running head: confucius vs. the women of china: a feminist

Running Head: CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE

CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST

STRUGGLE

A THESIS

Presented to the University Honors Program

California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the

University Honors Program Certificate

Dina Orozco

Fall 2017

CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE 2


Table of Contents

I. Abstract .........................................................................................................................4

II. Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................5

III. Introduction ..................................................................................................................6

IV. Literature Review ........................................................................................................7

a. Defining Confucianism ............................................................................................7

b. Women in China throughout History .....................................................................10

c. Confucianism and Feminism .................................................................................11

d. Governmental Oppression .....................................................................................14

e. Importance of Questioning Confucian Interpretations ..........................................15

V. Thematic Sections ......................................................................................................17

i. Confucian & Feminist Fusion ....................................................................17

ii. Feminism in China ....................................................................................20

VI. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................24

VII. References ...................................................................................................................26


ABSTRACT

This thesis analyzes to what extent Confucianism laid the foundation for a patriarchal

society in China, thus planting the seed for feminist movements to arise. From controversial

practices, such as foot binding, stipulating that women be subservient to the males in their lives

in the Analects, as well as subjecting women into a gendered social hierarchy since the 6th

Century BCE, it can be argued that Confucianism has provided a framework where women

should take a backseat in society. Confucianism has undoubtedly played a huge role in the

shaping of modern China, therefore making it essential in understanding Chinese culture and

society. Though it may not have much of a foothold in China currently, modern Chinese culture

will be searched for traces of Confucian ideology that has upheld any oppression of women.

There are some who believe Confucianism holds potential to be feminist, and this will equally be

explored. To counter claims of Confucius’ misogyny, historical accounts of Chinese women’s

issues will be delved into as well. Through the analysis of the Analects of Confucius as a primary

source, and with interpretations as secondary sources, whether Confucianism is solely

responsible for contemporary women’s issues such as the taboo of female activism for example,

will be presented, and to what extent Confucianism holds potential in being feminist.

Key words: Confucianism, Feminism, China, patriarchy, stereotypes


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I thank God for blessing me with a wonderful mentor, a supportive

family, and amazing friends. Thanks to God I give additionally for blessing me with the strength

and knowledge to achieve this project.

I sincerely thank Professor Wu for her help in guiding me in this academic endeavor. My

study abroad experience in Shanghai with her and sitting in on her course in Chinese history

inspired me to conduct the following thesis on feminism in China. Thank you for your patience

and advice.

I thank my parents for always letting me pave my own path with their unconditional

support. I could not have completed this thesis without your love and unending iced coffees to

help me get through the sleepless nights. All that I do is to make you proud, and in

acknowledgement of the efforts you have made to allow me to prosper as a first-generation

college student, and much more a Latina; I owe all my success to your bravery.

I thank my friends for their emotional support and memes when I needed comedic relief

from the stress. The determination and academic success of each of you inspires me. Together,

we survived our undergrad and will continue to survive anything to come.

Lastly, I would like to thank all the women in my life. For you, I advocate for equality

and to give voice to those who lack it. Thank you for showing me the beauty in resistance.


INTRODUCTION

“Women have always been searching for a way out of Confucian shadows” -Xiao Ma

In the past few decades, China has risen in power. It has boomed economically and

politically, but marring its progress is its underlying issues of gender inequality. Chinese women

comprise less than 10% of corporate management positions, female empowerment groups are

silenced by the government, and the expectation to be subservient to the male persists. While

these issues exist globally, the focus of this paper is China, given that it is a developing country,

yet it suppresses more than half of its population. To understand where an issue on a scale like

this comes from, one should look to the foundation of said society. Confucianism has been an

integral part in Chinese society, helping shape its politics and culture. Confucius’ teachings have

been subject to scrutiny for advocating self-empowerment of the individual in terms of education,

family, and politics, but failing to include women in such actions. Therefore, my intention is to

see what impact Confucius’ teachings have had on society regarding patriarchal tendencies.

Currently, Confucianism has had a revival given political turmoil, thus making it more important

to analyze.


Literature Review

When Asian women are spoken of by non-Asians, there is a reoccurring theme in their

discourse: Asian women are docile and ideal housewives. This theme is problematic for several

reasons. It not only reinforces stereotypes, but also implies that they are inferior. In my research,

I chose to analyze women in China, but more specifically feminists in China. I questioned why

this stereotype exists and this led me to analyze Chinese culture and tradition. In my findings, I

found it striking that despite Confucian influence, which heavily emphasizes the “golden rule” to

not do unto others what we would not like done to ourselves, there persisted forms of female

oppression. This then led on the search to discover if Confucius was intentionally sexist, or if he

was a teacher tainted by misinterpretations of his teachings; much like the Bible and Jesus Christ.

Defining Confucianism.

Confucianism is a term used to refer to a guide to life compiled by Kong Qiu who lived in 551-

479 BC. The term itself has no equivalent in Chinese and was coined by the west, but it literally

means “family of scholars” (Slote 1998). Kong Qiu, otherwise known as Confucius, came from

humble beginnings and worked his way up the social ladder. Born in the Chou Dynasty, during

the warring-states period, his work was a means to unifying a broken nation. At this time, there

was a turn away from feudal society and an ideological crisis ensued, therefore the appeal of

such ideology was that it indicated structure and organization; if you knew your place in society,

life would be made easier for you. It has been said that most of his teachings, he did not himself

create, but rather he reiterated them. Confucius thought of himself to be a “transmitter” of old

ideas to gain something new (Slote 1998). He compiled his teachings onto scriptures, which were

later combined to form what is known as The Analects of Confucius. These scriptures assumed


the form of conversation between the master, Kongzi 孔子, and disciple, indicating that

educating and getting educated were essential and never-ending. His teachings emphasized the

importance of being morally pure, seeking an education, practicing rites, and filial piety:

1.6 The Master said: A young man should

be filial within his home and respectful of elders

when outside, should be careful and

trustworthy, broadly caring of people at large,

and should cleave to those who are ren. If he

has energy left over, he may study the refinements

of culture (wen). (Eno,1)

*Ren 仁, refers to humaneness and innate good. Wen 文, refers to cultural norms.

Most of his work concerned itself with ethical virtues and self-cultivation in a spiritual and

scholarly manner. One of the most fundamental aspects of Confucianism is filial piety. Filial

piety regards taking care of your family, and encouraging strong personal connections to them.

He believed that caring for your elders not only benefited the family dynamic, but also society.

Confucius placed a high value on collectivism; cultivating the self to best benefit society. This

idea could and was applied to politics as well:

2.3 The Master said: Guide them with policies

and align them with punishments and


the people will evade them and have no

shame. Guide them with virtue and align

them with li and the people will have a sense

of shame and fulfill their roles. (Eno, 5)

According to Confucianism, as a leader they were expected to conduct themselves with virtue, de

德, meaning that they could shift with context, willing to listen to the public’s needs and act

morally (Eno 2015). These quotes, among others, demonstrate Confucius’ desire for humans to

be mindful of others and of their selves. His “golden rule” is “Do not do unto other what you

would not want others to do unto you”, and this encapsulates that someone wishing to be good

must do good to others too which is largely what his teachings were about. When Confucius

passed away, his legacy was survived by his disciples. Of his over 3,000 students, there were

only 72 he claimed mastered his teachings. Each of them held their own interpretations. Mencius

was one of them. Mencius brought morality to Confucianism (Slote 2015). He believed that the

people were more important than the state, and the state more important than the king. As ruler,

one should not be affected by power nor by poverty, but maintain morality always. Confucius’

disciple Hsun Tzu, focused on the Confucian element of scholarship. He believed that if one

were to cultivate the self through education, there would be no limit to one’s passion because

humans are evil (Slote 2015). Reverence to societal norms, therefore function to keep humans in

balance, and only by being social could someone be cultured. These two disciples, along with

Confucius stressed the overall importance of being a better person to be able to better society as

a collective, but there was one thing lacking throughout each of their narratives: women.


Women in China throughout History

This section will provide a brief overview of women’s rights and struggles since the time

of Confucius. During the time of Confucius, women were expected to tend to duties at home.

They had little to no involvement in the public sphere regarding education, business, and

economy. However, during the Han Dynasty, there was the first recognized empress Lu, as well

as China’s first female historian, Ban Zhao. Ban Zhao also introduced Chinese women to

Lessons for Women, which entailed how a woman should behave according to Confucius. She

was one of the first revolutionary women prior to the Tang Dynasty where women’s rights

kickstarted. During the Tang Dynasty, there was an increase in liberal mindedness. Women were

not allowed to re-marry after the death of their partners, but this changed in the Tang Dynasty.

Additionally, women were encouraged to educate themselves and work. Two scholars from this

era are Song Ruohua and Song Ruozhao. These sisters compiled the Analects for Women. Like

the Lessons for Women, this text reinstated Confucian values such as filial piety for your in-laws;

“You must care for them as your own mother and father” (Ruozhao, 1). The latter however,

emphasized how to behave in public, whereas Ban Zhao’s work focused on the duties to be done

at home. Despite advising women to be submissive to a patriarchal society, this text encouraged

women to read. Both texts are an example that Confucian influence persisted through the

decades.

The Song Dynasty is marked by a controversial practice: foot-binding. Confucius spoke

of the self as pure and not to be transformed, therefore had he been alive he would have

condemned this practice because of the physical toll it had on females. From the young age of 3,

girls had their feet bound in cloth to form “lotus feet”. This practice was a sign of status, given


that it rendered girls unable to walk effectively. Those who had their feet bound indicated that

they could afford not to move because there those to look after them. Some claim this was a

perpetuation of the male fantasy as well as Confucian ideals, yet the practice was survived for

centuries by women. It was not until the Qing Dynasty that the practice was banned. The Qing

Dynasty rung in many new changes. The most significant among them being the emergence of

feminism. There are three main events that sparked the rise of women’s rights and feminism, but

these will be discussed in a later section.

Confucianism and Feminism.

Confucianism has undoubtedly oppressed women, not intentionally, but indirectly. His

teachings excluded women, but the bigger issue is that the current Confucian scholars are not

doing anything to change the ways of the past. Perhaps they think it is unmanly to discuss

women’s issues, which is therefore a “gender complex” as Chenyang Li refers to it. As

aforementioned, Confucianism promotes good human traits but to be better and more universally

applied it should include women; “We cannot expect a philosophy and religion to have a future if

it is prejudicial against half of the human race” (Li, 187). The article Confucianism and Feminist

concerns: Overcoming the Confucian “gender complex”, answered three vital questions to this

research:

1. Has Confucius oppressed women?

Confucius himself can arguably have not oppressed women. But in referring to Confucianism, as

a philosophy upheld by scholars, then yes, it has oppressed women. It is speculated that

Confucius excluded women from his work because of the social structure in place at the time he


was alive. However, with the revival of Confucianism in the Song Dynasty, Confucian scholars

can be scrutinized for still excluding women. Neo-Confucianism was significantly harsher on

women. It was during this revival that the 3 Bonds were established, foot-binding was introduced,

and women not allowed to remarry, thus rendering them many times to be poor. Chinese culture

promotes the Taoist Yin vs. Yang characteristics. Ideally these “light” and “dark” contrasts

should be complementary, but often, yang (male) is considered superior by nature. This belief

pits women against men in an unfair “natural” place. During the Song-Ming Dynasty, women

were oppressed by being subject to 3 relationships: The ruler over the ruled, the father over the

son, the husband over the wife. Meaning that the woman needs to be subservient to the emperor,

her father, her brother, and her husband. Women could not remarry because it was immoral.

Losing morals was viewed much worse than starving to death. Another more direct and brutal

form of oppression was the Foot binding practice mentioned earlier. But it should be noted that

this also provided the space for women to empower themselves.

Lin Yutang, a Chinese author and linguist, makes a claim that in saying women are oppressed is

a western notion that defies Chinese lifestyle and culture. He believes Chinese women have been

completely autonomous throughout history because of the power they hold within the household.

Though this is true, it should not deflect from the fact that women are limited in the public

sphere. Chinese women are lauded for having power within the household like that of an empress

on her throne. However, female domestic power is hardly comparable to its male counterpart.

The author draws parallels to western beauty where Chinese women’s domestic rule

“…functions within the patriarchal power structure which ultimately benefits men” (Li 3).

2. If he has oppressed women, how much?


This is difficult to answer because it must be kept in mind that though oppression occurred, that

does not mean it is the only thing that occurred. There were powerful empresses such as Ci Xi. It

can also not be generalized that all women were oppressed. Some women lived happily married.

Women could own land beneath the cultural revolution. Li Yuning believes that there’s pros and

cons to Confucianism, and I agree. Confucius himself was not sexist entirely and his ideas have

helped women to some extent. For example, in wanting everyone to be educated, this has

compelled women to study. In wanting people to have propriety, this allows women to better

themselves and for Chinese society to adjust and modernize. It can be argued that the awareness

of Chinese women’s oppression came from the spur in communism and western feminist

scholars. This isn’t to undermine that women beforehand weren’t oppressed. Simply that there

has been this universal victimization of Chinese women that is unfounded because not all of

them are. “While Confucianism’s oppression of women was quite severe-indeed undeniably

severe-it must have left some room for women’s moral cultivation and even social participation”

(Li, 5).

Therefore, the third question is: What can be done about it?

It can be inferred that Confucianism and feminism have some parallels. Therefore, to

change the oppression, Confucianism must be conceptualized into something tangible for

everybody. Confucius did not intend to be sexist, but rather his disciples changed his intentions.

They interpreted his Analects to fit their own agenda, much like several religious texts have been.

But there were women who also interpreted the Analects. Song Ruozhao, a daughter of an

official, wrote on the expectations of a woman within Confucian context. Her work stresses how

a woman should carry herself before her husband, her in-laws, in public, and before other women;


“Do not learn the ways of lazy women who from an early age are silly and shiftless...” (Ruozhao,

3). It highlights the immense pressure placed on females to uphold an image not expected of men.

Some women can be okay with this, while some are not, which is why feminism in China is

important. Like Confucianism, feminism promotes the self and respect of others. Can

Confucianism then hold potential for being feminist?

Government Oppression.

In “State Feminism? Gender and Socialist State Formation in Maoist China?” by Wang

Zheng, it helps to see the political barriers women face still in advocating for change through a

“top-down” approach. After the Mao era, where women were invited into the industrial sector

and later into the political party, they faced a freedom too short-lived. Female government

officials are still subject to the desires of the CPP. The women’s issues are not prioritized before

the CPP’s objectives. The All-China Women’s Federation. China, arose out of the growing

demand for women’s rights. The purpose was to address issues at the local level. China, as a

socialist state, engaged in “State feminism”, meaning that although women are in the political

sphere, they have no autonomy. The good that came with the Mao Era was a “Top-down”

approach, implying that it would be effective in resolving issues, but since the government

included women, not the women included themselves, this was problematic. It was lacking the

mobilization of women for change because “Women’s work was subordinate to the Party’s

“Central work”- never becoming a Party priority” (Zheng, 4). The ACWF acts as an umbrella

organization for all other grassroots organizations in China. SWF (Shanghai Women’s

Federation) , was utilized during the Maoist revolution. Women were called to the streets to

protest anti-imperialism. Thousands showed up, but it cannot go unsaid that this was not feminist


in any form, but rather the CCP strategically included the women in their propaganda to

purposely reinforce their own power. They really didn’t empower women, it was an illusion to

make them believe they did when they were being used as pawns to show the nation’s “unity”.

The SWF was also relied upon to do neighborhood work, such as ensuring welfare and

healthcare for women. However, in their attempts to do so, women workers found that their male

bosses would block their petitions. Some men went so far as to question why women needed an

organization advocating for women’s autonomy anyway. These political barriers are an

indication that change has yet to happen even in the political sector to be more inclusive to

women and their needs.

The importance of questioning Confucian interpretations.

It seems that throughout history, there is a constant struggle to prove to men why women

need equal rights, when truly, it should just be a basic human right. Women should be allowed

autonomy because they are humans with needs and wants just like men. There should be no

superior sex, nor should there be one that mandates the other’s actions. In Feminism in China:

An Analysis of Advocates, Debates, and Strategies by Dr. Shen Yifei, it touches on the changing

perception towards women over the years in relation to Confucianism and capitalism. Women

gained a new sense of freedom during Mao’s cultural revolution. However, with a changing

market economy in the late 90s, sexist rhetoric reemerged. Women were once again encouraged

to go back “into the kitchen”. This emergence of sexist mentality is not new, but in fact goes

hand in hand with capitalism. Capitalism relies on the exploitation of labor, and Mao did just that

during the cultural revolution, and China’s current president upholds that sexist legacy. Women

who are not married by the age of 27 are considered “leftovers”; furthermore, those who are


building themselves up career-wise, face gendered policies regarding wages and job

qualifications. Whatever place they earned during the Maoist era, though not forgotten, has been

weakened by a changing economy and Confucian ideology that persists. Therefore, young

women who once relied on the AWCF to protect their interests cannot do so anymore and are

taking matters into their own hands. Social media has provided an outlet for women to seek

solidarity and change. Despite threats and incarceration, young women in China have begun to

come forward out of the awareness of a systemic issue that has trickled down through history.

He Zhen, an early 20th Century feminist, called for a separation of women’s rights from

nationalism. Chinese women should not be given equal rights for sake of the nation to prosper,

but simply for themselves as individuals to prosper. She strongly felt that women allow

themselves to be mistreated because they depend on men to eat. Alternatively, men oppress

women because they are aware that women depend on them. Li Zisheng believed that men

interpreted Confucianism to impose a hierarchy on women, stating that they have created rules to

tie women down because of their jealous nature (Zarrow 1988). Confucianism calls for women

to have no “outside concerns”, subjecting them to be responsible for raising their children and

running the household. Though that life may not bother some, He Zhen argued that women have

been “...reduced to something for nourishing the species” (Zarrow, 805). She felt that the only

way for women to be truly liberated was for them to free themselves, for if men were to do it, it

would be “passive activism”. Therefore, it is important to question Confucianism and to rework

it to aid women not only because it is the morally correct thing to do, but because it is a platform

that is already rooted in society.


Thematic Sections

I. Confucian and Feminist fusion.

Feminism first appeared in the early 19th century in the United States as women fought for

their right to vote. For decades it has been a unifying platform for women to voice their

complaints and demand justice. Feminism reached China around the same time, but the term

“feminism” was not accepted. The Chinese men and women preferred to say instead “femininity-

related”. Feminism is a popular ideology because of what it hopes to achieve, which simply put

is to deconstruct gender differences. Confucianism has been tainted by misogynist claims for so

long that to even ponder it as feminist might seem laughable to some. To others, like Tang Yijie,

might feel that Confucianism should be left as it is; “Confucianism only tells us the reason for

being a man. We should not set demands on it in other aspects, and it should come as no surprise

that it suffers from some inadequacies” (Warytko, 171). However, if Confucianism is to have

any type of credibility in its reemergence into Chinese society, it needs to be re-worked.

Confucius himself wrote that ““[One who] re-warms the past and knows [how to] freshen it, may

be regarded as a teacher”” (Warytko 174), based on this saying, his followers shhould not be

opposed to Confucianism being re-worked to complement Feminism.

Sandra Warytko broke down The Analects of Confucius 論語, by what Confucius wrote, to

what he could, and should have said. The only quote mentioning women is the following:

17.25 The Master said, Women and small men are difficult to nurture. If you get too close to

them, they become uncompliant, and if you stay too distant, they become resentful. (Eno 99)


Confucius wrote 妞子(Niū zi) in the original text. The first character referred to “woman”, while

the second character implies “child”, so he was probably referring to young girls, children or

daughters. Some believe it could have meant ‘concubine’. Warytko writes that he shouldn’t be

criticized for not having included women because perhaps at his time, there were social

constructs in place that did not allow for women to be disciples. In his time women and men

were unequal in terms of politics and economics, as well as educational opportunities. Therefore,

those who assume he was anti-women are ignorant because they do not understand the time he

was living in. Warytko states that “detachment breeds discontent” (Warytko, 175). Women were

not allowed into the educational sector not because of natural or innate deficiencies. But because

of the social rules. Women were expected to handle the housework, while men were expected to

handle the outer, more public matters like politics and war. Despite the social implications

however, women still rose up and were educated. Lady Ban Zhao for example, who wrote the

Instructions for Women, challenged the social norms and stated that despite having

responsibilities at home, women could still self-cultivate. She also called out the injustice in

gentlemen teaching their sons, but not their daughters. Additionally, she denounced physical and

verbal abuse of women. Since Confucius advocated for everyone to educate themselves, he

would not be opposed to women in universities today. On the contrary, he would probably urge

them to do so. Confucian principles support open-endedness and open-mindedness, therefore he

would not oppose to redefining social structures to include women.

Warytko, is one among several to claim that feminism is inherently Confucian because

the original forms of both advocate for self-cultivation. Confucianism has a principle of Shu:

reciprocity of sympathy. This principle is embodied in his quote, “That which one does not want


for oneself, do not do to others.” From this basic principle, Confucius would not and should not

be sexist. His followers equally then should not be either otherwise they would be hypocritical.

The Confucian principle of 君子 Jūnzǐ , epitomizes Confucian potential to be feminist.

The word literally means “gentleman”, but Confucius coined the term to mean someone of noble

birth, and someone willing to self-cultivate themselves. Later translations have interpreted the

principle of Junzi as someone who is willing to be scholarly, or a “profound person”, regardless

of birth status, or gender. This principle calls for humans to be bold, yet self-critical, among

other things. Warytko writes that this principle encompasses both masculine and feminine

attributes, and therefore applicable to both genders. Feminism seeks to break free from gender

stereotypes, therefore this Confucian ideal could fuse with Feminism.

Both Confucianism and Feminism believe the self is socially constructed, making our

surroundings important to our character. Thus, making family and friends dear to us.

Confucianism emphasizes filial piety, 孝順 Xiàoshùn, which is to respect our elders, and parents,

as well as our ancestors. In addition, your place in society is significantly relevant. In history, if

we analyze the Chinese ballad about Hua Mulan, it embodies both feminist and Confucian ideals.

Mulan goes to battle in her father’s place because he is too old. Unlike the Disney movie, the real

ballad reveals that her parents support Mulan’s decision. Mulan not only honored her parents, but

also defied the gender norms when she dons the armor. She was selfless, had noble character,

and additionally earned respect from her family, ruler, and society, all of which are Confucian

principles. Confucian gender roles were based on social organization; therefore, the lack of

women in the Analects can be adapted. Confucianism itself cannot be changed, but the people

who practice it can. “Unlike other spiritual traditions, there is no theoretical limitation within


Confucianism against educating women or against training generations of women Confucian

masters.” (Warytko, 177), this tells us that it is Confucius’ disciples and current followers who

have failed to be fair to women, rather than Confucius himself.

If one were to abandon the supposed gender roles of Confucianism, and only the core

values were kept, it could mesh well with Feminism. Both prioritize the formation of the self and

how to shape others. It is understandable difficult to break tradition, but not impossible.

Confucian philosophy at its core emphasizes that humans be of noble heart and mind, as well as

reasonable and loyal. These characteristics, can serve as an ally to feminism.

II. Feminism in China

Feminism was not present in China until the early 20th Century, when China was at war with

Japan. Much like the inclusion of women during WWII, so was the call for women to rise in

China to help the nation’s cause. Despite the years however, women today are not esteemed in

the same way as men. The question arises then over whether the entire Chinese nation is sexist,

or whether individuals perpetuate it. Chinese society has traditionally upheld the yin-yang

philosophy, which subjected women to familism- meaning they ought to prioritize their duties at

home. Confucianism, also made women inferior by subjecting them to a hierarchical society that

has remained consistent in Chinese society. Both men and women who advocated for women’s

rights, but the first “feminists” were men. Liang QiChao frowned upon the practice of

footbinding because it meant there was less consumers and producers in Chinese society. He also

wrote that women ought to be educated so that they can be independent, and thus less of a

burden to society. Jin Tianhe published Women’s Bell, in which he proposed that women’s rights

be taken seriously because women were the ‘mothers of a nation’. These men set in motion


feminist discourse in China, but their intentions are questionable because they are men. Despite

their efforts, it can be argued that they advocated for a man’s idea of how a woman should be.

Female feminists’ objectives were a stark contrast to their male counterparts. The men

previously mentioned advocated for a woman’s future, whereas the first female feminists

advocated for women’s liberation in the present. Dr. Yifei presents several female feminists who

had differing views than that of the men who advocated for women’s rights. Lin Zongsu,

partially agreed with Jin Tianhe. However, she also felt that women should fight for themselves.

Chen Xiefen rejected the male feminists’ ideas completely, and called for women to fight for

themselves. He Zhen, previously mentioned, was the most radical. She separated women’s

liberation from the benefit of the nation, and instead called for women to be free for reasons

other than the good of the nation. She pushed for Anarcho-feminism and rejected Confucianism

and marriage; believed only that women needed to be independent from depending on a man for

her meals or roof over her head. She additionally believed communism to be the answer to

China’s gender inequality.

During the Republican Period, 1911-1949, feminist discourse focused on education, foot-

binding, working, and politics. Women in politics was the most difficult to handle because men

“...opposed women doing so on the grounds that women were not as knowledgeable as men, that

politics was not meant for women, and that it would bring crisis to family life.” (Yifei 4). On

women joining the workforce however, there was not much opposition. During this time, women

became entrepreneurs and even helped to get other women jobs. By the 1930s, 55% of women

were in the workforce. Despite this accomplishment however, traditional ideas of gender

relations were present. Men feared a woman too modern, and disliked a woman too traditional.


Along with Republican period, the May Fourth Era also ushered in feminism, in which young

intellectuals were lauded, and there was a rejection of traditional Confucian ideas. All in all

however, women’s rights at the time were still influenced mainly by men and considered a

‘feminism under patriarchy’.

Post-World War II , Women received much more change during this time than before. It was

due to the Chinese Communist Party’s efforts to prioritize women’s liberation to help in the

battle against Western Imperialism. Marxist views influenced women’s rights in 1922.

Capitalism was thought to be the root of a patriarchal society, thus the CCP stipulated in 1949

that women enjoy the same rights as men. Mao Zedong famously said: ‘Women hold up half of

the sky’. Another significant achievement occurred when NGOs were permitted, thus providing

women with a social platform. There was a stigma around the term “feminism” however,

because it was a Western idea, therefore associated with capitalism, so the Chinese preferred to

use the term “femininity-related”. In the 1950s, women were able to divorce their husbands, as

well as inherit land. In the workplace, women were highly valued. Yifei makes note however that

economic progress does not equate to social progress, and that is Chinese society’s current issue.

Despite implementation of laws to protect women, there is no proper enforcement. In the early

80s, as China’s economy was changing following China’s Cultural Revolution, and so was

women’s role in the workforce. Many became unemployed, while others began to earn much less

than their male counterparts. Additionally, women held less managerial positions than men, and

often not hired as much as men. These problems marked a new form of gender inequality.

Feminism in China today faces similar issues. There are wage gaps in the workplace, few

women in politics, and a highly educated woman is deemed threatening. Women face immense


pressure to marry and avoid being “leftover”. Family, friends, and media alike pressure women

to settle down. It is okay for a man to marry down the social ladder, but women can only marry

up. Due to the One Child policy that was implemented in the 80s, female infanticide was created,

which in turn caused a current shortage of women. This has both benefited and downgraded

women. Women are pressured to marry, but they are also empowered because they are in

demand. Divorce rates and the number of women in college have spiked because young women

refuse to adhere to the traditions of their parents. With this rise in confidence, also comes a rise

in feminism, even if it is not specifically called so. Women’s rights are still met with resistance

however.

The Communist Party has gone to great lengths to not only regulate public opinion, but to

also silence opposition. China has an online firewall that censors social media. Additionally, the

government monitors other forms of media. Female activism is not accepted. Protests are

tolerated, but feminism in particular is shunned because it is more likely to be seen (Fu 2017).

Given that feminism has the support of NGOs, as well as international support, the government

seeks to silence it. In 2015, when the government attempted to crack down on labor

organizations, feminists allied themselves with NGOs and made the government’s actions public.

Workers can be bought out, but when intellectuals and proletariats join forces, this puts them in a

position of power that is deemed threatening. On March 6 of 2015, International Women’s Day,

young women gathered to peacefully hand out pamphlets condemning sexual harassment, when

five of them were taken into custody. While in captivity, they were tortured and repeatedly

interrogated. The “feminist five” were said to have been propagating Western ideals. News of

this spread like wildfire on social media, and around the world. It was only after global pressure


that the women were finally released, 37 days later. Despite being freed however, they remain

criminal suspects and under watch. One of the young women was quoted saying “We have to

think very carefully about new methods to push forward China’s feminist movement” (Fincher

2017). Though the Communist Party seeks to silence feminists, it has in turn brought more

awareness to their cause; even inspiring other female activists to voice their discontent and

kickstart organizations to help women. Oppression breeds resistance, and the Communist party,

accompanied with underlying Confucian ideology, has brewed a lot of resentment.

Conclusion

For a country that once proclaimed: “Women hold half the sky”, yet currently actively seek

to oppress them, their progress as a country seems riddled with doubt. I set out to discover

Confucius’ influence in creating a patriarchal society, and I have concluded that Confucius alone

was not sexist, nor entirely at fault for the inequality directed towards women. But rather his

scholars and followers upheld his teachings to create a male-dominant, conservative society. At

its core, Confucianism promotes the cultivation of the self in academics, politics, and social

status, however, its lack of women in its discourse cannot be left as is. Confucianism has shaped

every aspect of Chinese society, from its politics to social hierarchy. It is necessary for women to

no longer be given the backseat, and instead brought to the forefront. This essay has highlighted

the injustices since the time of Confucius and the areas left for improvement, but most

importantly, it has shown how women have empowered themselves amidst attempts to silence

them. An overview of women’s history was provided, as well as the rise of feminism. In addition

to analyzing Confucius’ role, this thesis also explored Confucian potential to be feminist. I found

that at their most basic values, which are to empower the self and others, Confucianism and


Feminism can coexist. The Confucian principle of reciprocity concerning how to treat others as

you would yourself, speaks volumes of the hypocrisy of Confucian followers. If one were to

abide by this basic principle, then the oppression of some rights of women would not exist. The

principle of propriety could be geared towards women as well, to encourage them to educate

themselves and join the workforce, free from social pressure to marry and rear children. The

importance of this research is to bring attention to the possibility of combining two burgeoning

ideologies to not only help China prosper, but to do the greater good in showing women the

respect they deserve. Feminism, thanks to social media, has encouraged many women to speak

out, thus making it relevant to consider incorporating into Chinese culture. And Confucianism is

being sought out once again as China grapples to find something to unify its citizens once again

after its economy is struggling. Given the fact that China is developing so quickly, and its

success is threatened by its lack of adequate inclusion of more than half of its population, it is

time to make significant change. I hope that this research brings attention to the very important

issue of viewing Chinese women not as a “compliment” to Chinese men, but as equally

competent, and self-sufficient beings.


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