A 51 UDY IN KI::RALA STATE
SABU. K. C.
Bangalore - 560 072.
PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCfI.Tlm.J.
CERTIFICATE
certify that I have guided and supervl5ed the preparation and writing of the present thesis entitled "Relationship Between Education and Modernity ,A Study in Kerala State" completed by Mr SABU K C, who worked on the topic at the Institute for Social and Economic Change. Bangalor ...
\').
Batwean Educa.tion and Modernity: A Study in Karala
State" is ti,e result of my own work aarri~d out at
Institute for Social and Economic Change, Dangalore
that it ha,s not, .. it he r who I I y or in pa. r t. ,
t..hf31
and
bOl3n
submitted for any other Degree. Dua a.cknow 1 adggmant~6
h~Ve been made wherever anything has beorl bQrrowad
othqr SOI.JI'(Jqs.
from
ACKNO'll.EDGftENTS
am deeply grateful to Dr.A.S.Saetharam'J Professor and lIead, Educat ion IJn i t, I n,;l i tute fOf
SOGia.l and Economic Cha_f1ga. Ba.nga.lore for having kindly guided and supervised my research work embodied in this thesis. He took immense pains '" reading my several drafts and improving tt,grein, bath the languale and orlanizatiol' of materials. But for his expertise, COllcern, and ~~nevo'ent
encouragement it would l13va baen difficsJil fOl' n!~
to complete this re"earch "t"dy. I only hop" t.hat have been able to conform to the rigoro'_Js st3l1dard~
of research expected by my Sl)fH~r''''' isor.
place on record my sincere gratituJe 3nlj
indebtedn"ss t.o the Institute for So,oial and Economic Change, Ban~alore for providing me opportunity and facilities t.o undertake and complete this research study. I am also thankf,,1 1.0 severa.1 members of the fa,::ull.y at ISEt: wi t.1l whom have discussed my r~search 5tlJdy at various st.ag8~
and profit.ted from 5IJGh discllssions,
since~aly thank the Education, Bangalore University for support and encouragement to me.
Depart.ment of their r,oni.inIJ8d
Plac" on record my gratitudes to the 700 respondents of Gochin taluk wit.hout whose patient and enthusiastic co-operation, the sturiy would not. have been possible.
t.hank Mr.K.S.Narayana anri Hr.Amarnat,h "ho have taken pains to type
ThFJr0i3 are ~ n l Jmb8[" of ot.hJ3r pgr':7on;:;: \l1ho tl7jV8
helped m8 in both direct and indirect way,; in cnmpleting t.his l'F.ts.JarGh study, They dee d8firlit.t-jly ~ p3rt of my permauent maHlor~' in I i fa thou~h I hd\li=: rllJL mentioned them by na,n~.
CERTIFICATE
AC~< N OW LE[iGEMtt~ T S
CHAFTEF: I I
intf"odul~tion
S~tting c·f the Stua .. ' Hypotheses and Obiectives vari.abies Methodology ~:C"Llpe
Limit.s.tions Ch.3;p1.E'c- l=atior;
Meaning and Characteristics of modernizB.tiot1
Meaning of modernity Characteristics of modernity MQde~ni=2tioll alld nlodernit~'
Perspectives on moderni=&tion Educati~n and modernization
i. nino ia Perspectives on Relationship
between Education and ffilJdt?' [. ,-, i t ~I
PEr-specti<Je fol lowed in the present studv
Operational dEfinitiol1S
REVI~U OF RELATED LITERAT1JRE
Studies conducted abco&o Studies in I l1!j La lnsights franl ~he review
Page Nc>.
1 . :i::.
Setting of the Study Hypottleses ana Ob~ectives Var~3.ble5
Me U',ooo logy
THEORETICAL PERSFECTIVE~
Me~nillg ot modernity CharactEristics ot mDdETIlitx Moderni=2tioll alld nloderflit), Perspectives on moderlli=ation Education and modernization
ill I '"td i a Pe(sp~ctiv~s on Relatio0ship
between Education alld
pI.' &st?n t 5 t l.ldv 7::- -; :~.
Operational dEfinitions
Studies conducted abr05ci Studies in Indid [llSights fronl the fBv1ew
7' b - 1 ' .. ~.
CHAPTER
PROFILE OF THE SAMPLE
Oemogcaphic particul~~s Food and ~elated hablts Sk ills Membership in social
or ga n i::.9. t ions Family background Married respondents Cumulative obser'uatiollS Summary of observations
LEVELS OF EDIJCATION AND MODERNITY IN TERMS OF
1.07 - 1 S,::t.
L07-1.l.S US-Ill', 116-1t7
Levels of education and modernity in terms of attitudes
Critical lev€-ls of >2ducation with reference to mode~nit~ in te~m9 of attitudes .)f
the totai s.ampLe Intervening 'Jaciables in the
relationship between le~et5
LEVELS OF EDIJCATIGN AN~
15S-1Q7
198-230
CONSiSTENCY BETUEEN ATTITUDINAL AND BEHAVIOURAL MODERNITY ACROSS LEVELS OF EDUCATlON
SUMMARY OF THE WORK DONE, FINDINGS AND CO~CLUSIONS :?·39- .3S 7
389
390-391
Distribution of respondents by Marital Status
Distribution of migrant res ponden ts Lavel of Education and Sex
of
by
4.4 Distribution of migrant r~apondents by thair lav~1 of education and pl.c~ of birth Iplaca of origin)
4.5
4.6
4.7
ft:Jspondant.s by p-9.r8n t-.s I
Intergenerational matrix, Distribution of mala respondents by level of education and fathar's educational category.
Distribution of male respond~nts by of education and educational mobility
level
4.9
4.10
f~male respondentg by level of edfJCation and educational mobility
Distribution of raspondents by aducation and fathars occupation
Distribution of respondents by eduoation and annual family income
Di~tribution of respondents by educalion and Living Standard Index
of
lavel of
le',el of
Distribution of respondents by level of education and holding of bank account, member­ ship In chltfund, holding of share/bond/debenture
110
111
113
114
119
121
122
124
127
130
134
4. 13
4. 14
4. IS
[\ist.ribut..iQn of reS pondent.s by 1"",>1 of educat,ion and POSSEssion of pass par t
Dist.rib1Jtion of marri~d respondent,s by level of educa.t ion and Sex
Distribution of married respondents by lev,>l education and the souroe of information In chQice of marriage partner
of the
4.19
Di"tribution of married respondents by level of education and decision-maker in the marriage partner
"el .. cUng
Distribution of respondents who marriad befor~ attaining the minimum age prescribed by level of education and sex
Distribution of married male respondent.s by level of education and gold/cash receive,j during their marriage
Distribution of married female respondents by level of education and gold/cash given during
140
141
143
their marriage 143
4.20 Distribution of .a~riad ra5pondanta by number of children thay have
4.21 Distribution of married caspondants by I~val
of aducation and adoption of birth aontroly
5. 1 Modernity soores iavels of education
General Modernity by
5.2 ONE~AY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, Modernity Saora by Level of Education
5.3 Distribution of modarnity scor~s in Area of Education - by levels of edl~catioc\
5.4 ONEUAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Mod~rnity scara the Area of Education - by la.al of education
5.5 Distribution of modernity saoras in Area of Employment - by levels of education
5.6 ONE~AY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score the Area of Employment.- by level of ed'Jcat.ion
tha
in
t.h ..
in
144
145
157
158
159
160
162
163
of Marriage and Family - by levels of aducat.ian 184
5.B ONE~AY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in I.he Araa of Marriage and Family by 1 ........ 1 of edlJ~~a t. ion
5.10
Distribution of modernity scor~s in th .. Ar ... a of Religious Life by levels of edlJcat i,:>o
ONE~AY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modarnity the Area of Religious Life by lavel of
s.::ora in edl.l(;.-1I t ion
16.5
167
11)8
of modernity scores - in the Life - by levels of education.
Area
169
the Area of Political Life by level of education 171
Distribution of modernity scores in the Area of Social Life - by levels of education 172
ONEWAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in the Area of Social Life by level of education 173
Diatr ibution of Area of Health education
modernity 6~ores and Hygiene by
in the levels of
ONEWAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in the Area of Health and Hygiene by level of education
Dist.ribution of modernity scores Area of ECONOMIC LIFE - by levels
in the of educa,tion
175
176
177
the Area of ECONOMIC LIFE by level of education 178
Distribution of modernity ~cores
193
ONEUAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in 181 the Dimension CHANGE PRONENESS by level of education
Distribution of modernity scores in the Dimension SCIENTIFIC ORIENTATION - by levels of education 182
ONEUAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity saore in the Dimension SCIEHTIFIC ORIENTATION by level of education
DistribtJtion of modernity scores in Dimension DEMOCRATIC ORIENTATION -by levels edu(::a t. ion
ONEWAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Mooernity score the Dimension DEMOCRATIC ORIENTATION by level educ3.tion
Distribution of modarnity 5cor~s Dimension SECULAR ORIENTATION by of '3'dlJcation
in the level",
183
165
186
187
5.26
5.27
5.30
5.31
5.32
5.33
5.35
5.36
5.37
5.38
5.39
5.40
ONEVAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in the Dimension SECULAR ORIENTATION by level of edlJcat ion
Distribution of mQdarnity score~ in the Dimension ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION -by levels af education
ONEUAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Modernity score in the Dimension ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION by level of flduca t j on
F Ratios by Cat.egory of Modernity
Distribution education and
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST,DUNCAN PROCEDIJRE
General Modernity Score by Levels of Education 200
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST, DUNCAN PROCEDURE Modernity Scores. in the Area of ... Educa t ion' by !.evels of Education
MIJLTIPLE RANGE TEST: DUNCAN PROCEDURE !1oderni ty Soores in the Area of EHPI.OYMENT by Levels of Educat ion
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST: DUNCAN PROCEDURE Mod8rnity Scores in the Area of MARRIAGE and FAMIl.Y
202
204
by Levels of Education 206
MU!.TIPLE RANGE TEST, DUNCAN PROCEDIJRE Modernity Scor .... in the Ar .. a. of RELIGIOtlS LIFE bl' La~E"s
of EdIJca,t~iQn
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST, DtlNCAN PROCEDIJRE Modernity Scores in the Area of POLITICAL LIFE
209
by Levels of Education 211
MIJLTIPLE RANGE TEST: DIH/CAN Modernity Scores in the Area of by Levels of Education
PROCEDURE SOCIAL LIFE
MIILTIPLE RANGE TEST, DIJNCAN PROCEDURE Modernity Scores in the Area of HEALTH ~ HYGIENE
213
by Levels of Education 216
IIIILT I PL I E RANGE TEST: DUNCAN PROCEDURE Modernity Scores in the Area of ECONOMIC LIFE by Levels of Education 218
MtJLTIPLE Modernity ORIENTATION
by Lavels of Education
5.51)
MULT IPLE RANGE TEST: DUNCAN Modernity S~ores in the Dimension ORIENTATION by Levels of Education
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST: DIJNCAN Modernity Scores in the Dimension ORIENTATION by Levels of Education
MULTIPLE RANGE TEST: DUNCAN
222
224
CRITICAL LEVELS OF EDUCATION BY CATEGORV OF MODERNITY 226
General and SeK
General Modernity Scores By Levels of Education and saK 233
ANALYSES OF YARIANCE Modernity Score by Laval of Education and SeK F Ratios by ~ategDry of modernity
General Modernity Score by Levels of Edl~G3tion
2.35
and Marital Status 2~9
General Modernity Score By Le~als of Education and Marital Status 240
Modernity score Marital Status Modernity
by F
Educat.ion
EdlJcat i on
Analyses of Variance Modernity score by levels of education and Religion F Ratio by Category of
242
24t>
246
Nodernity 249
General Modernity Score by Levels of Edfh'}at.iGn and Place of residence 254
General Modernity Scores By Levels of EdlJcation and Place of Residence 255
Modernity Pla.~e of Hodernit.y
Scores by Res i d 9n'~ 13
levals F Ra t j os
of Educa t. ion by C3tegory
and of
Education
Education
Modern i ty Migration
Score by levels of Education and F Ratios by Category of Modernity
General Modernity Score by Levels of Education
261
263
264
and Type of School ing 26B
Genera.l Modernity Score B>' L .. "els of Education and Type of Schooling 270
Analyses of Variance MQdernity score by levals of EducatiQn and Type of Sohoolin. F Ratios by Category of Modernity 271
Distribution of respondents by education and annuHI family income
Modernity S~ore5 by Income
MQdernity Scores by Income
Dist.r ibut..iQt\ of category
Distribution of respondents by edlJcation and exposure to mass-media
Modernity S~Qres by mass-media
I"vel of
275
277
2130
281
285
2B6
of intervening variables - on the between leve's of edtJcation and
terms at attitude" of re"pondents - of mOQt3rni t.y 294
5. t Di"tribution of respondents by their studying Qf 5~bject which they did not lik9 297
6.2 Distribution of respondents by ~dDptiQn of hirth control 288
6.3 DistributiQn of respondents by their sharing of h01JSehoid chores with spouse
13.4
6.5
6.13
13.7
13.8
8.9
6.10
7. 5
Distribution of respondents by or allowing their spouse to sit them while talking to thair guesta
thair sitting along with
in church/mosque/temple and l~vals of education
Dist.ribution of respondents by t.heir of any new task on Tuesday
beginninG
Distribution of re5pond~nts by their obs~rv3tiQn of 'Rahukala ' while starting on their journey
Distribution of respondents by their visiting the neighbours
of
Distribution of rBspond~nts by their r~spons6 to invitation3 for functions like marriaga
Distribution of respond~nts by their from voting
Distribution of married respondents feeding of thair children
by
Distribution of re3PQnd~nts by th~ provisinn lripl,,-antigan injaotions to th"ir ,"""dran
of
Distribution Qf items pertaining t,~ mQderni~y in t~rms af b~haviaur by Areas of lifa and thair
301
302
304
305
306
307
:308
309
310
Distribution of respondents by levals ~)f
I3d'JGation and type of response In 3ttit.l1d~
and behaviour in the Area of Education 315
Di~trib'Jtion of respondent.s by type of response in the Area of
leve15 of education and and behav iOI.H'
Fami Iy
in ottitude Marriage and
of respondents by le"s\s of typa of response in attitud~
o(1d bahaviolJr in the Area of Mdi'riags F~illily
Di:;;t:r iblJt:. ion education and and behaviour Faroi iy
o ist.r ibut. ion I2d 1.Jcation and and behaviQur Family
of respondents by type of response in the Area af
of ra'5p(}ndent,~ by type of response
in th .. Ar"a of
Marl'iage and
li3Vf3ls Ijf
318
320
321
and behaviour
of respondents by I eve I" of type of response in attitude
in the Area of Religious life .325
7.7 Distribution of r9spondents by \av~13 of
7.8
7.9
7. 14
education and type of response in attitude and behaviour in the Area of Religious life 326
Distribution ed uca t ion 8.nd a.no beha,v lour
of respondents by l~vels of type of response in attitude
in the Area of Religious life
of respondents by of Dist.ribut.ion education and and bahav i Q'Jr
type of response ;n in the Area of Political
at"tittJd@ I if ..
Distribution of respondents by education and typ~ of response and behaviour [0 the Ard8 of Soci~l
Distribution of r~~pond~nts by education and type of response and behaviour in the Area of Social
Distribution of respondents by educat ion and type of response and behaviour in the Area af Health
lav"l,. of in at.tit.lJd~
1,. Hy~ifina
Distribution of respondents by le~els nf education and type of response in altitude
328
329
331
332
and behaviour in the Area of Il~alth L Hygiene 335
Distribution of p3irs of it~ms showillg consistency/inconsist.ency in at.tit.uue and behaviour reflqcting mad~rnity of rasp')ndaots by 18\''31 of I03dSlcation and Areas of lif09
tlAP/OIAGRAI1
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER L
! NTrtODlJCT ION
is a .5 i 8 r1 t t- 1':: 3 f) t
if,'::: To i [ut ion
in ~,Jttn its ,;oals .a ims.
educ~"it ion 3 P f 'JC8'.5:3
'30'; ia i i"::3t ian . and
acquite • jE'-al.fed \},:j.l'Jt?'S • .:tti:it:.lJdoe5~ s~11i.:3. Dt;?t1.'3'.Jl;)Uf.
'-.1 n i ',1,~ f S a i ~t.Jmtu(Jn
~:: l .. ::~'': 1
the Or
iag6in~ behind.
i. -=. 3ft? • U.;:o· J <-? ! 'J c· ~ ,', ~_ .
Simii~r~y the imm~diate necessities 0t the societi~g ~t51J ~(e
The significance of eaucation in '~3te~ing
''::cncer n of social scienti9t3 and (lationai :) t
(jiffec8nt i:OIJI'tri~s across the world. '.J a/ '
1
of Human Rights (1949). Article 26 of the UN's Declaration
of Human Rights, declared education to be a human right.
This, according to Ke I th Watson, • was to have far
reaching consequences for the shape of educational
development thr'oughout the world' (WATSON 1989: pp 137 I •
The U.N.'s declaration occurred at a historic point
of time, when mos t of the Third World Countries wer-e
beginning to emerge as independent states. During the Post-
second World War decades of 1950s and 1960~. most of these
Third World Countries (as they are called), which were unde.·
the colonial regimes, attained political independence. There
was a wide range of problems to be solved by these countries
In the process of their nation building. Problems such a::;
high rate of illiteracy and nan-enrolment In schools, lack at
adequate
adequate
medical and health care, sub-standard
pauc i ty of
high rate of population growth, slow rate of economic growth,
and low per capital income, were characteristic of the
emers1ng Third World countries. HOlwlever,
these problems
\lorld
rapid
progress al Iround and that in a matter of a few years they
.... ould join the ranks of the Industrialized affluent .•
U"yasurlya 198:, pp.4). Such wishe9 and 8.S P i r-a t lon9 to
modernize themselves were reflected in the goals s~t by thes~
societies. ihu9, for the develcplng countries,
2
atta1nr..·...-;lt of p: 11 tica 1 fr- __ ~don, w-"3 no: ,E'l end In
rather
• the rational trans orr2t1~n of their s,-"ial,
economic and political Infr"'''t~uctur-- of s~~I"'ty to
their- national statu9 on the ~orld map.ft 1984,
pp. 1). In the deliberations that followed thereafter In the
developing countries, education was considered as the chief
means for rapid social and economic progress.
"For the past forty years educational investment In
the countries of the Third World has been high on the
political agenda" (WATSON: 1988 : pp.137). The expansion of
'educatlonal systems and educational provisions' that tool:
place during the period 1950-80 was ·unprecedented. 'During
those three decades more students enrolled in
education than at any time in all of the previous history put
together.' (Coombs 1985) •
At this juncture, 1. e., towards the end of the
twentieth century, it Is time now' to e~amine whether due
consideration and importance given to education was r",al I y
fruitful in achieving the social and economic goals set by
these developing countries.
education accelerated economic growth?; How far has education
helped
life
the process of social change?; what are the areas of
In which education has contributed to nalional
development? etc. require attention of social scientists. In
particular It Is worthwhile to examine the contribution of
education In moderniZation of developing countries.
3
An e~amination of the Indian experience In this
conte~t is relevant, since India happens to be one of the
early beginners among the Third World Countries. • India i9 "
developing country marching ahead on the road to
modernization' (Sharma 1979 pp.13'.
India is currently in the process of
'modernization' . (Meaning of the Word Modernization and th,
theoretical perspective9 will be discussed in the follo\.linl
chapters' .
During the British period modernization bega:
with a propo9al
days of
and others as well as the Arya Samaj and BrahlTlL
Samaj,dld not accept full scale westernisatlon as a model 0'
modernization. They \.Ianted to Integr&.te the rational asp.,ct,
of Indian culture \.lith the learning of English &.nd SCi.,nCf
education. The net r e9 u It by the time Indi&. becam(
independent \.I&.5 a model of modernization which Integrated tho
best aspects of both western culture and traditional
culture.
Indi3f
desire for modernization is r2flected in its decision tc
become a democratic republic. The 11ation wants to secure tc
a I I its citizens, .~u5t122 - socla-ec~noinic ai1d politi:::a.i
Ll befty o.f "th:;'.jf:~-L, eXpr"C'55ion, belief, faith .~r:j 'WQ::·s.-~i;.J.
4
2q':.._~lit..y ci c:~·-·~r~....:.- --,
th~ dignity of th~ ln~!vidu~: an~ th·~ G~ity of
nation.
For th~ re3:!2~t1cn of tt:2 2_~~2 ~ ____ s
was consid~red as an important avenue. It is to Le noted
that provi9ion for free and univers&l prim~.y education for
all children till the age of 1 .. was in>..lud,j in the Dire:Jti~e
Principle" (Article 45) of the Constitution of India.
Accordingly constant effort" were made by the Go~e"nment of
India in order to spread education. During the past
decades of Independence, literacy rates have inc;eased in the
country though not to the level of satisfaction.
In its effort to promote education the Government
of India has made periodic attempts to take stock of the
Indian education with a purpose of identifying the prcblems
of education and to take corrective meas~re9. Different
Commissions and Committees have appraised th~ government in
thl" regard. The Education Commi"sion (1964-1966) hag made
significant contributions In this re"pect.
The Education Commission was ac?clnted to E'.dv:se
the Government on the national pattern of education and on
the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all respects. In its report.
the Commission has expressed the need for drastic changes in
the Indian education. The recommendations of the Commission
touched upon all I evels of education (except medical and
the legal education as these were not In the purv iew of
Commission).
5
The Commission has emphasised the relevance of
education for modernization In the I nd Ian contex t. -The
progress of education will ••. be directly related to the pace
of educational advance and the one sure way to modernize
quickly is to spread education, produce educated and skilled
citizens, and train an adequate and competent
intell igentsia". (NCERT, 1971, 33).
More than two decades have passed since the
Commission submitted its report in 1966. During this period
different states In India made different degrees of
In the spread of education. The latest achievement to be
mentioned in this context is that of Kerala State, which is
the first state in India to attain total literacy.
At this juncture, it is essential to know whether
the spread of education has made any useful contribution to
the process of modernization.
an Important concern of education, It is vital to know
whether education has contI' i buted to such aspects of
individual development like attitude", behav iour, va 1 ues,
etc .• in the context of India's modernization.
If India is to become a nation, if the fundamental
l,Ialue9 of the constitution are to be realized in every day
I If e, If India is to be a strong, stable, dynamic and
prosres'lve society, then it is posslbJe.to do so with the
large scale diffusion of modern attitudes and
the common pe~ple, virtually in the '~:3n in the str!?etl An
enl ightened civi 1 :::.:;ciety is the n:::::?d of t~le hO!Jr'.
3
be no second opinicn on the role of edL~atioA in the cr~_tlQn
and sustenance of such a cl·11 90:>lf·ty. Any effort In thl9
direction should begin with a rEvie" of past performance aAd
an examination of ongoing efforts. The study propoged here
f a I Is in this genre. In other words it is to be know n
education has made any contribution at all towards
individual modernity (in terffis of attitudes, behaviour, etc).
It is not only essential to know the contribution
of education to modernity but also worthwhile to examine the
relative differentials among levels of ~ducation In such
contribution. Apart from education several other correlates
of life such as relIgion, ca9te. occupation, place of
res Idence, etc. may also inf I uence the modernl ty of a person.
Hence~ the contribution of education to the promotion of
modernity has to take into account the interplay of &1 I these
variables.
It is with these assumptions that a study has been
proposed here to examine the relationship between levels of
education and Individual modernity (In terms of attitudes and
behaviour). The problem considered for the present study I"
stated as fol lows.
Setting of the Study
The task of the present study is to eKamine the
relationship between education and modernity. IIhi I e such a.
study could be conducted In any of the states In India, it
7
was 'elt that It would be appropriate to choose a state which
has made adequate progress In education. In view of this
consideration, Kerala, which Is a unique case In the Indian
context, was found to be the mogt appropriate state.
Kerala State
Kerala Is situated on the south west corner of the
Indian sub-continent (Please see mapl. The north and north-
east boundaries of the state are marked by Dakshina Kannada,
Kodagu and Mysore districts of Karnataka state. The Eastel")
sid e of the state Is marked by Nillgiris, Coimbatore,
Madurai, Ramanathapuram and Tirunelvell districts of Tam II
Nadu and the South by the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu.
The Western boundary of the state is marked by Lakshadweep
sea. 2
The State has an area of 38,863 km . The population of
Kerala State during the years 1981 and 1991 was 25,453.680
and 29,011.237 (provisional) respectively and the decad",1
growth rat", during 1971-81 and 1981-91 was 13.98.
Kerala has a unique place with reference to the
educational advancements made by various states in India. It
has remained at the apex of all the major states in terms of
11teracy. By the time the present study was proposed, the
literacy rate of Kerala was as high as 70.42 per cent (1981
Census 1 • "Kerala with 90.6 per cent literacy in the age
group 7 and above continues to be much above any other state
or Union territory In the Indian Union .... On April 103,
1991 Kerala has been declared a fully Ilt",rate
covering "': I persons !n the age grQup 6-60' (Pre:"!. 1921, 681.
8
2 I'ALi,II'lJltMI
!i NhYAHAMllt\I.AM
6 N.JAllA1t!{,\L
9
Another feature that distinguishes Kerala from the
rest of India Is the fact that there exist In this State only
narrow differences between literacy rates of men and women
and of rural and urban areas (Nair, 1984 50' .
Apart from the high rate of literacy which is
widespread in Kerala, a notable feature of the state is that
Its population growth is quite low, which Is one of the least
In the developing world. High rate of migration for Jobs to
other countries added with widespread occupational mobility
from the primary to the secondary sector as well as several
other factors make Kerala unique ca~e for the present study.
Ernakulam District
(As per 1991 census there are 14 districts. The new
districts are Kasargod and PathanamthltaJ.
Eranakulam is a district in central Kerala, bounded
by Trlchur district on the north, Idduki
east, Alleppey and Kottayam districts
d istr ict on
L.,,\:shadweep sea on the ~est. According to the 1981 census
the li~eracy r~t~· of Errl~~ulam district was 7S.G~% which L
much above the state average. It may be noted here that on 4
February, 1990 Ernakulam was declared as the f i ut total
literacy district in India.
Ernakulam dlstclct with it_ high rate of literacy,
a low growth rate of population low",r than the st.=ite
with a maj:ority of the workers in the
~gri~ultural secto:- and I,..'i ~h ht:::r-.~st ~rG;.:)or-tlc.n ( ill the
10
Ccch :L1 T.a.! uk
Ernakularn district ha. seven tal.~s In It. ror the
pr-eSE-r,t study, it WB!3 d'2cld~::: to::) ::::"":';' . .J sa~p~e fr-clTi only
taluk af Ernakulam district. Acccrdingly each!n t.:.luk
selected. This sElection wag made after can91dering
i nd iea tOt's. The major cheracterlstlcs of the taluk are
£ollows.
Ernakulam district. The northern border of the ta I uk
sha~ed by Kodunsallur taluk of Trichur district. The ea.~tern
border of the taluk 19 common with that of und
Kan.ayannDor taluks of Ernakulam district while the southern
border of the taluk is shared by Shertalai taluk at Allerey
district, the western border is marked by Laks~~dweep Sea
IArablan Seal.
~hile the rural population of Cochln taluk acccunt
44~:l..6 pel" cent J the urban pc:~ul.t1t~utl .S.C.CUUI".t. s:c:. oS
per cent of the total population of the taluk IDIstrlC"~
Statistical Hand Book 1986 Ernakulam). Vagt majority {mora
than 9S per cent) of the main workers in Cochin taluk belong
to secondary and tertiary sector, as per 1981 census.
The literacy rate for Cochin taluk ( 1981 census)
was 80. 18 per cent (highest among HI 1 taluks of the
district). It may be noted that Cochln taluk forms part of
Ernal<ulam district which was declared as the f 1 f 5 t totill
1 ,
, '.-:
rat of p'-)pu! tiQn, nes..r·ly equ3s.1 pC'G~~·;·t!Qn of ;'\1:',:i1 B(\d U,::,b2111
population, and majority of the main workers in the secondary
the presEnt study.
purpose of examining the relationship betYEen education
modernity of individuals.
are the hypothesis formu!3ted for
1 There Is no significant rel~tlDn5hip tetween I elJe j::!
2
3
respondentse
education
respondents.
Differences
and
in
and behavioural modernity.
d!n&l
4 Variables such as sex, marital status, reli:stan t pl.a.ce of
res idence, migration, occupation, income, of
9chcollng and e~posure to mass media do not influ~nce th~
12
respondents.
ke .. plng in view the hypotheses. They are classified under
general and specific object!u .. s.
General Objectives
1 To study modern! ty of individuals with regard to
attitudes.
behav iour.
Specific Objectives
follows for the present study.
i To stUdy the relationship between levels of education al1u
modernity In terms of attitudes of respondents.
To study the relationship between leveis of education and
modernity in terms of behaviour Df respondents.
3 To study the cognitive dissonance defined as
convergence/divergence between attltudes and behaviour of
respondents with respect to modernity and in relation to
levels of education.
4 To study the relationship between ievels of edu~ation a I~;j
modernity in terms of attitudes and beh3viaur 0:
rf-~sponL!ents while accounting for variabie$ such as
marital status, reI igion, place c·f ,~esider.o:::e,
OC.,:up3.t.ie,c •• type of s.=hcol ing .J.nd =-xp0sure t..:J :-;,<:"';:5
Var iab I ''''
the study are as follows.
Independent Variable
independent variable for the present study. The different
levels considered are:
formal education and who do not know reading and OIrltln(
are included in this group.
Primary (LP) This includes individuals wht:. Lower
have completed the first four years of school education.
Upper Primary (UP) : Those who hElve completed
first 7 years of school education. 4. SSLC This c.tegory
Includes Individuals who have completed 10 years ot
school education.
completed 12 years of education. It also includes person~
who have completed Diploma/Certificate courses after SSLC,
other than Graduation.
three-year degree course - BAIB Sc/B Com. This does not
include those who are graduate9 1n professional courses.
7. Post-graduate and professional
completed the two-year master
Such uf tht ... 5t?
degree course after PDe/12th standard, - B? t1~:::. Ll B.
Pharm, B Sc Nursing, BVSc, B02, DH~s, B Ed e te. I t.
includes professional p05t-gra~uates alsoA
Dependent Variable
of individuals, is considered as the dependent variable in
the present study.
Modernity in this context is measured in terms of
the 'gcore l obtained by individuals on the attitudinal
modernity scale used for the present study. The 'modernity
score t depends on the nature of response (Agree/disagree)
by the respondents for the attitudinal statements
given in the scale.
standardised for the present study. I t consists of 112
statements pertaining to 7 major areas of human life, viz.,
1- Education; 2. Employment; 3. Marriage and family;
4. Religious 1 f e ; 5. Political I if e; 6. Social Life;
7. H ea I th and hygiene, and 8. Economic L i f e.
The modernity scale mea9ures the attitude" of
respondents with regard to the following dimensions.
1. Change pronene~g as ~el 1 as openness to nel.¥ experiences
and innovations.
ra tI ana I ity)
3. Democratic orientation
4. Secular orientation
5. Achieoement orientation
Hodernlty In ter.s of beha~lourr
Modernity In behaviour is understood thE
speclf ic act carried out by an Individual in one of the
areas of life referred to earlier. It Includes both covert
( ego decision making) and overt acts (eg. observablE
behav lour). The floe dimensions of at tI t ud I na I modernlt,
also serve as bases for Interpreting behavioural modernity.
Inter~ening ~ariables:
number of other factors that are likely to influence th"
modernity of an Individual. Examples of such variables arE
marital status, religion/caste, place of residence,
urban exposure, occupation, income, type of school lng,
exposure to mass media, education of parents, occupation oj
parents, etc.
modernity, a set of variables have been selected ror thE'
present study. The 'intervening variables' thus considerpc
are as folI0\..'5.
Male/Female Married/Unmarried
16
3. Religion 4. Pia.,; of regidence 5. Migration 6. Occupation (."s classi- -
fied by the ~'ational Classification of Occupations),
7. Income (Income of the - family to which the respondent belong to)
Hi" d u I C h r i s t 1 " n I Mus \ I" Rur" I /U rb, ~ Nigran /ncn-~igrant 1. Pr~fe-g~on3.1. te.:hl~fc3.1
an~ r~12tEd wDrk~rs.
2.
3.
workers.
Poor. Less than Rupees 6,000 per annum.
2. Low Income Rs 6,000 12,000 per annum.
3. Lower middle income Rs 12,000 - 24,000 per annum.
4. Upper middle Income Rs 24000 - 36000 per annum.
5. High income Above Rs 36,000 per annum
(Per capita income of Kerala State, for the year 1985-86, at
current prices, and at constant prices were Rs 2140 and
646 respectively).
8 Type of schooling (Management of the school in which the respondents studied during U P)
1.
2.
Government
Private
Rs
Radio (Listening)
1 .::::;
medi.a
fi :Jf",o
attained to r- f e :5 l ' _ 111~ "': 11 t: b~sed on thE t(~quen I ct e~p05ure to the melJi~ i.~.
newspaper (~eadin~/ligten1ni ta or31/re3din~ .al()ud)~ f3diJ) I i g t t? n in. g; TV - \oJ.o:c t chi n g I I i. 5 ten­ illS; and film - seeil,g/~atl:hing.
.isre given {difectiullal}
Never· 1 0
Regul ar 1,1' :3 ::::S Sometime:3 ,-, 1 (l
N ev e (' 1 0
No response I) 0
Regu 1.3..1~ ly 3 IS Sumetimes ,-, S Never' 1 0 N.:. rl?5pIJilSE <) 0
Regul«<, I y , 3 10 Som~times ;2 .s Never 1 0 No regponse 0 i)
The maximum a person can 5core would be 100. The weishta~e~
tor all the media according to the responge given b'y' the
individual a.re added up. Ttli,. f i"tHe is toO
ma.55.mediit inde)(. This was arrived at in
several media personnel and experts.
A scar~ ot SO and above in the mass media ir,deK is
and
18
Attitudinal modernity 9cale was plac~d at tt,e end
of the schedule. Attitudinal :9 ta. t,- "en tg pe. talnl"!> to
different areas of life were prEsented in a jumbled ordt:r.
(Please see Appendl)( 1 I.
Standardization of the Attitudinal-modernity scale
In the absence of a suitable scale for measuring
attitudinal modernity a9 required for the present stUdy, a
scale has been developed, following the method prescribed bv
Thurstone and Chave (Edwards, 1969, pp. 83-1191.
Accordingly, a number of statements - approximately
:2000 belonging to the major areas of human if e, i. e. ,
education, employment, marriage and family lU e. religious
I I Ie. pol i tical life, social life, health and hygiene and
economic life were collected (from different sourceg like
ffi.:..g.a::1nt?5, newspapers, books, journals. etc), re-structured
and developed.
conceptual
operational
definitions of modernity. The
modernity.
Innovations: A state of readiness to accept new
and changes In social organisations, new ways of feel ing and
acting, etc.
tE-ndency
evidence
Democratic orientation A love for
as a human being and respect for the dignity
individual love and respect for the person. as
tu
and
the
an
wI
suet.
status, etc.
th~
educational, economic, etc., with the resul t religion
relations ceases to extend its influence over interpersonal
and corporate actions. A person is guided by reElS on f Co I
actions than tradition or custom or religious authority.
5. Achievement Orientation: A tendency to achieve
higher goals in the spheres of educa t ion, occupa t i on,
economic I ife, etc., through planning and hard work.
As a resul t of the modernity test, 213 statements
were selected and were submitted to a panel of judges for
their ratings, choices, judgements, comments and reactions orl
each item.
values), judgement on each item, given by the judges, and
Insights from the pilot study, 112 statements were finally
selected and Included In the attitudinal modernl ty 5Ci.i I L".
(Appendix I) • Each statement was followed by two
21
requested to express his/her acceptance or rejection of
given statement. Clear instructions were al so pr ov i d c·j
regarding the method of answerinb which was common for al I
statements. ~hile neutrals could be one of the alternative
responses, It was deliberately not provided in the 9cale as
it could encourage respondents to be non-committal.
Distribution Items : The final lis t of 112
statements in the attitudinal modernity scale are di9tributed
among the 5 dimension" of modernity as well as the 8 areas of
life considered constructing the 9cale (Please "ee
Appendix 21. However, the statements were arranged in random
order I¥h il e being pre"ented In the final form (Please see
Append! x 11.
prescribed
attitUdinal
procedure.
modernity
sources like published literature. Opinion of expert" was
sought on each of the "tatement" and on the scale a" a whole.
Expert" Included were mainly academician" specialised In
educa.t ion,
and political
eminent 9cholars. There were genior citizens and at leagt one
lAS officer. Age of these experts ransed from 28-70 year"
a.nd above. The experts were requested to eXb.min8' the
statements In term" of adequac)l, sultabll I ty. relevance,
22
taking into Bccount all 5~atements agreed with. calculated,
ir'respective of the areas of life or di~2n51on~. He tlC e 14
5~parate mode~nlty scorES are obtained for each illdividual.
I t em s Q...!l general information and beh,al,!iout61 modernity
Items
corresponding
in the too I. tThe
modernity scale was
included in the tool.
mainly three categories, L e. 1. General Information - on the
background of the respondents, consisting of Independent and
intervening variables. 2. Attitudinal modernity of
respondents; and 3. Behavioural modernity of the respondent •.
Analysis of seneral information is done using
percentages and verbal description.
At ti tud ina I modernity of respondents is subjected
to Analysis of Variance and al90 Duncan's Multiple Range
Te9 t. This is supplemented by a vsrbal dsscription of mean
values of attitudinal modernity scores.
24
behavioural modernity.
convergence/divergence bet"een attitudes and behaviour Is
analysed using percentages.
700 adults residents of Cochin taluk who
between 1962 and 1964.
The age group Is specified not only to get
homogeneity in the sample but alsu tu have some uniformity in
the educational e.pusure of the respondents. I tis e.peeted
that the selected group would have had their schuuling during
or after 1968.
1968 was the year in ~hich Report of the Education
Commission in which modernisation as an Objective 01
education was stated expl icltly was accepted by the
Government of India.
the curriculum of school and college education to ~hlch ~hE
individuals In the sample have been exposed.
Using quota sampl ing, seven hundred Individuals
WEre selected for the present study. The sample was selected
In such a way as to have 100 respondents each under 7
of education, viz.,
1 ILLITERATE 2 LOWER PRI11ARY 3 UPPER PRIMARY 4 SSLC/EQUIVALENT 5 PDC/EQUIVALENT
25
Apart from level of education, quotas ~ere fl~ed .. Ith
reference to the following variables.
Male = 48 ". Female = 52 " Place of residence Rural = 50 ". Urban : 50 " Religion Hindu = 60 ". Mus I 1m = 20 ".
Christian = 20 " (Hindus include 10 " as SC/ST) .
It may be noted that macro level distribution of
population in Kerala State also corresponds to th ..
distribution of the sample in this study on al I these
variables.
These proportions were maintained at all levels of
education in the sample. It was fol lowed as a norm that only
on.. individual from each household would be included In the
sample.
source which the researcher could have depended on in
Identltylng the sample for the study particularly in
identifying i~div!duals who are Illiterates and those who
have not studied beyond Upper Primary level of education.
Therefore different sources .. ere made use of. The major
sources are as f 0 I I Q'WS :
1 Voters list of Cochin taluk
2 Live register Ernakul am.
of the Divisional Employment Exchange
3
4
Registration record of the Dental Council, Trivandrum
26
" R.eg i~5 t r,a t i on record of tr 2- Nur-s in£ Counc: iI, 'JrivB .~d f UiJl
6 Registration record of the Bar Council, Ernakulam
7 Admission register of Colleges, Ernakulam
8 Survey records prepared for tota I literacy programme 1989.
the Ernakula. d:3trict
Based on the above sources, a lis t of eligible
individuals satisfying the requirements for the quota
sampling - was prepared. Nearly 2,500 Individuals were thus
included in this list. Name of the individual, sex,
rei igion, educational qualification and residential address
werE the information collected from secondal'y data in the
lis t thus prepared. Residents of Chellanam Panchayat wt?r"e
not included in this list, as the pilot study ",as carried out
in Chellanam which was a representative panchayat of Cochin
Ta I uk. Using this list, sample ",as drawn, ac per the quotas
fix ed.
sample selected for the study, field work was conducted in
Cochin tal uk, Ernakulam district, KeraL~ State. The fie I d
work was carried out in two stages pilot study and the main
stUdy.
A pilot study was conducted in Chellanam panchoyat
of Cochin taluk, on a sample of 70 individuals. Among the
objectives considered for the pilot study, the important ones
are as follows.
1 To und~rstand ~he nature of th2 9s~ple.
2 Tu try out the proposed tool for collection of Ldta in
order to know: whether the words used in the too. 1 '. .. :ere
simple enough for the respondent9 to understand;
the statements were winding and long or whether they \.Jere
brief and straight forward; whether the translation of the
tool Into Malayalam - originally constructed In English
is true
take... by
a respondent to answer the tool .I
noted for people with different
normally
which
levels of
3 To get an initial feed back on the hypotheses set for the
study.
resources for the main study.
and
5 To find out the difficulties if any that may arise
the main study.
Pilot study was conducted in Chellanam Panchayat
during the period 25th May to 2nd July 1988. Chellanam .. a9
selected B9 B representative panchayat of eochin Ta I uk. I t
was decided to have a sample size amounting to 10 per cent of
the sample for the main study.
study was only 70.
Systematic random 9amp] ini was follololed in drawing
tr'e sample for the pilot study. For this purpose, voters
list of the panchayat was made use of.
Data were collected individually through
visits, using the tool designed for the main study.
28
household
was gathered. The tool used was in Malayalam
translated tram the original Engl ish version.
Data thus collected were analysed
percentages.
Based on the field work experiences during
pilot study and the results of the analysis of the
collected, certain insights emerged which were used
using
the
data
for"
planning the final study. The most important among them are
as follows.
i Systematic random sampling was found to be unsuitable in
drawing sample for the main study. I t was felt tha t
quota sampling would be more appropriate tor rJrawine
sample for the main study.
2 It wa9 found that some of the items included in the
schedule were difficult for the respondents to understand
particularly in the case of illiterates and those who
have studied only up to lower primary level. I t was
therefore felt that such items should be simplified.
3 Some of the items were found to be eliciting uniform
responses from all the respondents. It was felt that
items should be dropped.
necessary modifications were made in the tool for the
study.
29
such
study,
main
~ Study
present
The
study
the pilot study, only the remaining areas of th~ taluk
considered for drawing the sample.
Data wer·e collected from individuals,
satisfied
schedule
the
the
in
'Were
who
the
most of the respondents provided data pertaining to them, by
filling In the schedule themselves.
held in cases of necessity.
However, interviews were
Mos t of the interviews were held at the residence
of respondents - during day time, i.e., 10 a. m. to 6 p. m.
However. visits were made even late In the night, subject to
the convenience or avai I abil Ity of the ['espwndents
(particularly in the case of fishermen. casuaJ labourers.
workers and employees).
During the Initial rounds of the field work, on an
average 3 interviews were held, per day. Each of theSE-
Inter.ie~9 took 45 to 50 minutes time. However, subsequent I y
the number of interviews held per day increased to an average
of 5-6 and the time consumed for each interview reduced to 25
tu 30 minutes.
fie I d v1s.:.ts was ea~ler as the researcner
langu,;;e.
desired attltudinal and behavioural a.mong
individuals. Even In lndia. education is expected to play an
important role in realising the national goals. The nation
wants to secure to all its citizens, justice - soclo~cC'nomic
and political, liberty of thought, expression, belief and
\oJoi'ship, Equality of status and fraternity, assuring the
dignity of the individual and unity of the nation. For the
rea.lisation of these goals, education was consideced an
important avenue.
role of education in promoting moderni ty.
However, it is not intended to study modernity exclusively in
this research. An attempt 1s made in the present research to
study modernity in terms of attitudes and behaviour - only
of individuals in the conteKt of their educational level.
Attitudinal modernity in five dimensions are
included in the study. Similarly seven major areas ot I i f e
are also considered in studying attitudinal modernity.
Behavioural modernity reflected in selected
ot life are examined in the study. It is essentiai tu Know
there is any vari~~icn in th~ Ot ,TIoJE:'[()i ty Or
as educ.s'.ional attainment increases. rcr
moDet-nl ty attitudinal and 0'
Individuals with different levels of education, startln£ from
Illiterate to post-graduate and professional level through
SSLC is compared.
An attempt i9 also made In order to ide>ntity
whether there is any 'critical leVEl' of educ.stlon with
reterence to attitudinal modernity ot individuals.
An attempt is made in the present study to kno~'
whetner trtEre is any il1tluence ot otner variables i n the
relationship between education Etnd ffiudetnity. F 0 { thiS
pUrp;)3e. var-iables such as: sex, marital status, religion.
place of residence, migration, occup.st1on, income. ty pe 01
schouling and exposure to mass mecia are cons i der-e-d i n
analysing the relationship between education and modernit.,:.
Such anal.vsis is however followed only in the case ot
attitudinal modernity.
behaviour of individuals move in similar d 1 rections. An
effort is made to this effect in analysing cognitiVt
dissonance, defined as convergence/divergence ot attitude"
and behaviour of individuals.
Limitations of the Study
role of education In promoting modernity and not modernity as
such.
such aspects of modernity like beliefs, v21luE-s , etc.
32
Uhlle attitudinal modernity is m~a~ured (with the
help of an attitudinal modernity scale) in terms 01 1 ! v e
dimensions we 11 as eight Br-ea5 of 1 ! fe, behavicura.!
modernity her-e Is limited to some areas of life only
Ectucatiun, Maedage and Family, ReI igious Life, Social
Political Life, and Heal th & Hygiene.
L i fe,
individuals in real life contexts of behaviour - more so with
a large sample size. Hence behaviour as reported by
individual respondents is taken for studying behavioural
modernity. This Is a limitation of the survey method.
There are a number of variables that are likely to
influence modernity of Individuals. Education is only one of
those variables which is considered for the
purpose. It is not planned in the present study to
the relationship between the variables other than
and modernity separately. It is H-,e 'influence of
ather than education on the relationship between
present
Ex.:s.mine
Education
variabies
education
and modernity' that is studied here. For this purp8sE, only
variables which are considered significant on the basis ot
review of literature are included. Such analysi9. of CDUt"SE',
is confined only to attitudinal modernity.
33
Chapter One dea.Is with the Introduction. need fro"
the "tudy, getting of the 9tudy. obJ ec t 1 lie ... llypothf"9E'S,
methodology and the scope and llmttatiol19 IJf tlie ~=!tudy.
Chapter Two provldeg theor~tical pe[-spectlvp'g on
th" re}ationstlip betw~en education and modernity. discusses
the me.QnlnS9 of t.he key terms used~ out [lneg tt.e pro.-:es'3 of
modernization 5fld ~rllJcstlonal develol)m~tlt irl India ag wei I a5
pr8s8nts the perspective followed in the stl,dy.
An attempt is made Ln Chaptp-f Three ~_o ['8.., ip.w tIle
emplri!~8l studleg Oil educstion and moder"nity. Till" review
.9 1 ntS t.l\ arl'lv~ at inf"er-encf?s that may ha\."f.? a b€31 ing on t. h ..
hypotheses of the present. stl.ldy, a.s well ,a9 the select10n uf
R1l"!'thod of rlsta collection and select.ion of
statist.ical techniques.
Chs pte r Foul' general descr Lpt ilJtl of
respondents In the sample, with reference to dE'mo~ ra ph i G
pa, r t. i cuI .a r s , food and nutritional habits, t. }l8 ski I 15
possessed by the rl?spondents, membership in social
org~nizations, family background, and de ta i Is of married
respoodents.
Ct13pt g r Five discuss~$ the ro18 of form~1 ~(jlJcatiorl
I " bringing about attltlldtnsl mode.I,lty In
lev~ls edLJcatloll and moderntty in terms of at. t: i t.UdP.9:
34
critical levels of educ:atioJl with reference to modernity I 11
terms of attitudes; and the relationship between
eGucation and modernity in terms of attlturi:"s
intervening variables.
levels of education and modernity in terms of behaviour. An
attempt Is made to analyse whether differences In levels of
educat ion wi I be reflected In differences in the pattern Of
behav lour.
across different levels of education.
Chapter Eight presents the summary of the wor k
done, findings and conclusions.
problem, need for the study, setting of the studYI
obJectives, hypotheses, methodology, scope and I Imi tations of
the study were presented.
The present Chapter deals wi U', theoretical
perspe::::tives with regard to the relation between educ& t i 01)
8"d modernity and the position adopted for the present stud>,
Meaning and characteristics of modernization, mea.ning ot
modernity, characteristics of modernity, a brief account of
education and modernization in India, operational definitions
ot >other key terms used in the study are also presented.
Heaning and Characteristics of Modernization
In common par 1 ance, the word 'modernization~
implies flsomt:?thing new", The dictionary meaning eel
mode'rnization refers to 'the process of becoming modern' .
adapting rodern ways', etc. The etymOlogy of the ~I 0 r d . " fcom the Latin root 'modo', which means 'just no"",, I •
'Modernization' as a concept gained currency in the S DC 1 v .
sciences by 19th century following the industrial revolution.
Modernization as a process began in WE-stern
countries of E ur ope late nineteenth century. t
started with the advent ot il-,du5tr 181 isatic,n
commerciali,:",atlOfl, "n' h h d' I - w lC us ere 1n the follo'w'ing fund&fT!2nto
changes in the western societies:
36
technology in competitive market situations,
(e) Ever-increasing rate of tr3de and voyage,
I d ) A scientIfic world view against traditional
Ie)
The
process of modernization thus brought in
new ideas and concepts which were uti I ized
rise
its
for
collective action for chang e. Concepts like equal i ty,
f I'eedom, JustiCe, democracy, Laissez-faire economy, etc.
determined the ethos of the time. The course of
modernization, it can not be denied, began with the decline
of medieval conditions of life and thought (Srivastava et al.
1976,20). Indeed, since the Renaissance, there has been a
VIsibly i<letlt1fiable process at modef"nization in the Westef'ti
War I d. It has had different phases. The g,'owth ot oceanlC
Gomme-ree. m8.nut"actUI'lng, industrial and finance cap! tal1sm,
steel, electric and atomic technology and puwer, are gome ut
its external characteristics. At the ideological level.
modernization has been marked by the growth
rational enquiry and the spirit :3cfutiny,
place of ecclesiastical theology
denQmin.=ttional i9m. At the political level, modernization has
symbo I ized the growth of the notion of individual rights,
I ib<>rty, equality, participant ci tlzenship, pluralistic
associational structure and interest groups, dynamics Ot
37
authority, power, regimentation and control. Furthermore,
modernization has meant a future-oriented valuational
adhE-rl?nce in place of a nostalgic longing for a primitive
paradise (Varma, 1976:361.
It "ill be recalled that the most dramatic changes
took place during the middle Bnd closing decades ot tt,e 19 t r,
century, aJ though, as stated earlier the origin$ ot
mOdernization can be traced back to fifteenth and six tee n t r.-
century ~a~ly in the twentieth century the
first Asian country to do so, joined the race to f
industrialization. Later, the USSR, as wei as some other
countries, achieved modernization In varying destees ( l.lube,
1988:171.
both as a pattern and a process has attI"£:s.cted the,
attention at 90cial BC ient hlts. Modernization has been
dlscussed as 'collective' as weI as individu&l' fClc-m of
beh&viour. Numer"ous definitions, in tel' pre ta t ions acd
explanations are available on the concept of mOderni,;::ation.
These conCeptUdiisatlo115 vary accol"ding to the disciplint? and
approach ot the concerned authors. Some of them are
presented here.
To take an example, modernisation has been
considered as ·a general term which describes tne prOCr2SS '" rapid social charlge and usea recently for the
of social phenomenon' {T' th'
understanding
35
that tlrst characterised the societies which
changed from primarily agricultural to primarily industc1al
economles. As this happened these societies simultaneously
underwent other changes in their 90cial practices and value
premise~ which have been recorded, discu9ged and an~lysed by
social scientists and literary men. These changes have been
Identified a9 con9tltutlng the process of modernization. I
(Gore, 1982:7).
On the other hand, there are those who hold tha t
'Changes in the proportion of people holding modern values,
or ch,3a. J1 I3t?S in the extent to which individual3 have gone
"modern' constitute mod e [' n i za t i on. • .. wher-eas the tt?riTl~
'devel upment t and· industrial ization t are used
mainly economic growth, and ·urbanisation'
to
is
descrioe
the concept of modernization has to do with a
concentrGltion,
transformation
of culture and of personality in so far as it is influenced
by cultural rather than by some aspect of social organisation
or human ecology. The Idea of modernization is that there is
an alteratiun or movement of something from a more
tL"dl tional 9tate to a more modern state from one point in
time to another' (Stephenson, 1969 :265-6).
According to l.evy, Modernization is 'the ratio ot
inanimate to animate source of power' (Levy, 1986:3).
I t has
literacy, a democratic
1973:16).
opportunities of systematic inquiry and subjecting our lite
more and mor-eo to rational examination' {Murty, 1987 :8}.
According
concept
to Daml e, • I t is important to l~&.ll::E::
that of modernization is
individualism and 50 on' (Damle, 1974:34).
Damie goes on to state that
multi-dimensional,
generally expected to favour nuclear fami Iy types and promote
democratic
Achlevement
to promote ratLonal1ty and to dispel blind faith
natural forces. (Damle, 1974:35-9).
a national
industrial isation. extensive mechanisation, high rates of
!!Ocial mobili ty, and the I ike. When applied to individuals,
it refers to a set of attitudes , values and ways of
and a.cting, presumably of the sort either generQted
40
feeling
by
(Smith and Inkeles, 1966).
a process - a movement from a traditional order to cel'tain
types of :echno!ogy and aS30ciated forms of
and
social
•••. Modernizatlon thus is not just superficial acquigition of
some isolated trai ts and el ements, character lstic9 of the
more advanced countries. Their selection in a logical order
and sequence, and integration into the cui tural pattern in ..
widely ramifying manner is essential. A great deal or value
change is involved, and some signif icant institutional
modifications are essential (Dube, 5 C, 1967).
'The concept of modernization refers to the process
of 90cial change in which the individual imbibes certain
attitudinal-cum-personal ity traits oonducive to socio-
economic and political development as weI I as Individual
self-actual isation' (Singh, 19849:6).
the process by which Individuals change from a traditional
way at lite to & more :::omplex, technologically ad'Janced, and
rapidly changing style of I if e. Modernization at the
indiVIdual level corresponds to development at the societal
level (Rogers, 1969: 14).
holds that modernization is a multi-dimensional process. It
I~ not merely an economic process concerned with maximization
of physical power and Improving of tools to increase the
41
thereby increase the
leveJs
social
01
and
cultural process as wei 1. It is a compleK process which
frees tne potential In them in various spheres of their lives
and maKimlzes their ability to share in defining the goals of
their 90ciety, to intel'nalize them and to pa r tic i pa te
creatively and effectively in their realization in the
society.
men, money and mater fal 5, mechanizat ion, monetization .. no
urbanization. It emphasizes distinctions between private and
corpOl'ate
I t provides individuals freedom of choice
01
ot
occupation and requires them to be rational and mobile. It
expects them to deveiop new attitudes to earnln£, pur'c~lasillg,
saving and investing in consonance with the goals of society.
In the political sphere, it develops a secular and welfar~
s ta to? with enlarged functions to include concerns such as
education, heal th, housing, employment, etc,. it establishes
the rule ot law and provides to all equality before law. It
gives treedom to people in choice of rulers and form ot
gover-nmel1t as well as freedom to change them and f£'quires
their
the
social sphere it necessitate9 an open system
stratification and emphaSises achieved status rather th5n
ascripti ... ,& one. It emphasizes equality uf opportunity
a I I and Jays stress on individual freedom in IT,ittt'-?(S
42
In
at
for
at
ma.r·r·tage, occupa t i on, rei ig1on, et,.J. I Ii th"
individu~l 9phel"e, it emphasizes change as a value and
encourages individuals to have faith In the efticacy of human
effort
expects
them to be secular, cosmopolitan, r3tionai.
scientif ic and universalistic in their outlook and approach
to life and its problems, egalitarian and democratic In their
relationship with others, and innovative creative in
their contribution to societal problems
and
including Weiner, Apter, Lerner, Black, Inkeles, Bendix,
Mafion Levy, Sme1ger. Nettl and others A R Desai
summarised
follows!
inanimate
wealth,
the characteristic features of modernizE:l.tion
The s h i f t from use of human ana animal
powe r, from too I to machine, as the
power
basis
technical diversification, dlfterentlatloli,
has
as
to
of
of
and
special isation leading to a novel type of division of labour;
and industrial izatlon and urbanization are ... accepted by all
:3chola!'9 as features of modernization. The shift of the
sanction behind the state from the supernatural to secul aI',
the extension and increasing diffusion of power to a wider
population and the supremacy of iaw over the strata of
regUlative 9Y9tems are also recognised as basic feature9 of
modernization. Similarly, a shift in the social structure
based on allocation of roles on the principle of a9cription
43
to one based on the principle of achievement and merit, thus
qualitatively transforming the very basis of role recruitment
and therefore of the social structul"e, is accepted as a trait
of modernization. The major shift In the principle of soci.a.i
901idar-l ty from a
and particularistic basis,
re~l&tBnt outlOOk to ~ secular. thi9-worialy, torward-Iooking
change-prone out I Dol •. SimiJaf-Jy 1mplicitly 0:
explicltly acknOWledge tna t rational ity, humanism, and
feasibility and necessity 01 Improvement In the conditions of
life of the human beings in this world and not In the other
world constitute the hallmark of the cultural outlook of
modernization [Desai, 1971tA) :4631.
Defining modernization as 'the transition Qf
societies from traditional to the modern mDd~l', Frank Tach&u
described the characteristics of modern society tC0rnpared to
traditional society) as follows.
production underl ie an e)(tensive market economy based on mB5S
prodUction ana consumption. Mass media of communication and
universal publ ic education help to instil a common set of
val U€s, a common ideology, and common ospirations among a I I
groups in the SOCiety. Mass transportation
individuals to become mobile in physical as well as
sense. and thus to associate with members of social
44
E-nables
psychic
gr-oups
who might be cui turall::; al ien Bnd phY51c5.11 y tac (emoved.
Election of government officials means mags participation 1n
the political system, whether there are actually meaningful
choices among alternate sets of leaders or merely plebiscites
which legitimize the rule of !:.hose already In power. In sum.
lIodern gociety is geographically extensive
continental
pupulatiun.
but highly integrated in terms of
communications. The bull< of the popUlation
clo;!ely with the symbols of political authority.
often of
Governments
Impinge visibly on the lives of the members of tne society;
guvernments demand and usually receive overt signs of active
support
Finally.
the predominant world view is and
rational ist; natural and social torces are typically viewed
a-s SUbject to purposeful human control (Tachua, 1974:2-3).
An analysis of different interpretations and
definitions available in the literature on modernization
leads one to the following understandings.
I J
all areas of human life. It emerged as a concomitant
etfeot of industrial ization f urbanization and related
processes.
advanced
technological Iy and rapidly changing
styles.
continuum between tradition and modernity).
45
as a
IV Modernization can be under-stood at two 1 eve19, 1. e., at
th2 the societal level and at the individual level. At
societal level modernization is indicated by!
1. increased rate of industrial ization and
urbanization.
4. A rational administration and democratic power
system.
7. High level of participation by the members of
society.
~. increaslng SOCial mobilitYI d.od '30 on.
At the individual level, modernization is indicatefj
by Literacy, Empatny, Mobility, High pa r tic i pa tiD n ,
Rational ity. new attitude towards Wea I th. work, saving9.
180aerate risk taking, etc" Faith in the desirability and
possibility
di9clpllne,
achievement,
of
high
level of aspiration, high level of need
Adapting small family as the norm,
sel f- image, etc.
modernization. These Include factors like
46
proces§
lteracy
of
and
~dI.lG~tlQlI, :3C tent i f 11:: Dutlouk. ~ttlt:udlndl \,I d. llj~
changes, dynamic and determined leaderst\ip, t?tc.
VI The concept of modernizatian includes tim~ dim~ll~iIJn~ dnd
change.
As can be observed from the d iSCIJ5S i')n .above,
'Modernization cannot be described adequately as it ha5
to be associated with many diverse dlmen:5iong of changt-::o
This has also led to many illterpretations. It! s .at tjm~::3
treat~d as a process of change, while in ot.her cunteKt,s it: i'.3
oonsiJered as a gOBI towards which every soci~ly is Alovl11g ~r
wll I .stl~ LVii: to m,JVe. a goal f
has it heen de5cribcd in precise larlQs' {Sak3ena, 1972:92 •.
"~a~~!t QL Modern i t.Y
Befor~ presenti'lg the meaning of modernity ~Ild its
relation-ship with modernization that are understood in thl"
study, it wi.1uld be worthwhile to understand the s~me trom t.Le
e~15tlllB 90ciak 9clence I iteratlJre.
In social sGience I iterdtul'e, modr.?l'oi t.y
refereed too as an agt!reg.ate of certain attit.udinal and
personality traits cl.)nduclve to social r~,~onl':'lH i. ,.;
development.
t-\odernity Is a psychological pre' ['equ i::i i te
deve I opmen t ~ The econoLD.ic backwardness and fa i I !.lee uf
d~UH)G racy I (\ several third woe I d COlJntci~3
eKplaineJ the basis of a p~llJcit.Y of mod.;:rn, 50(;io
po\itichl att.itu,j;;s and chai.~.i.~t,:l is:tic:j
(Ja'yss~"al. 19851. '11 d It J o ern y enotBs the COiuman "l ... oi..r . .:,v luHra I
s)!::.t~m:i· histol'iGally .as::ioGLat~d wilh the ulban, indIJ."tflal,
li.t~rate. and participant sOGi~ties of U~~t~co
North Alllel' t 1:::4 as well 8S tho3e of USSR .&nd (Duue,
lC)()7:35)~
47
Modernity_, when conceived a-t: trJe indlvidl.!,al I e l) fo I I
refers to a complex of certain psychological dispositions,
attitudes, values and behaviour that promote development and
help people to cope with changes brought about by the
development process (Mahajan, 1989 :399),
Modernity 1s an aggregate of certain persona I I ty-
cum-a t tl tud i na I traits which facilitates individual growth
and development with social responsibility and makj!os the
individual an effective agent of socio-economlc and political
development I Singh, 19848:7),
It refe-1'g to 'a set of attitudes, values and ways
of feeling and acting presumably at the 90rt either gen~rated
by or tor etfective participation i rl a modern
:!!Iociety' (Smith and Inkeles, 1966),
Characterlstlc~ of Modernity
A modern person is rational, is open to change, i5
committed to work and has aspirations. He/she is n L' t
fat.,,! lstic, and he/ghe be; ieves that hard-work and ability,
not 1 UCJ-.:. determine success. He/she is \.Jill ing to wock even
It he/sne can live comfortably without doing any wor k. A
modern person is liberal in his socia-cultural attitudes.
He/she supports women1s rights, social equality, and family
planning. He/she Oppose~ caste-ism and orthodox SOc1.O:i.i
custom:3. dIsapproves of the customary practice 0,
,,8
wif~ giving Detter toDd to her husoand than what t3.\,es
herself. He/she supports widow - r~m~friage and Dirtrl-
contrOl. The social 11b~·ralism of a modern person i5 matched
by h:s/r-Ier political liberalism. He/she supports de-moe r s.e)' I
civic Y"lgnt.9 and ge,~uJai"1:3m. H el s ne bel1~ve5 t.hat ever.',.:
citizen snould have ful I freedom to criticise the governmel)t.
He/shE- r"e-al isE'S the political usefulness at opposition
parties. He/she is not I imited within the narrow boundarleE
of tam i I y! caste and religion; he/she is conscious of
his/her wider socio-political responsibilities. 1 5
rational a.nd has scientific attitudes towards health and
disease, diet and nutrition. Helshe does not believe that
the cure of illness depends on the mercy of God; nor that
mental illness is caused by evil spirits. Helshe is .against
overeating because helshe knows that it is as harmful as
inadequate eating. Helshe believes that women, j i j.: e
al so need pnysical e>t:ercise. These are only a t ew
illustrations of the mental make-up of a modern person.
Helshe is scientitic, rational, liberal, humane and etfec~i' .. e
(Singh, 19848:9).
which are quite often used interchangeably In social sciences
literature. Though related, these two are distinct concepts.
Modernization 1~ e ti II ~ S5en a y a process - a process
of becoming modern. Modernization is a macro- I eve 1, a I 1-
49
pervading, d iff US i v e pi' ac e:i 5 of socia.l th.:=t t cut:3
acroSS the economic, social t and pol itical life of a society.
: t may include technological changes in the fields of
agricul ture, industry, infragtructut'ELl development and
~ WPPC)i' t it may include the emergence ot E.'conomic
institutions such as those of b. nking, commerce and
and the setting up of political Institutions for
decentralised planning and development of a sophisticated
bureaucracy as well as a complex network of institutions for
management of the state. There may t,e changes in social
institutions, marriage and kinshipt fami ly structure, status
of reI igion in social I ife, etc .. Similarly. I ar ge-9cEti e
5tructural changes as well as phenomenal expansion of formal
and non-formal educational systems may also be part of thi"
modernizing process.
It is felt that the end state of these pi'QCe&st?s of
moderni::ation may be considered to be the creation of a
sustainable enlightened c I v i I society, whose tool is
~untvers.al reason' and Whose goal is ~human welfare'. The
cle.:i.tioll of ~uch a society implies a metamorphic change in
the. ives of the peu-ple, a la I hit i ' rse sca e c ange n he r hablts
Ot Social life, thinking proce5ses, attitudes and values.
Th' lS contemplated end state of change may be conceived of as
'mOdernity· . However, for any given point of time
can be considered to be a set of attitudes
that are commen9urate ~ith this end state.
so
and
modernity
behaviours
attention
Sehoiar9hip
of scholars across various disciplines.
on Modernization i9 increa9ingly becoming
as each discipline approaches the 9ubject from
its own per9pective' (Saksena, 1972:921.
According to Holsinger (19B71, it is possible to
to In the research Ii terature on
Modernization, the distinctive theoretical stamp of severfll
50C 1 .. I
of the application of technology to the contr"o ~
in
of
and consequent economic growth or development. Sociologists
have concerned themselveg with the process at social
differentiation that characterizes a SOCiety as it moves to
ever-lncreasing levels of impersonal power. They observe and
describe new structures with new functions and old structurt5
with changing functions. They describe changes in the
occupational structure and the rise in the interdependence of
roles accompanied by an inexorable move to special ization.
Demographers and other students of human population
have described Modernization in terms of the patterns of
settlement that accompany urbanization and the impact on
popUlation size growth, density, and distribution of changing
patterns in health care, hygiene, sanitation, Bnd medicine.
Political scientists have cDncerned themselves with
aspects of government and nation b~ildlng during the process
51
of Kodernizatlon 50d 10 some cases, nave dEfined it 1n terms
of the e.tent to which a society has developed the ability to
adapt to change - how power is shared, how legitimization Is
achie-ved. how extensive a sense of national idenl.it icatlon
1s t and so on.
Historians guch as Black 1966) have produced
theoretical models of Modernization through which, they
assert. most nations have passed or are passing_ I tis not
that al I nations must move along this path and
dislinctive patterns have been However, more
recen tI y, some students of modernization have written about
the convergence of societies as they move from the uniqueness
produced by centuries of relative separation Etnd iSGI~tion
into all era characterised by growing commonality. Thus, an
emerging world social structure is described.
9c:rlolarship on Modernization has not only
become more special ized as the several social science
disClpl ines appl ied their respective theor-et ica I
paradigms to its study, but it has a I 5 0 become mo!'E'
explicitly comparative and rigorously empirical.
In their attempt to e'plain the pr-ocess of
Modernization, scholars have put forth several models - which
vary in their foci. According to Abraham 11977) they may
classified into four general models of Modernization.
1.
2. 3. 4.
Structural models: a) Social system model b) Cui tural system model Process model Conflict model Soc1al-Psychologi8al model
52
be
unit of analysis and values are relegated to the backgroul,d.
Lev)'
some form of macro-sociological appruach
process of modernization as it alters and
institutional arrangements, systemic
Smelser 11966 ) identified four distinct but inter-related
processes of modernization in the areas of technology,
agricul ture, industry and ecological arrangements. M.arion
Levy 119661 has presented a hoi istic approach to
modernization touching on a ~hole gamut of structuf'3.i
varlable9 and functional prerequisit",s ~hich differentiate
between relatively modernized and relatively non-modernized
90cLeties - a general taxonomy he developed.
Cultural System Model
Moaernization in terms at chan~es in the normative structUf'e
at the community. Following the l.Ieber ian thesis on
protestant ethic and the rise of capit;allsm,
&e"erations ot sociOlogists have sought to determine a set o.
cultural values that are crucial to modernization. Of
tnese values are the abstracted qUintessence of the
53
Wes t.
societies can be modernized only by the diffusion of those
values a.nd cultural traits that characterize contemporary
advanced societies.
(Affective
Ol'ientation, Particularism V9 Universa I ism,
Quality Vs Performance, and Specificity Vs Diffuseness) to
dift~l~entlate
contend tha t
societies and
achievement, universalism and specificity. Lipset (1967:6)
considers the combination of universalism and achievement
• mas t favourable to the emergence of an industrial society
since it encourages respect of deference towards others on
the basis of merit and places emphasis on achievement".
(1959), F ill 01 (1961), Richard Morse (1958) and
Willems (1953) show how strong kinship ties and the tendency
to view business property very much like ~ family estate tend
to impede growth of technological efficiency and a rational
bureaucracy in Latin America.
terms of certain pervasive processe9 like secularization,
54
-communication, Industrialization, urbanization ano
westerni=ation which 5~t In motion a chain of consequences in
developing countries.
works
( 19691,
119631,
deemed
Schram 119641 Lerner and Schram 11967 I, Deutchmann
Doob 119611 and Frey 119661. Mass communication is
to be a catalytic agent in the process Dr
mod t? r n i z at ion. Rogers 11969:371 has termed mass media as the
'magic muttiplier', "Attendance to the mass media is &
broadener of horizons, an informer, ar·d a persuader f Dr
change" . The conceptual model underlying Rogers' 11969:10:21
communication theory of modernization is the paradigm that.
certain antecedents 1 ike I iteracYJ education, social 5t.atu~.
age and cosmopolltanness are mediated and pr-OCf?SSU&J Iy
artiCUlated mass media exposure whiCh tranSforms trleSE-
antecedent variables into traits of modernity such as
empa thy, agricultural and home innovativeness, pCdit1c6:
achievement motivation and educdtional
India in terms of four universal
Sanskr i tization, Secularization
underlying socia-cultural change in developing societies.
This assertion is supported by Fals Borda's {19621 evidence
55
report from the Middle East which has witnessed • the
disintegration of a social system founded in God's final
(19651 word" . Whereas Hoselltz and Moore (19631 and Moor-e
find Industrialization as the prime mover of moderniza.tion,
Breese (19661 treats urbanization as the key to social change
in the developing areas. Finally~ the numerous sociologicai
treatises that deal with developmental change or planned
social change, community development Bnd rural exten9ion. ma.y
be considered to be variants of the process model.
Conf I ict Model
MOdernization In terms of dissenSions, disequilibrium Of
reVOlutionary upheavals. Marx is undoubtedly a pioneering
theorist of social conflict who developed the eVuiutlon-ary
theory
systems
I ike feudal ism, capital ism and socialism .,mer-ge ana
transtorm themselves. He made extensive use of class
struggle as a tool for the analysis of change In total
societies and argued that the economic system of production
and distribution could determine the 90cial l
political structure of the society.
Barrington Moore (19661 has made
contribution to our understanding of change in
societies through a systematic analysis of class
and class alliances. Moore has sought to
56
produce or prevent peasant revolutions. And DI
IoIh i cr,
revo.1 ut ionary movements In under-developed countries: I I 1
Ele.ents draloln from the poorly organized urban loIorking elase,
(21 poorer sections of the peasantry and (31 discontented
segments
of lower middle class and Inte I I igens ia
an elite of professional revolutionaries.
how demonstration effect, revolution of rising
expectations and status incongruence produce d19content among
various classes leading eventually to types of social
movements.
The potentials ot a conflict model as a tool for
the analysis of modernization cannot be overemprlBS i zed.
Speaking in broad terms, the areaS of conflict in the
developing societies could be outlined as foJIGw5'~
1.
2.
the
the
represent
revolution
through exped lent a I I lances and bitter ciaSl5
struggles.
developing society is a perpetual battle-f leld
where the torces of modernity and tradition mee t.
57
dissensions, dlsequtl ibrium, and the erosion - if no~
the complete bre.akdown of some of the old
normative structures and facilitates the emergence
at neW norms and value-orientations.
3. Conflict of persona 11 ty. The concepts like
demonstration effect, revolution of r i 5 i ng
expectations, status incongruEnce, relative
variations of persona I I ty conf lict within the
individuals. Educational revolution, gap between
aspirations and achievement, eonf I iet of loyalties
and the absence of adequate opportunities would
increase frustration leading to widespread 5 we i.Ed
discontent.
Accordin~ to this perspective, favourable change in
the persona Ii ty structure of social actors is the tu
modernl=ation of a given social 9ystem. Here the emphasis is
on chanCing I if e styles, belief systems and
attributes.
McClelland 11961) explains not only th d . f e ynamlcs a
modernization but also the rise and fal of empires in terms
of chi Id-rearlng practices which induce or inhlbl t
achievement motivation and consequent entrepreneurial ability
leading eventually to national economic development. This
theory of modernization may involve nume(o~s conceptual and
5B
ach1r?vement motivation is inconsistent with the concern for
affiliation and for power. In other word'S, If .9. m.3.n "wocrie!3
a lot' about tds tamily and friends. or speculates on
instead of spending his time thinking about doing
po ..... er I
is heavily loaded with the cultural bias of the lJe:stern
:90Cldl system where family and kinShip ties are weak. Only
in highly individualistic societies is It possible to measure
ach1evement motivatiofl in terms of an individual's personai
ambitions without reference to his family obligations. Yet
Rosers and his associates Prodlpto Ro