CAROLINGIAN,*OTTONIAN,*AND*ROMANESQUE*ARCHITECTURE,*A.D.*80061150*!PALATINE*CHAPEL*OF*CHARLEMAGNE,*AACHEN,*GERMANY,*c.*805*

" part! of! a! group! of! buildings! (Palace! of! Aachen)! with! residential,! political,! and!religious! purposes! chosen! by! Charlemagne! to! be! the! center! of! power! of! the!Carolingian!Empire!

" designed!by!Odo!of!Metz!" place!of!coronation!of!Holy!Roman!Emperors!

!

I. REALITY*" It! was! originally! connected!with! the! great! audience! hall! by! colonnades! nearly!

120!m!long.!" It!connects!with!the!forecourt!much!in!the!same!way!the!Pantheon!originally!did.!" WESTWORK:!had!two!flanking!circular!stairway!towers!and!the!great!royal!niche!

in! the! center;! contained! the! entrance! hall! on! the! lower! level! and! the! royal!throne!of!Charlemagne!on!the!upper!level!

" On! the! opposite! side! of! the! throne,! on! the! lower! level,! there! was! a! squarish!niche!for!the!altar.!

" The! entrance! space! and! the! space! for! the! altar! remained! outside! the!ambulatory,!so!that!the!central!space!was!kept!intact.!

" The! difference! in! San! Vitale! is! that! the! altar! space! takes! up! part! of! the!ambulatory! and! is! screened! off! with! columns.! There! were! also! no! curved"out!niches,! defined! by! two! columns! between! the! piers,! which! made! San! Vitale! a!centrifugal! fluid! space,! a! space! expanding! from! the! center! with! subtle! spatial!harmonies.!

" The! Palatine! Chapel! eliminates! the! screen! columns! on! the! ground! floor!altogether,! and! on! the! upper! level! they! are! flattened! out.! The! lower! level! is!defined! by! short,! sturdy! piers,! which! bend! around! the! corners! of! the! inner!octagon,! leaving! large! arched! openings! in! between.! This! gives! the! space!geometric!clarity,!with!more!static!qualities,!through!plainness!and!massiveness.!

" The!massive,!severe!lower!level!is!separated!from!the!much!lighter,!even!floating!upper!level!by!a!heavy!cornice.!

" The!inner!octagon!is!defined!by!8!piers!and!the!outer!shell!of!16!corners!required!complicated! vaulted! constructions! to! cover! the! lower! and! upper! ambulatory:!cross!groin!vaults!on!the!lower!level,!and!rising!tunnel!vaults!that!turn!the!corner!on!the!upper,!but!on!both!levels!spatial!units!are!created.!

" The!main! light! sources! for! the! domed! octagon! are! 8! windows! just! below! the!dome,!which! remains!octagonal.!The!windows!bring! in! the! light! in!a! clerestory!fashion.!!

II. FORM*" It!was!an!attempt!to!integrate!the!center!and!path,!or!to!superimpose!an!axis!on!

a!central!arrangement.!" The!axis!is!defined!by!two!opposite!spaces,!the!entrance!and!the!altar!space,!of!

which!the!former!is!more!developed.!" The!upper! level!above! the!entrance!contained!a! space!exclusively! reserved! for!

the!emperor.!This!space!had!a!double!orientation.!From!an!opening!in!the!royal!niche!the!emperor!could!face!and!encounter!the!people!outside!in!the!forecourt.!The! other! direction! brought! him! in! contact! with! the! divine.! The! entrance,!therefore,!was!a!genuine!transition!space!between!exterior!and!interior!spaces.!

" The!central!space!was!designed!according!the!principle!of!a!space!within!a!space,!in!this!case!an!octagon!within!a!space!with!16!corners.!The!outer!space!remained!relatively!low,!whereas!the!inner!space!thrusts!itself!up!to!its!full!height.!

" On!the!lower!level,!the!inner!and!outer!spaces!interpenetrate!freely,!whereas!on!the!upper!level!the!inner!space!remains!contained.!!

III. MEANING*"! In!comparing! the! throne!and!the!altar,!we!can!see! that! the! throne!was!given!more!importance!than!the!altar.!It!is!shown!in!the!location!of!the!throne,!which!interrupts!the!continuity!of!the!ambulatory,!eating!its!way!into!the!central!space,!while!the!altar!is!set!aside,!remaining!outside!the!ambulatory.!The!throne!is!also!elevated,! located! on! the! upper! level,! while! the! altar! is! situated! on! the! lower!level.!Furthermore,!the!throne!has!a!double!orientation,!where!from!an!opening!in!the!royal!niche,!the!emperor!could!face!and!encounter!the!people!outside!in!the! forecourt.! The! other! direction! brought! him! in! contact! with! the! divine.! In!summary,!the!altar!was!relatively!small!and!undeveloped,!a!simple!rectangle! in!plan,! while! the! throne!was! elevated! on! the! upper! level! and! intrudes! into! the!upper!ambulatory.!The!two!spaces!confront!each!other.!Based!on!this!analysis,!it!is!assumed!that!Charlemagne!thought!of!himself!as!greater!and!more!important!than!the!Church.!

! !

WESTWORK*OF*THE*ABBEY*CHURCH*AT*CORVEY,*NORTHERN*GERMANY,*8556873*

!I. REALITY*" The! internally! restored!westwork!of!Corvey! retains!some!of! the! impressions!of!

St.!Riquier.!Originally!it!did!not!have!that!flat!façade!it!has!today.!The!protruding!gabled!entrance!space!was!flanked!by!two!square!stair!towers.!

" From!the!entrance!space!you!reach!a!larger,!squarish!compartment,!covered!by!nine! cross"vaults! carried! on! four! columns! plus! the! outer! ring! of! piers.! The!capitals!of!the!sturdy!columns!are!of!Corinthian!type!but!the!delicate!elaboration!is!omitted.!

" The!gallery!on!the!west!was!emphasized!by!a!larger!arched!opening!without!the!central!column.!

" The!westwork! at! Corvey! is! a!multistory! central! arrangement,! containing! larger!and!smaller!rooms,!expressed!on!the!outside!by!towers!and!lean"to!roofs.!

! !

ST.*MICHAEL,*HILDESHEIM,*NORTHERN*GERMANY,*c.*100161033*

!I. REALITY*" Bishop!Bernward!of!Hildesheim,!the!most!ambitious!patron!of!architecture!and!

art!during!the!Ottonian!age,!was!largely!responsible!for!the!design!of!St.!Michael.!" The! architectural! ancestors! and! sources! for! St.! Michael! were:! St.! Riquier!

(Centula)!of!c.!800,!the!schematic!plan!of!St.!Gall!of!c.!819,!St.!Cyrakus,!Genrode,!Northern!Germany,!and!St.!Pantaleon!in!Cologne!of!c.!980.!

" St.!Michael!has!two!transepts!and!two!crossing!towers.!" The!system!of!alternating!supports!was!invented!in!the!St.!Michael.!

" ALTERNATE* SUPPORT* SYSTEM:! its! suitability! to! some! Romanesque! vaulting!systems! is! perhaps! only! accidental;! it! seems! to! have! been! adopted! not! as! a!structural!but!as!an!aesthetic!device!to!organize!the!plan!into!units,!bay!units!of!near"squares;!used!as!a!module!also!for!the!transepts!

" The!nave!is!divided!into!3!squares.!" AD* QUADRATUM:! a! design! method! that! uses! the! square! modules! in! plan,!

because!the!square!was!thought!to!be!the!geometrical!figure!which!would!best!reflect!the!perfection!of!God;!the!formal!use!of!square!modules!to!express!the!idea!of!the!perfection!of!God*

" The!interior!of!the!church!retains!the!character!of!an!Early!Christian!basilica.*" The!western!choir!was!raised!above!the!level!of!the!rest!of!the!church,!so!as!to!

accommodate! a! half"subterranean! basement! chapel,! a! crypt,! apparently! to! a!special!sanctuary!in!honor!of!St.!Michael,!which!could!be!entered!both!from!the!western!transept!and!from!the!outside.*

" The!crypt!was!covered!by!groined!vaults!resting!on!two!rows!of!columns,!and!its!walls!were!pierced!by!arched!openings!that!linked!it!to!the!U"shaped!corridor!or!ambulatory,!wrapped!around! it.!This!ambulatory!must!have!been!visible!above!ground,!since!there!were!windows!in!the!outer!walls.*

" The!towers!at!each!end!are!completely!balanced,!a!square!one!with!a!pyramidal!roof! over! the! crossings,! two! circular! stair! towers! at! the! end! of! each! transept,!polygonal!in!the!lower!half,!round!above.!*

" The!nave!becomes!a!link!between!the!two!groups!of!towers.!Here!the!complete!symmetry! ends.! The! ends! of! the! building! are! treated! differently! because! of!different!functions.*

!

II. FORM*" The!layout!of!the!design!is!made!up!of!two!points!and!a!connecting!straight!line.!

The! points! are! located! in! the! center! of! the! crossings.! The! square,! designed!around!the!point,!is!the!basic!module!for!the!whole!plan,!and!three!units!of!it!are!used!to!concretize!the!connecting!line!between!the!two!crossings.!That!is!called!the!nave,!which!becomes! thereby! a! link!between! two! centers.! This!makes! the!interior! different! from! an! early! Christian! basilica,! which! was! strongly! and!uniformly!oriented!to!the!east.!

" The!building!can!also!be!interpreted!as!two!crosses!joined!together.!" The! arms! of! the! transepts! were! screened! off! by! three! superimposed! rows! of!

columns!according!to!the!!“musical”!ratios!3:2:1!in!their!respective!height,!with!taller!columns!but!fewer!in!number!on!the!lowest!level,!reflecting!the!aesthetic!views!of!St.!Augustine!laid!down!in!his!“De#musica.”!This!gave!continuity!to!the!side!aisles!and!a!welcome!ambiguity!to!the!total!design.!

" Bi"focal!layout.!!

III. MEANING*" If!it!is!assumed!that!the!east!end!of!the!structure!symbolizes!the!Church!and!the!

west!end!the!throne,!there!is!a!complete!balance!of!power!between!the!spiritual!and!the!secular.!

" The!organization!of!the!interior!in!bay!units!conveys!the!idea!that!the!life!path!of!the!Christian!is!not!one!single!enthusiastic!movement,!as!in!early!Christian!times,!but!has!to!be!broken!up!into!manageable!units.!!

" The!abstract!clarity!of!the!plan!reveals!the!soberness!with!which!the!earthly!path!had! to! be! mastered.! It! conveys! the! polarity! of! life! between! body! and! soul,!between!matter!and!spirit,!between!good!and!evil.!

" The!number!“4”!expresses!perfection,!as!seen! in! the!octagon!and!the!16"sided!shape.!

! !

SANTIAGO*DE*COMPOSTELA,*SPAIN,*after*c.*1075*" may!serve!as!an!example!of!pilgrimage!churches,!although!it!has!been!

considerably!altered!

!I. REALITY*" The!plan!is!based!on!a!Latin!cross!and!a!radiating!chapel!plan.!" The!large!transept,!70!m!long!and!as!wide!as!the!main!nave,!makes!the!exterior!

of! the!chancel! very! impressive.!The! introduction!of!a! large! transept!was!partly!dictated! by! functional! considerations,! as! it! was! in! Old! St.! Peter’s,! rome,! to!accommodate!large!crowds!of!pilgrims!near!the!main!altar.!

" The! entrances! at! the! ends! of! the! transepts! consisted! of! two! doorways!with! a!column!in!the!middle,!partly!dictated!by!structural!reasons.!

" The! central! space!where! the!main! nave! and! transept! intersect! is! lighted! from!above!through!windows!in!an!octagonal!lantern!on!squinches.!

" The! rest! of! the!main! nave! and! transept! is! fairly! dark! and! stuffy,! because! they!have!no!clerestory!windows.!

" SPECIFICATIONS:!100.6!m!long,!70.1!m!wide!!!!!!!

II. FORM*" The! layout! of! the! building! is! governed! by! square! modules,! due! to! structural!

reasons,! not! a! formal! one,! like! that! of! St.!Michael.! The! square!modules!were!necessary!to!create!cross"groin!vaults.!

" The! basic! layout! is! a! rectangular! longitudinal! arrangement,! although! the! large!transept,! equal! in! width! and! height! to! the! main! nave,! introduces! strong!centralized!features.!

" The! three! converging! lines! going! through! the! major! entrances! emphasize! the!centrality!and!terminating!point.!

" There! is! a! strong!architectural! accent!and!emphasis!on! the!eastern!end!of! the!church,!brought!about!by!the!large!transept!with!four!towers!at!the!corners,!the!octagonal! lantern! over! the! crossing,! four! apsidioles! on! the! east! side! of! the!transept!and!the!two!circular!towers!on!square!foundations!on!the!west!side!of!the! transept,! in! the! corners! between! the! transept! and! the! main! nave.! The!articulated!apse!with!clerestory!adds!to!this!emphasis.!

" The!westwork!at!the!west!end!serves!as!an!entrance!gate!for!the!pilgrim!at!the!end!of!his!long!journey.!

" In! Santiago! de! Compostela,! there! is! a! transition! from! an! architectural! space!conceived!as!a! flat! surface! like!a! skin,! to!an!architectural! space! like!an!organic!body!made!up!of!linear!members!as!bones.!!

III. MEANING*" The!building,!at!the!end!of!pilgrimage!roads!from!all!parts!of!Europe,!symbolized!

more! than! anything! else! the! entrance! of! the! pilgrim! into! heaven! after! he! had!been!purged!by!the!hardships!of!the!road!and!had!done!penance!for!his!sins.!

" The!3! impressive!entrance!gates!flanked!by!twin!towers,!one!principal!one!and!two!minor!ones!at!the!end!of!the!transept,!receive!the!pilgrims!from!all!corners!of!the!earth!and!bring!them!around!the!altar,!which!represents!Christ.!

" The! path! and! goal! are! unified! in! a! synthesis,! which! endows! human! existence!with! an! immediate! and! profound! meaning.! The! interior! conveys! the! typical!Romanesque! sense! both! of! protection! and! transcendental! aspiration,! but! this!protection!has!lost!all!frightening!implications!and!manifests!itself!as!something!warm!and!assuring.!

" The!emphasis!on!the!east!end!of!the!church!reflects!the!general!increase!of!the!spiritual!power!of!the!Church!and!the!popes!over!the!state!and!the!emperors.!

! !

MONASTERY*CHURCH*OF*CLUNY*III,*BURGUNDY,*FRANCE,*c.*108861130!" largest!church!of!Western!Christianity!" demolished!in!the!wake!of!the!French!Revolution!" St.! Bernard,! the! Cistercian! abbot! of! Clairvaux,! attacked! the! ostentation! of! the!

architecture! of! the! Cluniac! Order.! He! criticized! the! “immense”! height,! the!“immoderate”! length,! and! the! “supervacuous”! width! of! their! churches! as!incompatible!with! the! spirit!of!monastic!humility.!Bernard’s! second!attack!was!directed!against! the!expressionistic!and!anthropomorphic! sculpture!of! some!of!the!Romanesque!churches,!which!he!called!“monstrous.”!

!!

I. REALITY*" Cluny! III! did! not! have! the! spatial! integration! of! Santiago! de! Compostela.! The!

transepts!had!no!aisles,! and!as!a! consequence! the! church!did!not!possess!and!encircling!double"shell!structure.!

" Cluny! III! is! a!most! interesting! combination! of! a! basilica! with! two! transepts,! a!cruciform!plan,!and!a!centralized!sanctuary.! It! can!be!described! in! section!as!a!stepped! basilica! with! light! coming! in! at! three! levels,! and! an! unusually! high!arcade.!

" Pointed! arches! were! introduced! and! above! them! the! wall! was! treated! as! a!skeletal! screen!between!engaged!shafts,!which! rose!up! to!carry! the! transverse!arches!of!the!tunnel!vaulting.!

" The!clerestory!consisted!of!a!uniform!series!of!windows!just!below!the!springing!of!the!tunnel!vault,!three!in!each!bay,!and!the!triforium!below!was!subdivided!to!correspond! with! the! windows! above,! creating! a! unified! zone! which! usually!balanced!the!tall!arcade!below.!

" Light!flooded!into!the!great!transept!from!the!windows.!" There!were!three!domed!vaults.!" By!the!introduction!of!the!second!transept,!the!chancel!was!augmented!to!form!

a!kind!of!centralized!structure!in!its!own!right.!" The! plan! of! the! church!was! prefigured! in! the! Constantine! Church! of! the! Holy!

Sepulcher! in!Jerusalem!and!in!S.!Benique!at!Dijon,!where!rotundas!were!added!to!a!longitudinal!basilica.!!

II. FORM*" The!layout!of!the!monastery!of!Cluny!follows!in!its!basic!outlines!the!schematic!

plan! for!a!monastery!of! St.!Gall! (c.! 820).! In! this!plan! the! cloister!or!monastery!court! is! located! on! the! longer! side! of! the! church.! Around! this! court! the!more!important!buildings!of!the!monastery!community!are!located.!It!recalls!to!some!extent!the!layout!of!Trajan’s!Forum,!in!which!the!forecourt!is!also!located!on!the!longer!side!of!the!Basilica!Ulpia.!

" The!church!naturally!dominates!the!monastery!layout,!and!besides!the!entrances!from!the!cloister!side!for!the!monastery!community,!has!the!main!entrance!for!the!public!in!the!west.!

" The!horizontal!straight!line!interpreted!as!path!clearly!dominates!the!plan,!which!terminates!in!the!dramatically!articulated!east!end!of!the!church.!

" The!vertical!line!concretized!in!the!slender!muscular!columns!articulates!strongly!the!high!nave.!!

III. MEANING*" The! very! striking! dramatic! articulation! of! the! east! end! of! the! church! through!

transepts,! towers,! radiating! chapels,! etc.! conveys! very! clearly! the! shift! from!temporal!to!spiritual!power!during!this!time.!

" The!east!end!stands!also!for!the!“heavenly!Jerusalem,”!into!which!the!monk!was!promised! to! enter! after! he! had! completed! his! difficult! and! long! life! path,!symbolized!by!the! long!nave.!The!extreme!height!of!the!nave!reminded!him!of!his!duty! to! leave!all!worldly!values!behind!and! strive!only! for! the! spiritual!and!transcendental!values.!

" The! thin! vertical! muscular! members! conveyed! the! possibility! of! overcoming!earthly! heaviness! through! self"abnegation! and! a! continuous! striving! for!perfection.!

! !

THE*IMPERIAL*CATHEDRAL*OF*SPEYER,*GERMANY,*c.*103061106!

!I. REALITY*" Cruciform!(Latin!cross)!plan.!" The!cathedral!begun!in!1030!as!a!timber"roofed!structure.!" With!a!length!of!132!m,!it!surpassed!Old!St.!Peter’s!in!Rome.!" When!the!cathedral!was!rebuilt!by!Emperor!Henry!IV!(between!1082!and!1106),!

the!central!nave!was!covered!with!cross"groin!vaults.!" The!base!of!the!cross"groin!vault!was!not!square!because!the!vault!was!built! in!

an!existing!structure.!" The!alternate!support!system!was!introduced.!It!consisted!of!a!large!unit!in!the!

central!nave!flanked!by!two!small!units!in!the!side!aisles.!Two!original!bays!were!combined! into! a! near! square! one,! and! the! corner! piers! of! the! new!bays!were!strengthened.!

" From!the!entrance!to!the!apse!the!structure!becomes!gradually!higher!and!more!open.! A! similar! progressive! dematerialization! characterizes! the! vertical!development!of!the!building.!!

II. FORM*" Linear!form.!" An!individual!centralized!space!is!created!under!each!cross"groin!vault.!" Movement! toward! the! altar! is! discontinuous! due! to! the! sense! of!

compartmentalization! the! cross"groin! vaults! create! along! the! nave.! The!alternating!support!system!further!emphasizes!the!compartmentalization.!

" The! form!of! the! structure! is! highly! compartmentalized!due! to! the! presence!of!cross"groin!vaults,!which!create!semi"independent!spaces!or!divisions!along!the!nave!and!side!aisles.!

" The!horizontal!line!interpreted!as!path!and!concretized!in!the!long!nave!is!here!effectively!combined!with!the!vertical! line!of!transcendence,!concretized! in!the!high!nave!and!the!towers!on!either!end.!

" The! Cathedral! of! Speyer! is! a! bi"focal! layout,! consisting! of! two! centers,!concretized!in!the!east!and!west!ends!and!connected!by!the!path!of!the!nave.!

" The!layout!was!a!series!of!centralized!compartments!along!a!straight!line.!!

III. MEANING*" The! spiritual! dominates! the! secular! in! the! Cathedral! of! Speyer,! reflecting! the!

shift!from!secular!to!spiritual!power!of!the!medieval!civilization.!" Speyer!carried!the!alternating!support!system!up!to!the!height!of!the!nave!wall,!

completing! the! subdivision!of! the! elongated! space!of! the! nave! into! units.! This!expresses!the!gradual!awareness!of!the!medieval!Christian!that!the!path!towards!Christ!is!not!just!one!straight!movement,!but!a!path!that!must!be!organized!into!stages.!

! !

SAINT*MARK’S*CATHEDRAL,*VENICE,*ITALY,*begun*c.*1063!" part!of!a!square!in!near!the!Veneti!" designed!by!Sansovino! (designed! the! logetta,! the! libreria!and! the!palazzo!della!

zecca)!" Bridge!of!Sighs!

!I. REALITY*" The!building!has! a! cross"shaped!plan! and! five!domes,! one!over! each!arm,! and!

one!over!the!crossing.!" St.! Mark’s! 5! hemispherical! domes! are! carried! on! broad! piers,! forming! a!

succession!of! clearly! defined!baldachins.! The!main! spaces! are! accompanied!by!aisles,!which!penetrate!the!piers,!creating!a!complete!double"shell!structure.!

" The!aisles!in!St.!Mark’s!rise!to!the!full!height!of!the!arches!which!carry!the!dome.!

" A!certain!wish!for!spatial!unification!is!manifested!through!the!reduction!of!the!screen"walls!between!the!nave!and!aisles!to!mere!galleries.!

" EXTERIOR:! While! the! group! of! domes! belongs! to! Byzantine! architecture,! the!richly! ornate! façade! and! deep! portal! niches! are! late! medieval! additions.! The!intricate!syncopation!of!domed!bays!is!modified!slightly!by!western!Romanesque!elements.!

" St.!Marks!recreates!the!magic!of!the!Orient!through!mosaics,! luxuriant!capitals,!arcades,! to! separate! the! center! from! the! arms,! and! concealed! spatial!relationships.!!!!

!!!!!!!

II. FORM*" In! layout! the! form! consists! of! two! intersecting! lines! at! right! angles.! This! is! an!

ancient!Roman!design!device!and!recalls!the!cardo#and!decumanus!of!the!layout!of!Roman!cities.!

" The! layout! of! St.! Mark’s! can! be! regarded! as! a! variation! of! centralized!arrangement! and! a! superimposition! of! the! symbolism! of! the! cross! over! a!centralized!arrangement.!!

" The! square! units! covered! by! a! dome! can! be! considered! as! centrally! arranged!compartments.!

" The! form! of! St.! Mark’s! can! be! described! as! compartmentalization! centrally!arranged.!!

III. MEANING*" The!principal!meaning!of!St.!Mark’s!is!that!of!the!cross.!" In! its!centralized!arrangement,!St.!Mark’s!conveys! the!meaning!that!God! is! the!

center!of!the!cosmic!order,!so!the!king!is!the!center!of!the!terrestrial!order.!" The! additive! movement! of! the! great! baldachins! along! the! cardinal! axes! is! a!

meaningful!and!convincing!expression!of!the!diffusion!of!the!Christian!creed!to!the!whole!world.!

" The!arms!of!the!cross!are!open!and!reach!out!to!the!four!corners!of!the!world.!" The!layout!consists!of!compartmentalized,!centralized!forms!sharing!a!common!

center,!or!a!series!of!centralized!units!centrally!arranged.!! !

SAINT*FRONT,*PERIGEUX,*SOUTHERN*FRANCE,*c.*1150*

!I. REALITY*" Saint! Front!was! designed! as! a! purely! central! building.! The! result! was! a! Greek!

cross!in!plan,!with!a!square!for!the!center,!and!four!squares!for!the!arms.!Each!square!has!in!its!turn!short!arms!and!is!covered!by!a!vast!dome.!

" The!interior!is!a!classic!expression!of!Romanesque!clarity!and!determination.!" St.!Marks!recreates!the!magic!of!the!Orient!through!mosaics,! luxuriant!capitals,!

arcades,! to! separate! the! center! from! the! arms,! and! concealed! spatial!relationships.! On! the! other! hand,! St,! Front! is! stripped! of! all! that! suspicious!glamour! so! that! it! appears! pure! and! sheer,! more! appealing! to! the! rational!intellect!than!to!mystical!emotions.* !

SANT’*AMBROGIO,*MILAN,*NORTHERN*ITALY,*c.*1100!!

I. REALITY*" S.!Ambrogio!is!three"aisled!and!without!a!transept.!" The! schematism! of! the! square! bay! unit! has! been! applied! with! greater!

consistency! and! greater! precision! than! at! Speyer;! each! bay! consists! of! a! full!square!in!the!nave,!which!is!flanked!by!two!small!squares!in!each!aisle.!

" All!bays!are!covered!with!cross"groin!vaults.!" The!main!vaults! in! the! central!nave!are! slightly!domical,! rising!higher! than! the!

transverse!arches,!giving!thereby!more!independence!to!each!unit!bay.!" The! last!bay! is! covered!by! the!octagonal!dome,!which!provides! the!major! light!

source!for!the!otherwise!dim!interior.!" There!are!no!clerestories.!" The! proportions! of! S.! Ambrogio! do! not! aspire! to! the! soaring! heights! of! the!

northern! churches.! They!are! low!and! squat!and! remain! close! to! those!of!Early!Christian!basilicas.!

" NAVE!ELEVATION:!gallery!and!arcade!" Stone!masonry!was!used!over!timber!roofs!to!make!the!church!fireproof.!

!II. FORM*" Square! modules! were! used! in! plan! structurally,! not! formally,! like! that! in! St.!

Michael.* !

THE*CATHEDRAL*OF*PISA,*TUSCANY,*NORTHERN*ITALY,*c.*106361118!" The! cathedral! group! in! Pisa! consists! of! the! Campo! Santo,! the! baptistery,! the!

belfry!tower,!and!the!cathedral.!" Its!extraordinary!beauty!is!first!of!all!due!to!the!interaction!of!the!four,!formally!

related!buildings.!The!large!circular!baptistery!is!placed!in!front!of!the!cathedral!on! its! main! axis,! and! the! famous! leaning! tower—not! on! axis—forms! a!counterweight! at! the! other! end.! The! “Campo! Santo”! has! a! long! wall,! which!serves! as! a! kind! of! backdrop.! This! enhances! the! plastic! independence! of! the!three!elements.!

" Unity!among!the!four!buildings!is!assured!by!the!uniform!treatment!of!the!walls.!All! buildings! are! faced! with! white! marble! paneling! and! articulated! by!superimposed! arcades! and! miniature! galleries.! Rather! than! expressing! a! real!structure,! the!walls! appear! as! a! precious! gown,!which! is! wrapped! around! the!volumes.!(miniature!arcades!of!white!marble)!

!I. CATHEDRAL*

" The! interior! appears!as! a! large! columnar!basilica!with!double! side!aisles! and!a!deep!transept,!which!are!formed!like!semi"independent!single"aisled!basilicas.!

" Galleries!screen!off!the!transept!to!emphasize!the!continuity!of!the!nave,!which!is!a!Byzantine!influence.!

" The! crossing! is!marked! by! an! oval! dome! (stretched! dome).! Vaulted! squinches!cross!the!corners!diagonally.!

" The!main!nave,! somewhat!higher! than! that!of!an!early!Christian!basilica,!has!a!flat,!coffered,!timber!ceiling.!

" Only!the!side!aisles!are!cross"vaulted.!" There!is!no!Northern!European!compartmentalization!into!bay!units!in!the!main!

nave.!" Only!the!gallery!above!has!an!alternating!support!system.!" The!unclassical!pointed!arches!at!the!crossing!are!perhaps!of!Islamic!origin.!" NAVE!ELEVATION:!doesn’t!look!Romanesque!at!all;!has!a!timber!roof;!looks!like!

an!early!Christian!basilica;!no!use!of!masonry;!decorative!alternating!supports!" Classically,! the! superior! element! (pier)! supports! the! inferior! element! (column).!

However,!the!order!is!reversed!in!the!cathedral.!" The! plan! is! composed! of! three! early! Christian! churches! joined! together! by! an!

oblong!dome.!!

II. BAPTISTERY*" Decorative!alternating!support!system!in!the!gallery!above.!" Columns!mark!the!corners!of!the!octagon.!" Conical!dome.!" Column!should!not!be!made!to!carry!the!pier.!

!III. LEANING*TOWER*" The!leaning!problem!grew!as!more!storeys!were!added.!" HEIGHT:!55.9!m!on!the!low!side;!56.!7!m!on!the!high!side!

**

SAN*MINIATO*AL*MONTE,*FLORENCE,*TUSCANY,*c.*1060!

!I. REALITY*" Built!on!an!elevated!site.!" The!interior!recalls!early!Christian!architecture.!" Timber"roofed.!" The! nave! is! divided! into! three! equal! compartments! by! diaphragm! arches! that!

rise!from!compound!piers.!" The! piers! alternate! with! simple! columns! in! a"b"b"a! rhythm! that! recalls! the!

interior!of!St.!Michael,!Hildesheim.!" The!diaphragm!arches!had!multiple!functional!and!formal!purposes.!They!braced!

the!rather!high!thin!walls!of!the!main!nave;!they!provided!fire!breaks!within!the!wooden!roof!structure;!and!they!compartmentalized!the!basilican!interior!in!the!manner!so!popular!to!most!northern!Romanesque!builders.!

!II. FORM*" The! central! nave! of! the! church! is! compartmentalized! into! three! equal! parts!

because! of! the! diaphragm! arches.! The! compartmentalization! is! further!emphasized!by!the!alternating!support!system.!

* *

OTHER*BUILDINGS!!

I. SAN*SERMIN*!

II. ST.*CYRAKLUS,*GENRODE*" Like!St.!Michael.!" Uses!square!modules!(ad!quadratum)!marked!by!piers.!" Has! an! alternating! support! system! for! no! structural! reason,! but! only! to!

emphasize!the!square!modules.!* *

SUMMARY:*!Compartmentalization! is! a! formal! characteristic! of! Romanesque! architecture,!which! is!the! result! of! a! technical! solution,! the! cross"groin! vault,! to! answer! the! functional!problems!of!fireproofing,!natural!light!and!ventilation.!! !

DEFINITION*OF*TERMS**

1) WESTWORK!–!the!monumental!western!front!of!a!Romanesque!church,!treated!as!a!tower!or!towers!containing!a!low!entrance!hall!below!and!a!chapel!open!to!the! nave! above;! a! monumental,! multistoried,! gabled! entrance! structure! of!Germanic!origins,!including!the!façade,!flanked!by!two!square!stair!towers,!at!the!western!end!of!a!medieval!church!

2) CHOIR!–!the!part!of!a!church!occupied!y!the!singers!of!a!choir,!usually!part!of!a!chancel!

3) CHANCEL!–!the!space!about!the!altar!of!a!church!for!the!clergy!and!choir,!often!elevated!above!the!nave!and!separated!from!it!by!a!railing!or!screen!

4) CHAPEL!–!a!separately!dedicated!part!of!a!church!private!for!prayer,!meditation,!or!small!religious!services!

5) CRYPT! –! an! underground! chamber! or! vault! used! as! a! burial! place,! esp.! one!beneath!the!main!floor!of!a!church!

6) CLOISTER!–!a!covered!walk!having!an!arcade!or!colonnade!on!one!side!opening!into!a!courtyard!

7) TRIFORIUM! –! an! arcaded! story! in! a! church,! between! the! nave! arches! and! a!clerestory!and!corresponding!to!the!space!between!the!vaulting!and!the!roof!of!an!aisle!

8) CLERESTORY!–!a!portion!of!an!interior!rising!above!adjacent!rooftops!and!having!windows!admitting!daylight!into!the!interior!

9) BAY! –! any! number! of! principal! compartments! or! divisions! of! a! wall,! roof,! or!other!part!of!a!building!marked!off!by!vertical!or!transverse!supports!

10) TRANSEPT!–!the!major!transverse!part!of!a!cruciform!church,!crossing!the!main!axis!at!a!right!angle!between!the!nave!and!choir!

11) CROSSING!–!the!intersection!of!the!nave!and!transept!in!a!cruciform!church!12) SHAFT!–!a!thin,!vertical!member!attached!to!a!wall!or!pier,!often!supporting!an!

arch!or!vaulting"rib!13) POINTED*ARCH!–!an!arch!having!a!pointed!crown!14) TUNNEL* VAULT! –! a! semi"cylindrical! vault! that! normally! requires! continuous!

support!and!buttressing!15) CROSS"GROIN! VAULT! –! a! compound! vault! formed! by! the! perpendicular!

intersection!of!two!vaults,!forming!arched!diagonal!arrises!called!groins!16) BALDACHIN! –! an! ornamental! canopy! of! stone! or! marble! permanently! placed!

over!the!altar!in!a!church!17) DIAPHRAGM!ARCH!–!a! transverse!arch!across! the!nave!of!a!church,! carrying!a!

masonry!gable;!divides!wooden! roofs! into! sections!and!were!probably!used! to!prevent!fire!from!spreading!

18) COMPOUND!PIER! –! a! pier!with! several! shafts,! attached! or! detached,! or! semi"shafts!against!the!faces!of!it;!also!called!a!clustered!pier!

19) CAMPANILE!–!a!bell!tower,!usually!one!near!but!not!attached!to!the!body!of!a!church!

20) CUPOLA!–!a!dome,!esp.!a!small!dome!on!a!circular!or!polygonal!base!crowning!a!roof!or!turret!

21) TOWER! –! a! building! or! structure! high! in! proportion! to! its! lateral! dimensions,!either!standing!alone!or!forming!part!of!a!larger!building!

22) ONION*DOME*–!a!bulbous,!domelike!roof!terminating!in!a!sharp!point,!used!esp.!in!Russian!Orthodox!church!architecture!to!cover!a!cupola!or!tower!

23) GALLERY!–!a!roofed!promenade,!esp.!one!extending!inside!or!outside!along!the!exterior!wall!of!a!building!

24) ROSE*WINDOW!–!a!circular!window,!usually!of!stained!glass!and!decorated!with!tracery!symmetrical!about!the!center!

25) TRACERY! –! branching! ornamental! stonework,! generally! in! a!window,!where! it!supports!the!glass;!particularly!characteristic!of!Gothic!architecture!

26) WHEEL*WINDOW!–!a!rose!window!having!distinctly!radiating!mullions!or!bars!27) CATHEDRAL! "! the!principal! church!of!a!diocese,! containing! the!bishop’s! throne!

called!the!cathedra!28) AMBULATORY!–!an!aisle!encircling!the!end!of!the!choir!or!chancel!of!a!church;!a!

covered!space!for!walking,!as!around!a!cloister!29) ABBEY!–!a!monastery!under!the!supervision!of!an!abbot,!or!a!convent!under!the!

supervision!of!an!abbess,!belonging!to!the!highest!rank!of!such!institutions!30) CHEVET! –! radiating! chapel! plan;! the! rounded! east! end! of! a! Gothic! cathedral,!

including!the!apse!and!the!ambulatory!31) FLYING* BUTTRESS! –! a! half"arch! leaning! against! that! point! in! a!wall!where! the!

lateral!thrust!of!an!arch!or!fault!is!being!exerted,!and!transmitting!this!thrust!to!a!body!of!masonry!at!a!lower!level;!a!characteristic!of!the!Gothic!style;!an!incline!bar! of!masonry! carried! on! a! segmental! arch! and! transmitting! an! outward! and!downward!thrust! from!a!roof!or!vault! to!a!solid!buttress! that! through! its!mass!transforms!the!thrust!into!a!vertical!one!