running head: examining self-authorship...

Running head: EXAMINING SELF-AUTHORSHIP 1

From Childhood Dreams to Adult Compromises: Examining the Self-Authorship

Processes of First Generation Female Student Leaders

Dana Calandrino, Kathryn Dunn and Caroline Horste

Eastern Michigan University

EXAMINING SELF-AUTHORSHIP 2

Abstract

Baxter Magolda’s Theory of Self-Authorship was used as a lens to examine the experiences of

seven first-generation female student leaders at a mid-size institution in the Midwest. Both

quantitative and qualitative research methods were employed to make inferences about the level

of familial support, past and present career goals, and perceptions of what it means to be a leader.

The results of this study provide insight into how these dimensions may shape leadership

experiences and career goals.

Keywords: self-authorship, female college students, first-generation, student leaders


Examining Self-Authorship of First Generation Female Student Leaders

Baxter Magolda’s Theory of Self-Authorship describes the process in which college

students move through four phases allowing them to shift from an external to internal self-

definition (2001). What happens, however, if this external definition is primarily created by a

support network of individuals that have not attended college? What effect, if any, does this have

on a student’s decision to attend college, choose a major, and determine career goals? This

research will examine how first-generation female college students are traversing on-campus

leadership roles and setting future career goals without always having the support of their

families or role models to look up to.

Literature has suggested that societal changes have allowed women to break free of

stereotypes and that girls are now raised to believe they can do and be anything (Ward et al.,

2010). Through their research, Ward et al. (2009) found that females self-reported being able to

take leadership positions due to the support of their families. Family support also impacts first-

generation college student retention rates (Mehta et al., 2011). Meanwhile, Creamer and

Laughlin (2005) conducted research showing that female students’ career decision making was

impacted by parents. Cumulatively this research shows the impact of families on one’s external

self-definition. These implications are explored while assessing the self-authorship of the

students that participated in our research.

Learning Objectives and Intended Outcomes

It was the intention of these researchers to explore identity development as it occurs

among college students along three intersecting demographics. We recruited students who were

female, first-generation students, and leaders on campus. The goal was to explore the different

experiences that challenged and influenced these women, especially in the context of both


encouraging and discouraging social messages regarding the roles of women, becoming the first

member of a family to attend college, and what leadership entails.

The researchers gathered quantitative data through a self-report pre-group survey, which

was used to prompt reflective discussion and generate qualitative narrative data through a focus

group session. We hypothesized that for many of these women, the focus group would be the

first time they would have been asked to reflect on their multidimensional social identity for

extended periods of time, and so the pre-group survey existed at least in part to assist them in

beginning to reflect on their experiences. Gathered data was assessed according to Baxter

Magolda’s Theory of Self-Authorship (Evans et al., 2010), with the intention of identifying

congruence in phases experienced by participants, and the catalysts that have propelled them

toward establishing authorship in the context of their lives.

We selected Baxter Magolda’s theory as a lens through which to view the data we

collected because of its emphasis on personal discovery; we hypothesized that women, first-

generation students, and student leaders were all populations that would likely go through this

“renegotiation” when securing an identity, and we also hypothesized that we would see

significant dynamics of intersectionality between these three facets of identity. Baxter Magolda’s

stages gave us a way to help identify and articulate where the students were as they attempted to

question and redefine the roles and norms set forth by their parents, peers, and culture in the

context of these three dimensions as they formed an inner voice.

Theoretical Framework

Marcia Baxter Magolda (Evans et al., 2010) generated data for her initial research via

sixty- and ninety-minute interviews with participants, exploring the conjunction of their inter-

and intrapersonal relationships and epistemological development, finally defining self-


authorship as one’s ability to explore, cultivate, and express his or her personal identity, beliefs

and values, and relationships.

Baxter Magolda (2001) generated three corresponding questions to these areas of

expression (Who am I? How do I develop thoughts and opinions? And How do I cultivate

relationships with other people?), which she claimed were answered through four phases in the

journey toward self-authorship. All four paths are also intersected with cognitive, interpersonal,

and intrapersonal dimensions.

The first stage describes individuals who internalize formulaic patterns for their lives,

attempting to follow plans prescribed by others (such as family, friends, and media) while

conceptualizing those plans as though they had been developed individually. These individuals

identify their worth and goals by the feedback they receive from others, and they allow external

sources to provide definitions.

The second phase is referred to as the “crossroads” phase, in which individuals realize

that the formulaic patterns that others had defined for them may not be the most beneficial,

effective, or fulfilling plans for their lives. At this point they begin to realize that there are other

options which may be more suited to their needs, interests, or skill sets. Nevertheless, individuals

in this phase are not ready to commit to new plans yet, and the internal conflict may lead to

anything from general discontent to a crisis state. Baxter Magolda (2008) notes that

predetermined career paths are often a catalyst leading to this phase; we made a point to explore

whether our participants reflected Baxter Magolda’s findings by relating similar narratives in

their own lives.

Phase three (Baxter Magolda, 2001) revolves around the individual’s burgeoning trust in

him or herself. People in this stage have developed their own beliefs and are in the process of


renegotiating their lives to become congruent with those newfound values and desires. Intense

self-reflection results in a careful construction of relationships, behaviors, and self-concept. We

hypothesized that our participants would self-identify as somewhere between the second stage

and this third stage.

Finally, phase four involves the firm foundations constructed by individuals who are

firmly committed to the belief system they have developed, and have confidence in their

perception of themselves, the relationships they’ve cultivated, and the decisions they’ve made.

They also understand that life entails some degree of inherent ambiguity, and they are

comfortable in their ability to cope with the unknown.

These phases may be conceptualized on a spectrum, with each one progressing into the

next. There are three corresponding elements as well: trusting the internal voice, building an

internal foundation, and securing internal commitments.

There has been further research based off Baxter Magolda’s theory, which has explored

self-authorship amongst diverse populations and “high-risk” students (Pizzolato, 2003), which

might include first-generation students who entered the self-authorship stage when deciding to

attend college against previous social or generational norms. Finally, Pizzolato (2006) also

noted that the process of developing self-authorship further progressed when students had

mentors who helped them reflect, define their own goals, and develop strategies for attaining

them, which intensifies the link between this theory and our exploration of leadership

development.

Methodology

First, we generated a pre-screening survey and administered it to interested participants.

The objectives in administering the survey were threefold: to gather demographic information


about our participants; to prepare them for the content of the focus group conversation; and to

collect quantitative data to prompt narrative-driven research during our session. The survey was

structured to help focus our conversation on the development of self-authorship in female first-

generation leaders; therefore, it was intended to gather historical narrative, current narrative, and

a perception of the future from the participants. After collecting demographic information in a

self-report format, it poses eight questions reflecting on the participants’ pasts, 12 questions on

development in the context of the present, and five questions anticipating future development.

The questions attempt to discern how participants’ goals changed over time, what has influenced

development, and how participants cultivated their own voices and chose their behaviors. The

full data set for these questions is located in Appendix A.

After gathering data, we hosted a ninety-minute focus-group session, which may be

reminiscent of Baxter Magolda’s original interviews. We used the quantitative data to guide the

discussion, help students express their narratives, and explore the contexts and events which

allowed them to develop their own voices and choose their futures.

Data Sample and Data Collection

Seven participants responded to the survey. Their self-reported demographic information

is listed below; because participants were asked to self-report, there may be differences in

reporting similar concepts (e.g., one student reports a race of “Caucasian” where another reports

a race of “white”).

Woman Leader 1st Gen Race Ethnicity Age Year Politics Religion

Yes Yes Yes Bi-

racial

French Canadian/

African-Am-erican

22 5th Liberal n/a

Yes Yes Yes Cauca- Urban/ Rural 26 Senior Open Open


sian

Yes Yes Yes Cauca-

sian

Italian/ Russian/ Polish

34 Grad Independent/

Liberal

Mother- Jewish, Father-

Catholic Yes Yes Yes White Arab 20 Senior Democrat Muslim

Yes Yes Yes Black [not

reported] 23 Senior

Constitution-alist

Christian

Yes Yes Yes White American 21 3rd None Christian Yes Yes Yes Black Multi-Ethnic 23 Grad n/a Christian

We used the major findings from the screening survey to structure the focus group meeting.

(Complete data set is attached in Appendix A.) Several findings stuck out and were used as the

major components of our group’s structure:

● Although 4/7 respondents indicated that as a child, their favorite game of imagination

involved a career, rather than being a wife or a mother, 0/7 respondents indicated that

their main goal as an adult involved a successful career, rather than being a wife or a

mother.

● Most respondents indicated that they had received messages that a woman’s domestic

role and a woman’s professional role were both important, but most respondents had also

received messages that balancing these roles is very difficult.

● All respondents indicated that after both college and their leadership experience, their

confidence in their ability to lead either “increased” or “greatly increased.”

● As a leader and as a woman, most respondents indicated that they would like to be

perceived as “strong and competent,” but also indicated that they believed that they were

perceived instead as “nurturing and caring.”

Findings


Seven important themes emerged from analysis of both the quantitative data gathered from

the pre-interview survey and the qualitative data gathered from the focus group itself. We have

attempted to summarize each theme, including supporting documentation from the interviews,

below. We feel that these themes reflect the students’ progress towards self-authorship and

clearly highlight the crossroads between their cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal

knowledge.

● Support Systems: Although different students reported different levels of salience in

terms of parents vs. peers, no student reported making a career or school choice

without the support of either family, friends, or school. Most students reported

receiving pushback from people around them when trying to select a college major, or,

indeed, on whether to attend college at all. This pushback was often couched in

statements that seemed at face value to be supportive; all but one student spoke of

pressure from their family to balance any passion they felt with a “practical” occupation.

However, students who spoke about their family not accepting their choices also spoke

about friends and other positive adult role models, such as teachers, who were more

supportive of their decision. In several instances students spoke of reaching a point where

they discarded the major prescribed to them by parents, and chose to follow their own

passion by selecting a major they were truly interested in.

● Challenges unique to first-generation students: Many students reported a lack of

knowledge and/or support regarding choosing their career path as their biggest

obstacle when deciding whether and where to go to school. Regardless of whether,

and the extent to which, their parents supported them, the students agreed that

overcoming a perception of college as “lofty” proved to be a challenge. One student


referenced her peer group, saying that to her group of friends, as well as her family, a job

at a grocery store that was full-time and earned benefits and a 401(k) would have been

sufficient. Oftentimes this lack of support is detrimental to the persistence of first-

generation college students (Mehta et al., 2011).

● Work-Life Balance: All students reported hearing messages deeply rooted in

childhood about the importance of having a family, although students differed on

their opinions of the importance of having a career and of balancing their

professional and personal lives. This was perhaps the topic yielding the largest spread

of opinions within the participants. The majority of the students we interviewed

expressed moderate beliefs, but we also interviewed one student who stated that

beginning a family was not important to her, and another student who stated firmly that if

she could arrange her money situation accordingly, she would not care to work at all,

preferring instead to raise her family. It should be noted that several students expressed

this balance with a negative approach, stating that they felt pressure to “compromise” or

“make a choice,” rather than the opportunity to have both. Another factor seemed to be

the example that was set by the participants’ mothers, i.e. whether they were stay-at-

home mothers or whether they worked outside the home in addition to their familial and

domestic responsibilities; this outcome is consistent with Creamer & Laughlin’s findings

(2005).

● Image of Leaders vs. Self-Image: Although each student we interviewed was

referred to us by someone who named them as a campus leader, many students were

hesitant to call themselves leaders because their idea of a “leader” differed from

their own self-image. The group agreed quickly on an image of a leader as an outgoing,


energetic person who was very visible on campus. However, after some reflection on the

reality of these assumptions, students began to note that characteristics such as

assertiveness, reliability, and being capable were important components of leadership,

and perhaps traits that they were more likely to share. Upon further examining their

leadership experience, some students also discussed being “thrown into their role,” which

may have contributed to their feeling a lack of knowledge, and therefore their feeling that

they did not look like a leader to other people. Many students talked about their

leadership position as something they had not seen themselves doing or proactively

seeking.

● Perceptions of Women as Leaders: Many students expressed frustration with the

difficulty of striking a balance as a woman between being “aggressive” and being

“nurturing;” the word that each student used to describe their ideal perception of

women as leaders was “competent,” but no student indicated that she believed she

was perceived as such. One student talked at length about her role as the president of a

student organization, and her struggle to take over the position from the former male

president. She expressed that many of the strategies she used to maintain her organization

were strategies that she learned from her male colleague, who used them without issue,

but were deemed as “bitchy” when they came from her. Another student commented on

the frequency of situations in which she would like to be more aggressive, but was

worried about how it would come off; on the flip side of this coin, a third student

responded with how she was often “not sure how to be nice without getting walked all

over.” This is significant when considered along with findings that one of the largest

barriers to female students seeking out leadership positions involves conforming to


societal gender roles and norms, as well as “a fear of negative evaluation” (Egidio &

Boatwright, 2003).

● Perceptions of Women in the Work Place: Regardless of a desire to go into a

“female-oriented field,” such as teaching, or a “male-oriented field,” such as

technology, students expressed anxiety about other people’s perceptions of them,

and wanted to be regarded as effective. Students responded to this dichotomy in

different ways, depending on their career objectives. Students going into teaching, for

instance, acknowledged that they were “very aware” of educational subjects being

gendered - art and English for female teachers, and math and science for male teachers.

Another student, intending to begin a career in arts management, worried about the

prospect of working in an industry without female colleagues, and mentioned that she

was struggling with the notion of how she could prove herself worthy without

overcompensating. When one student summed up this issue as a “struggle to be taken

seriously,” that comment seemed to resonate strongly among the other participants.

● Changes to Career Goals: Several students reported a feeling of “scaling back” their

career goals once they realized the challenges that would await them as women, but

other students reported that as they grew up, they felt more able to make choices

that weren’t supported by their families. The differences in whether students seemed

to broaden or narrow their career goals as they aged seemed to lie in the degree to which

they had been aware of gender difficulties before and after making their career decisions,

as opposed to leadership or first-generation factors. The students who reported that

college was a broadening experience for them in terms of their career goals also reported


networks of family and friends who helped them reflect on the challenges they had

already faced, and those that awaited them.

Based on the emergence of these themes, our team concluded that we had interviewed

women who were either nearing the end of phase two, or who were entering phase three of their

self-authorship journeys. Several key points that could be used to distinguish the two phases can

be found within the stories participants told: students who reported selecting a major based on

their own passion, and not what their parents instructed them to do, have made a concrete choice

to “choose one’s beliefs and stand up for them in the face of conflicting external viewpoints”

(Baxter Magolda, 2001).

Significance of the Study

Our findings underscore the importance of role models, on the basis of womanhood,

leadership, and first-generation students. Ideally, students would be able to find mentors who

espouse all three of these characteristics, as the intersectionality of these traits, particularly of

women leaders, is paramount. Our study also identifies support systems, whether from family,

peers, or other systems, as predictors of likeliness to enter college.

One of the major findings that stood out in our pre-group survey was the sharp decrease

from childhood to adulthood in career-oriented goals. The qualitative data did not yield a clear

explanation of the mechanism behind this; we hypothesized that women either felt pressure to

change their career goals to be something more acceptable, or that they felt overwhelmed by the

prospect of having to balance all of their ambitions. More research would need to be done in

order to generalize a model conceptualizing what happens to women as they phase out career-

oriented childhood fantasies and replace them with family-oriented goals as they age.


Practitioners attempting to provide leadership training programs should keep in mind that

it may be important to provide increased outreach to female students on campus, who may have

internalized gender roles that prevent them from seeing themselves as leaders and therefore

eligible for the training. Similarly, it may be worthwhile to prioritize first-generation students,

not only in the admissions process but also in processes that support first-year students, as first-

year first-generation students face more barriers, and can often have more difficulty identifying

role models (Mehta et al., 2011).

Finally, it should be noted that our study focused on three dimensions (womanhood,

leadership, and first-generation students), and that we highly prioritized exploring the

intersectionality of these pieces of identity. All of these social factors are likely to be highly

intertwined - it is unknown whether the results are generalizable to, for instance, male first-

generation leaders, or female first-generation students without leadership experience. This seems

like a logical jumping-off point for future research.


References

Baxter Magolda, M.B. (2001). Making their own way: Narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-development. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Baxter Magolda, M.B. (2008). Three elements of self-authorship. Journal of College Student Development, 49. 269-284.

Creamer, E.G., & Laughlin, A. (2005). Self-authorship and women’s career decision making. Journal of College Student Development, 46(1). 13-27.

Egidio, R.K., & Boatwright, K.J. (2003). Psychological predictors of college women’s leadership aspirations. Journal of College Student Development, 44(5). 653-669.

Evans, N.J., Forney, D.S., Guido, F.M., Patton, L.D., & Renn, K.A. (2010).Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.).San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Mehta, S.S., Newbold, J.J., & O’Rourke, M.A. (2011). Why do first-generation students fail? College Student Journal, 45(1). 20-35.

Pizzolato, J.E. (2003). Developing self-authorship: Exploring the experiences of high-risk college students. Journal of College Student Development, 44. 797-811.

Pizzolato, J.E. (2006). Complex partnerships: Self-authorship and provocative academic-advising practices. NACADA Journal, 26(1). 32-45.

Ward, R.M., DiPaolo, D.G., & Popson, H.C. (2009). College student leaders: Meet the Alpha Female. Journal of Educational Leadership, 7, 100-117.

Ward, R.M., DiPaolo, D.G., & Popson, H.C. (2010). Defining the alpha female: A female leadership measure. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(3). 309-320.


Appendix A

Below is summarized the data from the quantitative, pre-focus-group survey. Seven

respondents completed the form. All questions were mandatory, and all but two items were

posed as radio buttons; these items are represented by pie charts. The other two items were posed

as checkboxes, and since the totals therefore sum to more than 7, they are represented by bar

graphs.

The data is broken into three sections: Pre-College History, with 8 items; Present

Narrative, with 12 items; and Anticipating the Future, with 4 items.


Pre-College History

Item #1: “As a child, what was your favorite game of imagination?”

As a child, what was your favorite game of imagination?

To marry your one true love (companionship-oriented) 1

To be a mother (family-oriented) 2

To go on adventures with no rules (freedom-oriented) 0

To become a particular occupation (e.g. teacher, firefighter) (career-oriented) 4

Other 0

To marry your one true love

(companionship-oriented)

14%

To be a mother (family-oriented)

29%

To become a particular

occupation (e.g. teacher,

firefighter) (career-oriented)

57%

As a child, what was your favorite game of imagination?


Item #2: “What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the difficulty of balancing domestic and professional roles?”

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the difficulty of balancing domestic and professional roles?

Very difficult 1

Somewhat difficult 4

Somewhat easy 1

Very easy 1

Very difficult 15%

Somewhat difficult 57%

Somewhat easy 14%

Very easy 14%

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the

difficulty of balancing domestic and professional roles?


Item #3: “What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the importance of a woman’s domestic role?”

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the importance of a woman's domestic role?

Very important 4

Somewhat important 2

Somewhat unimportant 1

Very unimportant 0

Very important 57%

Somewhat important

29%

Somewhat unimportant

14%

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the importance of a woman's domestic role?


Item #4: “What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the importance of a woman’s professional role?”

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the importance of a woman's professional role?

Very important 3

Somewhat important 1

Somewhat unimportant 3

Very unimportant 0

Very important 43%

Somewhat important 14%

Somewhat unimportant

43%

What messages did you receive from your family while growing up in terms of the

importance of a woman's professional role?


Item #5: “How did you choose your college major?”

How did you choose your college major?

An adult role model suggested it. 0

I met with a career advisor to explore different options. 1

I've always known what career I'd like. 1

I randomly selected it. 0

I had an experience that drew me to this field. 5

I still haven't selected a college major. 0

I met with a career advisor to explore different options.

14%

I've always known what career I'd like.

14%

I had an experience that drew me to this

field. 72%

How did you choose your college major?


Item #6: “What shaped your views of what college would be like?”

What shaped your views of what college would be like?

Books/movies/TV shows. 4

Stories from people close to me. 4

I didn't know what to expect. 3

Teachers and guidance counselors helped prepare me. 3

My own imagination. 4

4 4

3 3

4

Books/movies/TV shows.

Stories from people close to me.

I didn't know what to expect.

Teachers and guidance counselors helped prepare me.

My own imagination.

0

1

2

3

4

5

What shaped your view of what college would be like?


Item #7: “How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending college?”

How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending college?

I did not believe in my ability to lead. 1

I thought I had average leadership skills. 3

I thought I was a great leader. 2

I did not think about my leadership skills. 1

I did not believe in my ability to lead.

14%

I thought I had average leadership

skills. 43%

I thought I was a great leader.

29%

I did not think about my leadership skills.

14%

How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending college?


Item #8: “How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending your leadership experience?”

How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending your leadership experience?

I did not believe in my ability to lead. 0

I thought I had average leadership skills. 3

I thought I was a great leader. 3

I did not think about my leadership skills. 1

I thought I had average leadership

skills. 43%

I thought I was a great leader.

43%

I did not think about my leadership skills.

14%

How did you feel about your leadership skills prior to attending your leadership experience?


Current Narrative

Item #1: “When you consider self-worth, what do you feel is most important?”

When you consider self-worth, what do you feel is most important?

Feeling pride or confidence in one's self. 5

Gaining positive feedback from others. 1

Fulfilling the expectations of those close to me. 1

I don't think about my self-worth. 0

Feeling pride or confidence in

one's self. 72%

Gaining positive feedback from others.

14%

Fulfilling the expectations of those

close to me. 14%

When you consider self-worth, what do you feel is most important?


Item #2: “How do you approach new challenges in life?”

How do you approach new challenges in life?

I rely on feedback from my friends and family. 2

I consider similar situations I've encountered. 1

I ignore them until they go away. 0

I face them head-on and find solutions. 4

I rely on feedback from my friends and

family. 29%

I consider similar situations I've encountered.

14%

I face them head-on and find

solutions. 57%

How do you approach new challenges in life?


Item #3: “Which statement best describes how you feel about your opinions?”

Which statement best defines how you feel about your opinions?

I'm comfortable voicing my opinions to others. 6

I worry that others will judge me for my opinions. 0

I worry that my opinions don't matter. 1

I rely on others for forming opinions. 0

I feel that my opinions have more value than the opinions of others. 0

I'm comfortable voicing my opinions

to others. 86%

I worry that my opinions don't matter.

14%

Which statement best describes how you feel about your opinions?


Item #4: “Since coming to college, how would you describe your relationship with your family?”

Since coming to college, how would you describe your relationship with your family?

Our relationship hasn't changed. 2

I've grown closer to my family. 2

I've grown more distant from my family. 3

Our relationship hasn't changed.

28%

I've grown closer to my family.

29%

I've grown more distant

from my family. 43%

Since coming to college, how would you describe your relationship with your family?


Item #5: “What are your feelings toward friends or family who haven’t attended college?”

What are your feelings towards friends or family who haven't attended college?

I feel sorry for them. 2

I feel guilty around them. 0

I can't relate to them. 1

I don't care that they haven't attended college. 4

I hope that they will attend college someday. 5

2

0

1

4

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

I feel sorry for them. I feel guilty around them.

I can't relate to them. I don't care that they haven't attended

college.

I hope that they will attend college

someday.

What are your feelings towards friends or family who haven't attended college?


Item #6: “How did you feel about your leadership skills after having attended college?”

How did you feel about your leadership skills after having attended college?

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly increased. 5

My confidence in my ability to lead somewhat increased. 2

My confidence in my ability to lead somewhat decreased. 0

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly decreased. 0

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly

increased. 71%

My confidence in my ability to lead

somewhat increased. 29%

How did you feel about your leadership skills after having attended college?


Item #7: “How did you feel about your leadership skills after having attended your leadership experience?”

How did you feel about your leadership skills after your leadership experience?

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly increased. 4

My confidence in my ability to lead somewhat increased. 3

My confidence in my ability to lead somewhat decreased. 0

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly decreased. 0

My confidence in my ability to lead greatly

increased. 57%

My confidence in my ability to lead

somewhat increased. 43%

How did you feel about your leadership skills after your leadership experience?


Item #8: “How do you think people perceive you as a leader?”

How do you think people perceive you as a leader?

Nurturing and caring 5

Strong and competent 2

Disorganized and unskilled 0

Aggressive or "bitchy" 0

Nurturing and caring 71%

Strong and competent

29%

How do you think people perceive you as a leader?


Item #9: “How would you like to be perceived as a leader?”

How would you like to be perceived as a leader?







86%

How would you like to be perceived as a leader?


Item #10: “How do you think people perceive you as a woman?”

How do you think people perceive you as a woman?







14%

How do you think people perceive you as a woman?


Item #11: “How would you like to be perceived as a woman?”

How would you like to be perceived as a woman?





Nurturing and caring

29%


71%

How would you like to be perceived as a woman?


Item #12: “True or false: Who I am as a woman is different from who I am as a leader.”

"Who I am as a woman is different from who I am as a leader."

True 0

False 7


Anticipating the Future

Item #1: “Which statement best defines how you feel about what life will be like after college?”

Which statement best defines how you feel about what life will be like after college?

I'm not sure what life will be like - I'm still exploring my options. 4

I've considered different options and now have a clear vision of what I think life will be like. 3

I don't think about life after college. 0

My view of life after college hasn't changed since I was a child. 0

I'm not sure what life will be like - I'm still exploring my options.

57%

I've considered different options and

now have a clear vision of what I think

life will be like. 43%

Which statement best defines how you feel about what life will be like after college?


Item #2: What do you believe is the biggest external challenge you will face (or have faced) as a female leader?

What do you believe is the biggest external challenge you will face (or have faced) as a female leader?

A lack of respect/ your contributions not being "taken seriously" 4

Being considered aggressive or "bitchy" 1

Sexual harassment 0

I don't foresee any sex-based challenges. 2

A lack of respect/ your contributions not being "taken

seriously" 57%

Being considered aggressive or

"bitchy" 14%

I don't foresee any sex-based challenges.

29%

What do you believe is the biggest external challenge you will face (or have faced) as a

female leader?


Item #3: What do you believe is the biggest internal challenge you will face (or have faced) as a female leader?

What do you believe is the biggest internal challenge you will face (or have faced) as a female leader?

I do not have the skills in assertiveness that I would like to have. 1

I overcompensate and don't take time for myself. 3

I try to placate others. 3

I am too aggressive. 0

I do not have the skills in assertiveness

that I would like to have. 14%

I overcompensate and don't take time

for myself. 43%

I try to placate others. 43%

What do you believe is the biggest internal challenge you will face (or have faced) as a

female leader?


Item #4: “As an adult, what is your ultimate goal?”

As an adult, what is your ultimate goal?

To fall in love and cultivate a happy, healthy partnership (companionship-oriented) 2

To be a well-balanced mother with healthy, happy children (family-oriented) 3

To live spontaneously, with no rules (freedom-oriented) 1

To have a fulfilling, satisfying career (career oriented) 0

Other 1

To fall in love and cultivate a happy,

healthy partnership (companionship-

oriented) 29%

To be a well-balanced mother with

healthy, happy children (family-

oriented) 43%

To live spontaneously, with no rules (freedom-

oriented) 14%

Other 14%

As an adult, what is your ultimate goal?

running head: examining self-authorship...

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