.

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282

The spiritual value of the site is closely tied

to local natural and anthropogenic factors.

Natural elements consist essentially of the

geographical features of the mountains

themselves, characterised by verdant

coniferous and broadleaved forests, old

trees growing tall in sacred spots and

waterfalls used uninterruptedly over the

years as sites for ascetic rituals by

Shugen-do trainees, as well as the coast

(Shichi-rimihama) and the Kumanogawa

River, both of which are also significant

elements on the pilgrimage trails that con-

nect the three sacred sites. Other impor-

tant sites include various anthropogenic

elements such as historic temples and

shrines, pilgrimage routes connecting the

three sacred sites and the still-unexcavat-

ed archaeological remains relating to reli-

gious rituals and practices.

The organisation of Shugen ascetic prac-

tices is closely linked to the management

of the sacred spots located along the pil-

grimage routes. The religious organisa-

tions that run the Buddhist temples and

Shinto shrines, all generally recognised

and understood by the general public, are

also in charge of the management of the

compounds.

The departments in charge of the protec-

tion of cultural sites in the three prefectur-

al governments and the local

municipalities are responsible for the con-

servation and enhancement of the cultur-

al and spiritual values of these sites. An

Agency for Cultural Affairs provides tech-

nical and financial assistance and sup-

port, while in the case of the temple and

shrine compounds, their owners are

responsible for the conservation and

enhancement of the sites in consultation

with local municipalities.

The main activities related to the spiritual

and cultural heritage of the site are the

Shugen religious ceremonies, rituals, festi-

vals, pilgrimages and ascetic practices

that are held in the temple/shrine com-

pounds all along the pilgrimage routes;

some of these events are designated as

folk-cultural events by the prefectural gov-

ernments.

Most of the local people and visitors are

fully aware of the importance of the

Shugen religious ceremonies, rituals, festi-

vals and ascetic practices that are held in

the compounds of the temples and

shrines and along the pilgrimage routes.

Local people’s work is often closely relat-

ed to the religious activities performed by

Buddhist priests and ascetic trainees.

Pressures and impacts

The most dynamic human activities in the

region are:


- Pilgrimages: on-going religious activity

as a historical and living tradition.

- Tourism: closely linked to the tradition-

al pilgrimages.

- Mass tourism: an increasing number

of visitors (including hikers).

- Management or operation of inns,

restaurants and other facilities for visi-

tors by local people.

- Infrastructures for lessening the incon-

veniences to local people caused by

visitors.

Employment in the area essentially

revolves around the management or

operation of inns, restaurants and other

facilities for visitors (including pilgrims).

Some of these local economic activities

may occasionally have a negative

impact on the site, although overall

there is no major problem in this sense.

Agriculture, forestry, fishery and other

local economic activities in the buffer

zone have no negative repercussions on

the site.

Currently, there is no real serious nega-

tive impact upon the natural environ-

ment of the site. However, some of the

projects described below that are

planned for the site’s buffer zone may

have a negative impact on certain

places of natural and spiritual/cultural

significance.

Pilgrimage, Kii Mountains.


284

- Construction and improvement of

roads, including the construction of

large bridges.

- Artificial canalisation of rivers to pre-

vent floods.

- Construction of wind farms on moun-

tain tops.

Buddhist ceremonies, rituals, festivals and

Shugen ascetic practices are conducted

in harmony with the natural environment

and aim to bring people closer to nature.

Therefore, potential conflicts between the

conservation of the natural heritage and

the protection of spiritual/cultural values

are unlikely in the foreseeable future.

The livelihoods of the local people who

have historically cared for pilgrims along

the pilgrimage routes depend on activities

such as coppicing for charcoal, planting

of Japanese cedar and rice production in

terraced paddies scattered around vil-

lages. Local people have always made

use of the pilgrimage routes for the trans-

portation of the essential materials they

need for their daily lives. The Sacred Sites

and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain

Range are a heritage site with close ties to

Shintoism, Buddhism and Shugen-do, in

which the surrounding cultural landscapes

relating to local people’s lives and liveli-

hoods are also a part of the site and its

buffer zone.

Land-use in the site and its buffer zone is

determined by laws concerning forestry,

agricultural promotion and rivers, as well

as landscape conservation ordinances

enacted by the municipalities in the area.

Consensus concerning activities altering

the existing state of the site are reached

through three mechanisms: preservation

and management plans for each individual

designated historic site, place of scenic

beauty or natural monument established

between municipalities and land owners;

mid-term preservation and management

plans developed individually by each pre-

fecture; and an overall preservation and

management plan drawn up jointly by the

three prefectural governments for all the

relevant elements in the World Heritage

Site.

Conservation perspectives andsustainability

A distinctive characteristic of the natural

environment of the site is that all of its nat-

ural elements possess great spiritual and

cultural significance and have been well

protected over the centuries by the reli-

gious activities that are performed there.

Implicitly, thus, the public realise that the

conservation of the site’s natural heritage

should be incorporated into any plan for

protecting the site’s cultural and spiritual

heritage.


Due attention has been paid to the fact

that the cultural and spiritual value of the

site is closely associated by both local

people and visitors with the natural envi-

ronment. The public are aware of the

importance of incorporating the protection

of the site’s cultural and spiritual heritage

into the overall conservation of the site’s

natural environment.

Due to their great spiritual value, some

parts of the densely vegetated temple

and shrine compounds are closed to the

public, a prohibition that may have con-

tributed to the conservation of these

natural elements and their surroundings.

Both the forests that cover the com-

pound of the Koyasan Buddhist Temple

and the Nachi Primeval Forest, located

behind the Nachi-Taisha Shinto Shrine,

have been well preserved thanks to a

strict prohibition based on religious doc-

trine that prevents entry to these sites.

Owing to their participation in religious

ceremonies, rituals and festivals, local

people and visitors are aware that the

sacredness of the site is closely associ-

ated with its rich natural setting. More

and more Buddhist priests and practi-

tioners of the Shugen ascetic school

engage in religious activities and increas-

ingly greater numbers of people visit

these religious sites on pilgrimage, all of

which shows that this cultural manifesta-

tion is alive and well here in the spiritual

heartland of the Japanese people.

People’s lives and livelihoods in the

region depend on the natural environ-

ment surrounding their homes. Land-

use can be classified by type (sacred

forests, forest plantations, terraced

rice paddies, rivers and seacoasts) and

natural quality (strictly protected natu-

ral areas with a high degree of sacred-

ness or transitional areas that lie in

between protected areas and settle-

ments). The protection of sacred natu-

ral sites contributes to the overall

assessment for zoning the natural

areas in the region.

Thus, the possibility of good positive

synergy between the conservation of

the site’s natural heritage and the pro-

tection of its spiritual/cultural values

must be taken into account.

As mentioned earlier, if the socio-eco-

nomic development of a region is not

to be negatively affected, it is essential

to aim for a harmonious balance

between the protection of sacred natu-

ral sites and the conservation of the

various types of natural zones that sur-

round them. Highly sacred zones can-

not exist in isolation, since they are

closely connected to people’s spiritual

lives. The integration of natural and

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286

spiritual values must contribute to the

sustainable development of the region.

Recommendations

Each municipality should set up a coordi-

nating committee to facilitate the sharing of

appropriate information and the reaching of

agreements regarding the conservation and

management of the heritage site between

the religious organisations who own the

temples and shrines, local people, local

authorities, stakeholders and other perti-

nent organisations. Consensus should be

based upon an in-depth evaluation of not

only the natural values of the site, but also

the spiritual/cultural values that are associ-

ated with the site’s natural elements. The

natural value of the land-use that sustains

local lives and livelihoods should also be

assessed in an appropriate manner.

Moreover, on the basis of the site assess-

ment agreed to by the coordinating com-

mittee, a plan including general principles

and comprehensive measures for the cor-

rect preservation and utilisation of the site

and policy for appropriate and effective

management must also be established.

This management plan will be highly bene-

ficial for local people if based on a proper

assessment of the value of the site and will

contribute greatly to the sustainable socio-

economic development of the region.

It is essential that mechanisms for estab-

lishing consensus, cooperation and coor-

dination between local people, owners of

the temples and shrines, administrative

organisations, NGOs and other stake-

holders are set up. In particular, the rele-

vant agencies and departments of local

municipalities and prefectural and central

governments should cooperate in the

exchange of information and enforce

measures to manage the site in an appro-

priate way.

In order to maximise the effectiveness of

the coordinating committee established

by the local municipalities, special atten-

tion should be paid to the following:

- Promotion of national and interna-

tional cultural interchanges between

local people and visitors in aspects of

spiritual, cultural and natural heritage.

- Encouragement of education for

young people aimed at highlighting the

purity, beauty and sanctity of the site.

- Sharing of information with local

people, including owners of the tem-

ples and shrines.

- Encouragement of discussions

regarding the effects on people’s daily

lives of the fulfilment of management

policies within the heritage site.

- Provision of appropriate means for

explaining to visitors the need to pro-

tect the site.


References

■ ICOMOS World Heritage Evaluation

Report (2004), Sacred Sites and

Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain

Range.

■ Japanese Government (2004). Nomi-

nation dossier for the World Heritage

Inscription “Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage

Routes in the Kii Mountain Range”.

■ Motonaka, M. (2001) Evaluation and

Conservation of Sacred Mountains in

Japan.

■ UNESCO Thematic Expert Meeting on

Asia-Pacific Sacred Mountains, Japan.

Fire ritual.


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