robert paine 1933 – 2016 03/arip2016-ecology.pdf · •ecology – is the scientific study of...
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RobertPaine1933–2016
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An Introduction to Ecology and the
Biosphere
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• Ecology– is the scientific study of the interactions
between organisms and the environment• these interactions determine distribution and
abundance– oikos (from Gr.) meaning household, home or
place to live
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Producers
Dead organic matter
Consumers
Decomposers
Inorganic nutrient pool
LIGHT
Ecosystem boundary
Nutrient import and export
HEAT
6
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Ecology– has a long history as a descriptive science
Aristotle’s climate classification
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Ecology– today is also a rigorous experimental
science
Predator exclusion cage Sham No cage
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Ecology– is a highly quantitative science
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Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
• events that occur in ecological time– affect life on the scale of evolutionary time
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excerpted from
Begon, M., C.R. Townsend, and J.L. Harper. 2006. Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems. Blackwell Publishing, pp. 577.
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Organisms and the Environment
the environment of any organism includes– abiotic, or
nonliving components
– biotic, or living components
general zonations determined by relative
lengths of exposure to the air and to the action of
waves
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Subfields of Ecology
• organismal ecology– how do individuals interact with each
other and the physical environment?
Are Catalina bison suffering from malnutrition?
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Population ecology– how and why does population size
change over time?
What fraction of potential kelp bass parents successfully reproduce each year?
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Community ecology– how do species interact and with
what consequences?
Will hunting pigs on Santa Cruz I. save the foxes?
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Ecosystem ecology– emphasizes energy flow and chemical
cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components
Will seeding the ocean with iron increase algal growth, absorb greenhouse gases and cool the planet?
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Landscape ecology– deals with arrays of ecosystems and
how they are arranged in a geographic region
To what extent do trees lining drainage channels serve as dispersal corridors?
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Ecology ≠ Environmentalism
• Ecologists– provides the
scientific understanding underlying environmental issues
• Environmentalists– advocate for
environmental protection
Rachel Carson
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Why do species live where they do?
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Biogeography– provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic distribution of species
Species absent because
Yes
No
Dispersal limits
distribution? Behavior limits
distribution? Biotic factors (other species)
limit distribution?
Abiotic factors limit
distribution?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Area inaccessible or insufficient time
Habitat selection Predation, parasitism, competition, disease Water
Oxygen Salinity pH Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature Light Soil structure Fire Moisture, etc.
Chemical factors
Physical factors
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Dispersal may explain why pigmy mammoths lived on �N. Channel Islands but not �
S. Channel Islands
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Biogeography– provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic distribution of species
Species absent because
Yes
No
Dispersal limits
distribution? Behavior limits
distribution? Biotic factors (other species)
limit distribution?
Abiotic factors limit
distribution?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Area inaccessible or insufficient time
Habitat selection Predation, parasitism, competition, disease Water
Oxygen Salinity pH Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature Light Soil structure Fire Moisture, etc.
Chemical factors
Physical factors
Figure 50.6, 1084
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Sea otters could disperse to San Nicolas Is., but they don’t want to
stay there
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Biogeography– provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic distribution of species
Species absent because
Yes
No
Dispersal limits
distribution? Behavior limits
distribution? Biotic factors (other species)
limit distribution?
Abiotic factors limit
distribution?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Area inaccessible or insufficient time
Habitat selection Predation, parasitism, competition, disease Water
Oxygen Salinity pH Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature Light Soil structure Fire Moisture, etc.
Chemical factors
Physical factors
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Biotic Factors
• biotic factors limiting distribution include:– presence of predators, parasites,
competitor(s), disease– absence of prey, pollinators, symbionts
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A specific case of an herbivore limiting distribution of a food species
W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed. EXPERIMENT
RESULTS Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
100
80
60
40
20
0
Limpet
Sea urchin Both limpets
and urchins removed
Only urchins removed
Only limpets removed
August 1982
February 1983
August 1983
February 1984
Control (both urchins and limpets present)
Seaw
eed
cove
r (%
)
Removing both limpets and urchins or removing only urchins increased seaweed cover dramatically.
Almost no seaweed grew in areas where both urchins and limpets were present, or where only limpets were removed.
Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that both species have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting seaweed distribution.
CONCLUSION
Figure 50.8, 1086
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Biogeography– provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic distribution of species
Species absent because
Yes
No
Dispersal limits
distribution? Behavior limits
distribution? Biotic factors (other species)
limit distribution?
Abiotic factors limit
distribution?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Area inaccessible or insufficient time
Habitat selection Predation, parasitism, competition, disease Water
Oxygen Salinity pH Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature Light Soil structure Fire Moisture, etc.
Chemical factors
Physical factors
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Trophic Structure
terrestrial & marine food chains
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Food Webs
Antarctic marine food web
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Trophic structure is a key factor in community
dynamics• Detritivores derive their energy from detritus, the dead material produced at all the trophic levels.
• Decomposers– are mainly prokaryotes and fungi and– secrete enzymes that digest molecules in
organic materials and convert them into inorganic forms in the process called decomposition.
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Producers provide the chemical energy and nutrients used by all other members of the food web.
Prickly pear cactus
Saguaro cactus
Mesquite Producers (plants)
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Figure 37.9-2
Producers provide the chemical energy and nutrients used by all other members of the food web.
Prickly pear cactus
Saguaro cactus
Mesquite Producers (plants)
Desert kangaroo
rat Harvester ants
Grasshopper Primary consumer
Primary consumer
Harris’s antelope squirrel
Grasshopper mouse
Producers Primary consumers To From
Nutrient Transfer
Gila woodpecker
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Figure 37.9-3
Producers provide the chemical energy and nutrients used by all other members of the food web.
Prickly pear cactus
Saguaro cactus
Mesquite Producers (plants)
Desert kangaroo
rat Harvester ants
Grasshopper Primary consumer
Primary consumer
Harris’s antelope squirrel
Grasshopper mouse
Producers Primary consumers To From
Nutrient Transfer
Gila woodpecker
Primary consumers Secondary consumers
Collared lizard Secondary consumer
Elf owl
Praying mantis
Western diamondback
Primary and secondary consumer
Red-tailed hawk
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Figure 37.9-4
Producers provide the chemical energy and nutrients used by all other members of the food web.
Prickly pear cactus
Saguaro cactus
Mesquite Producers (plants)
Primary consumers Secondary consumers
Collared lizard Secondary consumer
Elf owl
Praying mantis
Western diamondback
Primary and secondary consumer
Red-tailed hawk
Desert kangaroo
rat Harvester ants
Grasshopper Primary consumer
Primary consumer
Harris’s antelope squirrel
Grasshopper mouse
Gila woodpecker
To From Nutrient Transfer
Producers Primary consumers
Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers
Secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumer
Secondary and tertiary consumer
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Species with large impactdominant species�
- biomass�- invasive species�
�keystone species - not necessarily abundant��foundation species - or ecosystems engineers�
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Dominant species
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Dominant species
- biomass - invasive species
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Keystone species
keystone species - not necessarily abundant
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Ecosystem engineers(foundation species)
e.g., beavers
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Abiotic Factors
• temperature• water • sunlight, UV exposure• waves• wind• rocks & soil, pH
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Light penetration affects distribution of algae with different photosynthetic
pigments
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Soil type can drive parapatric speciation in plants
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Abiotic Factors Determine Climate
• major determinants of climate– temperature– water– sunlight– wind– rocks and soil
• macroclimate: global, regional, local• microclimate: very fine scale
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Global Patterns
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Sunlight intensity– plays a major part in determining the
Earth’s climate patterns
Figure 50.10, pg. 1088
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Sunlight directly overhead
Low angle of incoming sunlight
North Pole 60°N
30°N Tropic of Cancer
0° (equator)
30°S
60°S
Atmosphere
LALITUDINAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
Tropic of Capricorn
South pole
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June solstice: Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun; summer begins in Northern Hemisphere; winter begins in Southern Hemisphere.
March equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
60°N 30°N
0° (equator)
30°S
Constant tilt of 23.5°
September equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
December solstice: Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun; winter begins in Northern Hemisphere; summer begins in Southern Hemisphere.
SEASONAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
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Descending dry air absorbs moisture
Ascending moist air releases moisture
Descending dry air absorbs moisture
30° 23.5° 0° 23.5° 30° Arid zone Tropics
Arid zone
60°N
30°N
0° (equator)
30°S
60°S
GLOBAL AIR CIRCULATION AND PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
Air circulation cells affect rainfall
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Air circulation cells drive windbelts
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Global belts of low and high atmospheric pressure
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Earth’s rotation causes Coriolis effec
• little deflection at equator
• deflected right in northern hemisphere
• deflected left in southern hemisphere
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GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS
Westerlies
Northeast trades Doldrums
Southeast trades
Westerlies
Antarctic Circle
60°S
30°S
0° (equator)
30°N
60°N
Arctic Circle
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Regional Patterns
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Oceans and large lakes moderate climate
Cooler air sinks over water.
3
Air cools at high elevation. 2 1 Warm air
over land rises.
4 Cool air over water moves inland, replacing rising warm air over land.
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Mountains produce “rain shadow”
Farther inland, precipitation increases again as the air moves up and over higher mountains. Some of the world’s deepest snow packs occur here.
3 On the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada, there is little precipitation. As a result of this rain shadow, much of central Nevada is desert.
As moist air moves in off the Pacific Ocean and encounters the westernmost mountains, it flows upward, cools at higher altitudes, and drops a large amount of water. The world’s tallest trees, the coastal redwoods, thrive here.
1 2
East Pacific Ocean
Wind direction
Coast Range
Sierra Nevada
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Long Term Climate Change
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Temperature has risen ~1 C over past century
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Can organisms adapt to changing conditions?
• coral bleaching attributed to thermal stress
• major diebacks already attributed to global warming
• must move, adapt or go extinct