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American long-grain rice plants

Rice, white, long-grain vegetable, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,527 kJ (365 kcal)

Carbohydrates 79 g

Sugars 0.12 g

Dietary fiber 1.3 g

Fat 500 mg

Protein 7 g

Water 11.62 g

Thiamine (Vit. B 1) 0.0701 mg (5%)

Riboflavin (Vit. B 2) 0.0149 mg (1%)

Niacin (Vit. B 3) 1.62 mg (11%)

Pantothenic acid (B 5) 1.014 mg (20%)

Vitamin B 6 0.164 mg (13%)

Calcium 28 mg (3%)

Iron 0.80 mg (6%)

Magnesium 25 mg (7%)

Manganese 1.088 mg (54%)

Phosphorus 115 mg (16%)

Potassium 115 mg (2%)

Zinc 1.09 mg (11%)

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient database (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp

/search/)


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Oryza sativa

Rice stem cross section magnified400 times

A: Rice with chaff B: Brown rice

C:Rice with germD: White rice with bran residue

E:Musenmai (Japanese: ),"Polished and ready to boil rice",

literally, non-wash rice(1):Chaff (2):Bran

(3):Bran residue(4):Cereal germ(5):Endosperm

Rice is the seed of the monocot plant Oryza sativa . As a cereal grain, itis the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human

population, especially in East and South Asia, the Middle East, LatinAmerica, and the West Indies. It is the grain with the second-highestworldwide production, after maize (corn). [1]

Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other thanhuman consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard tohuman nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of thecalories consumed worldwide by the human species. [2]

A traditional food plant in Africa, its cultivation declined in colonialtimes, but its production has the potential to improve nutrition, boostfood security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.It helped Africa conquer its famine of 1203. [3]

Rice is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas itcan survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30

years.[4]

The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m (3.3–5.9 ft) tall,occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. It has long,slender leaves 50–100 cm (20–39 in) long and 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in)

broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branchedarching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long. The edibleseed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm (0.20–0.47 in) long and 2–3 mm(0.079–0.12 in) thick.

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requiresample water. Rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steephill or mountain. Although its parent species are native to South Asia andcertain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made itcommonplace in many cultures worldwide.

The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound

planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling, butreduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have nosubmerged growth state, and deters vermin. While flooding is notmandatory for the cultivation of rice, all other methods of irrigationrequire higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods anda different approach for fertilizing the soil.

(The name wild rice is usually used for species of the grass genus Zizania , both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be usedfor primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza .)


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1 Preparation as food2 Cooking

2.1 Synopsis of major staple foods

3 Rice growing ecology4 History of domestication & cultivation

4.1 Asia

4.1.1 Companion plant4.2 Africa4.3 Middle East4.4 Europe4.5 Caribbean and Latin America4.6 United States4.7 Australia

5 Production and export6 Price

6.1 Worldwide consumption

7 Environmental impacts8 Pests and diseases

8.1 Parasitic weeds

9 Cultivars10 Biotechnology

10.1 High-yielding varieties10.2 Future potential10.3 Golden rice10.4 Expression of human proteins

11 Sayings12 See also13 Notes14 References15 External links


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Broker of rice in 1820s Japan. "36 Views of Mount Fuji" Hokusai

Old fashioned way of rice polishing in Japan. "36 Views of

Mount Fuji" Hokusai

Rice plantation in Java, Indonesia The planting of rice is a labour-intensive process.

The seeds of the rice plant arefirst milled using a rice huller toremove the chaff (the outer husksof the grain). At this point in the

process, the product is called brown rice. The milling may becontinued, removing the 'bran',i.e. , the rest of the husk and thegerm, thereby creating white rice.White rice, which keeps longer,lacks some important nutrients;in a limited diet which does notsupplement the rice, brown ricehelps to prevent the disease

beriberi.

White rice may also be buffedwith glucose or talc powder

(often called polished rice ,though this term may also refer towhite rice in general), parboiled,or processed into flour. Whiterice may also be enriched byadding nutrients, especially those

lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warningagainst rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water insoluble substance which is resistant to washing.

In some countries parboiled rice is popular. Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process whilestill a brown rice. This causes nutrients from the outer husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself.The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and thecolor of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has anadditional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking regular white rice.This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed to consuming

parboiled rice.

Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer), [5] talc-coated rice remains the norm insome countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some, and is no longer widelyused in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may beused to improve the appearance of the grains.

Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist,oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles andTakuan.

Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake,horchata, rice milk, and sake. Rice flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet.Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by


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raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 week to 30 days); see also Gaba rice below.

Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Cooked rice may be further fried in cooking oil or butter, or beaten in a tub to make mochi.

Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: itdoes not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combinedwith other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat. [6]

Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished

by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means that either lowering thelocal pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation,resulting in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to less than one-tenth thatwhen puffed.

There are many varieties of rice; for many purposes the main distinction is between long- and medium-grainrice. The grains of long-grain rice (high amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (highamylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy and manyarrossos — as in arròs negre, etc. — in Spain.


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Uncooked, polished, whitelong-grain rice grains

Chinese rice dish utilizing Basmatirice

Rice served along with Indiancurry. Note the yellowish tinge in

the rice. Old (stored) rice is

considered valuable in India.


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Unmilled to milled rice, from right

to left, brown rice, rice with germ,white rice

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking.It can be cooked in just as much water as it absorbs (the absorptionmethod), or in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving(the rapid-boil method). [7] Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia andLatin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice is often heatedin oil [citation needed ] before boiling, or oil is added to the water; this isthought to make the cooked rice less sticky.

In Arab cuisine rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is also used to stuff vegetables or iswrapped in grape leaves. When combined with milk, sugar and honey, itis used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamictexts spoke of medical uses for the plant. [8]

Rice may also be made into rice porridge (also called congee, fawrclaab, okayu, jook, or rice gruel) by addingmore water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water to the point that it becomes very soft,expanded, and fluffy. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is also a traditional food for thesick.

Rice may be soaked prior to cooking, which saves fuel, decreases cooking time, minimizes exposure to hightemperature and thus decreases the stickiness of the rice. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of thecooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains.

Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is milled, fully cooked and then dried. There is also a significantdegradation in taste and texture.

A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known as GABA Rice or GBR (Germinated BrownRice) [9] may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 20 h in warm water (38°C or 100°F) prior tocooking it. This process stimulates germination, which activates various enzymes in the rice. By this method, a

result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a morecomplete amino acid profile, including GABA.

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C(39–140 °F) [6] (http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/food-safety-topics/foodborne-illnesses/safe-cooling-of-cooked-rice/index.htm) . When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reducethe risk of toxin production.

Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

Synopsis of major staple foods

Synopsis [10] of Staple food~composition: Amaranth [11] Wheat [12] White

rice [13] Sweetcorn [14] Potato [15]

Component (per 100g portion) Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount

water (g) 11 11 12 76 82

energy (kJ) 1554 1506 1527 360 288


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protein (g) 14 23 7 3 1.7

fat (g) 7 10 1 1 0.1

carbohydrates (g) 65 52 79 19 16

fiber (g) 7 13 1 3 2.4

sugars (g) 1.7 0.1 >0.1 3 1.2

iron (mg) 7.6 6.3 0.8 0.5 0.5manganese (mg) 3.4 13.3 1.1 0.2 0.1

calcium (mg) 159 39 28 2 9

magnesium (mg) 248 239 25 37 21

phosphorus (mg) 557 842 115 89 62

potassium (mg) 508 892 115 270 407

zinc (mg) 2.9 12.3 1.1 0.5 0.3

panthothenic acid (mg) 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.7 0.3

vitB6 (mg) 0.6 1.3 0.2 0.1 0.2

folate (µg) 82 281 8 42 18

thiamin (mg) 0.1 1.9 0.1 0.2 0.1

riboflavin (mg) 0.2 0.5 >0.1 0.1 >0.1

niacin (mg) 0.9 6.8 1.6 1.8 1.1

Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. [16]

Lowland, rainfed , which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone

1.

Lowland, irrigated , grown in both the wet season and the dry season2.Deep water or floating rice3.Coastal Wetland4.Upland rice , Upland rice is also known as ' Ghaiya rice' , well known for its drought tolerance [17]5.

See also: Oryza sativa#History of domestication and cultivation

Asia


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Terraced rice paddy on a hill slopein Indonesia.

The average Asian rice farmer owns a few hectares : Banaue Rice

Terraces, N. Luzon, Philippines

Rice field under monsoon clouds inPegu Division, Burma

Rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley.[18][19] Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuanarchaeological site clearly show the transition from the collection of wildrice to the cultivation of domesticated rice. The large number of wild rice

phytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,000-11,000 BPindicates that wild rice collection was part of the local means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytolithsdating from 10,000-8,000 BP show that rice had by this time beendomesticated. [20] Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica and

Japonica rice were being grown in Central China. [19] In the late 3rdmillennium bc there was a rapid expansion of rice cultivation intomainland Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Pakistan. [19]

The earliest remains of cultivated rice in India have been found in thenorth and west and date from around 2000 BC. Perennial wild rices stillgrow in Assam and Nepal. It seems to have appeared around 1400 BC insouthern India after its domestication in the northern plains.[citation needed ] It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered byrivers. Cultivation and cooking methods are thought to have spread tothe west rapidly and by medieval times, southern Europe saw theintroduction of rice as a hearty grain.

Rice is first mentioned in the Yajur Veda (c. 1500-800 BC) and then isfrequently referred to in Sanskrit texts. [citation needed ] In India, there is asaying that grains of rice should be like two brothers, close but not stuck together. [citation needed ] Rice is often directly associated with prosperityand fertility, therfore there is the custom of throwing rice atweddings. [21]

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes from China, India,Pakistan, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar,Philippines, and Japan. Asian farmers still account for 92% of the world'stotal rice production. Rice is grown in all parts of India, Northern andCentral Pakistan. Basmati rice cultivated in the northern plains of thePunjab region is famous all over the world for its aroma and quality.

Companion plant

One of the earliest known examples of companion planting is the growing of rice with Azolla, aka mosquito fern,which covers the top of a fresh rice paddy's water, blocking out any competing plants, as well as fixing nitrogenfrom the atmosphere for the rice to use. The rice is planted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla.This method has been used for at least a thousand years.

Africa

Main article: Oryza glaberrima

African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated fromits original centre, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its


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Rice crop in Madagascar

Latin American producers oftenfarm several hundred hectares :

Rice paddy in Paraguay.

original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, possibly brought to the Africancontinent by Arabs coming from the east coast between the 6th and 11th centuries CE.

Middle East

According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was introduced tothe Middle East in Hellenistic and Parthian times, and was familiar to

both Greek and Roman writers. They report that a large sample of ricegrains was recovered from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1stcentury AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time ricewas grown in the Po valley in Italy.

In Iraq rice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq. With the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the southern shores of the Caspian Seaand then beyond the Muslim world into the valley of Volga. In Israel,rice came to be grown in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown in Yemen. [22]

Europe

The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century. Records indicate it was grown inValencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, althoughhistorians are not certain. [22]

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop [22] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa(1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan,and demonstrated in his model farms. [23]

After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continentsduring the age of European exploration.

Caribbean and Latin America

Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced to the Caribbeanand South America by European colonizers at an early date with Spanishcolonizers introducing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz andthe Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it at about the sametime to Colonial Brazil. [24] Recent scholarship suggests that Africanslaves played an active role in the establishment of rice in the NewWorld and that African rice was an important crop from an early

period. [25] Varieties of rice and bean dishes that were a staple dish alongthe peoples of West Africa remained a staple among their descendantssubjected to slavery in the Spanish New World colonies Brazil andelsewhere in the Americas. [3]

United States


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South Carolina rice plantation(Mansfield Plantation,

Georgetown.)

In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating fromMadagascar. [24]

In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew andamassed great wealth from the slave labor obtained from the Senegambiaarea of West Africa and from coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed,slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest prices, inrecognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to useon the many rice plantations around Georgetown, Charleston, andSavannah. From the enslaved Africans, plantation owners learned how todyke the marshes and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice wasmilled by hand with wooden paddles, then winnowed in sweetgrass

baskets (the making of which was another skill brought by slaves from Africa). The invention of the rice millincreased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright JonathanLucas was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profitable with the loss of slave labor after the American Civil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century. Today,

people can visit the only remaining rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original winnowing barn

and rice mill from the mid-19th century at the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown, South Carolina. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The cultivar has been preserved and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop. [26]

In the southern United States, rice has been grown in southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since themid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wet marshes and low lying prairies where they could alsofarm crayfish when the fields were flooded. [27] In recent years rice production has risen in North America,especially in the Mississippi River Delta areas in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi.

Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chineselaborers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their own consumption. However,commercial production began only in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County. [28] By 2006, California

produced the second largest rice crop in the United States, [29] after Arkansas, with production concentrated insix counties north of Sacramento. [30] Unlike the Mississippi Delta region, California's production is dominated

by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such asCalrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the state's crop. [31]

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated Zizania palustris

More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana,Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S. [32] According to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice

production in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately half of which is expected to be exported. TheU.S. provides about 12% of world rice trade. [32] The majority of domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct fooduse (58%), while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer. The remaining 10% is found in pet food. [32]

Australia

Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years, theyhave consistently failed because of inherent iron and manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.

In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on soils within the Murray-Darling Basin that were too


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Worldwide rice production

Paddy rice output in 2005.

Production of rice by country — 2007(million metric ton) [35]

China 187

India 144

Indonesia 57

Bangladesh 43

Vietnam 35

Thailand 32

Myanmar 31

Philippines 16

Brazil 11

Japan 10

Source:Food and Agriculture Organization (http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx)

heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat. [33]

Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia, was (and remains) verycheap, the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varietiesof rice were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina, and the first mill opened at Leeton in 1951.

Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs, [33] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s [34]

encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigious water use in a practically waterlessregion began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned withdeclining flow in the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.

Although rice growing in Australia is highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquaticecosystems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opportunistic, with the area planted varying significantlyfrom season to season depending on water allocations in the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.

World production of rice [36] hasrisen steadily from about 200million tonnes of paddy rice in1960 to over 607.9 million tonnesin 2004, 634.5 million tonnes in2005, and 685 million tonnes in2008. Milled rice should be about68% of paddy by weight,

although use of antiquated milling equipment in many countries means

this conversion factor cansometimes be much lower.In 2004, the top four

producers were China(26% of world

production), India (20%),Indonesia (9%) andBangladesh (5%).

World trade figures are

very different, as onlyabout 5–6% of rice produced is tradedinternationally. The largestthree exporting countriesare Thailand, Vietnam,and the United States.Major importers usuallyinclude Bangladesh, thePhilippines, Brazil and


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Consumption of rice by country—2003/2004(million metric ton) [40]

China 135

India 85.25

Indonesia 36.95

Bangladesh 26.4

Brazil 24

Vietnam 18

Thailand 10

Myanmar 10

Philippines 9.7

Japan 8.7

Mexico 7.3

Pakistan 6.0

South Korea 5.0Egypt 3.9

United States 3.9

Source:United States Department of Agriculture (http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/homepage.do)

some African and Persian Gulf countries. Although China and India are the two largest producers of rice in theworld, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically, leaving little to be tradedinternationally.

In March to May 2008, the price of rice rose greatly due to a general upward trend in grain prices caused by

droughts in major producing countries (particularly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed and USsubsidies for bio-fuel production. Although there was no shortage of rice on world markets the general upwardtrend in grain prices led to panic buying and government rice export bans. This caused significant rises in rice

prices. In late April 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice the price that it had been seven monthsearlier. [37]

On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced the project of the creation of the Organisation of Rice ExportingCountries (OREC) with the potential to develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice. [38][39]

Worldwide consumption

Between 1961 and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%.

Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for


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rice production. [41]

U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years, fueled in part by commercial applications such as beer production. [42] Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at least half a serving of white or brown rice per day. [43]

In many countries where rice is the main cereal crop, rice cultivation is responsible for most of the methaneemissions. [44] Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains. [45]

As sea levels rise, rice will become more inclined to remain flooded for longer periods of time. The longer itstays in water, it cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes fermentation of organic matter in the soil.During the wet season, rice cannot hold the carbon in anaerobic conditions. The microbes in the soil convert thecarbon into methane which is then released through the respiration of the rice plant or through diffusion of water. Current contributions of methane from agriculture is ~15% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, asestimated by the IPCC. A further rise in sea level of 10-85 centimeters would then stimulate the release of more

methane into the air by rice plants. Methane is twenty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbondioxide. [46]

A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later yearsof the 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreased in many parts of Asia, compared to what wouldhave been observed had the temperature and solar radiation trends not occurred. [47][48] The yield growth ratehad fallen 10-20% at some locations. The study was based on records from 227 farms in six importantrice-producing countries like Thailand, Vietnam, India and China. The mechanism of this falling yield was notclear but might involve increased respiration during warm nights, so expending energy without being able to

photosynthesise.

Main article: List of rice diseases

Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds). [49] (Jahn et al. 2007) Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including the overuse of pesticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application. [50] Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and armyworm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks areassociated with drought. [51]

Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened. [52] At present, rice

pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which includeinsecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and evenfacilitate pest outbreaks. [53][54][55][56][57][58] By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests, [59]

misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks (Cohen et al. 1994). Botanicals, so-called "natural pesticides", are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botanicals include extracts of leaves,or a mulch of the leaves themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter


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bush ( Chromolaena odorata ) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably helps the soilretain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer andhelps suppress weed and insect infestations. [60]

Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage. [61] Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of arice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance. [62] Three main types of plant resistance to pests are

recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance.[63]

Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plantswhich insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; andtolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation. [64]

Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have brokendown. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests, and retain their ability towithstand the pests are said to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened

by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance. [65]

Major rice pests include the brown planthopper, [66] the rice gall midge, [67] the rice bug, [68] the rice

leafroller,[69]

rice weevils,[70]

stemborer,[71]

panicle rice mite, rats,[72]

and the weed Echinochloa crusgali .[73]

Major rice diseases include Rice ragged stunt, Sheath Blight and tungro. [74] Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation. There is also an ascomycetefungus, Cochliobolus miyabeanus , that causes brown spot disease in rice. [75][76]

Parasitic weeds

Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica .[77] This parasitic weed is a devastating pest on thecrop.

Main article: List of rice varieties


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Rice seed collection from IRRI

While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivity, there arevarieties selected for characteristics such as texture, smell, and firmness.Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generallycalled "floating rice". [78]

There are four major categories of rice worldwide: Indica, japonica,aromatic and glutinous. The different varieties of rice are not consideredinterchangeable, either in food preparation or agriculture, so as a result,each major variety is a completely separate market from other varieties.It is common for one variety of rice to rise in price while another onedrops in price. [79]

The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International RiceResearch Institute (IRRI (http://www.irri.org/) ) in the Philippines, withover 100,000 rice accessions [80] held in the International RiceGenebank. [81] Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapesand texture. For example, Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relativelyless sticky, as long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-graincultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve long-grain as plainunseasoned steamed rice. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky riceare short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make zongzi. The Japanese table rice is asticky, short-grain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well.

Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati ( ) (grown in the North), long andmedium-grained Patna rice and short-grained Sona Masoori (also spelled Sona Masuri). In the state of Tamil

Nadu, the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown in the delta regions of Kaveri River. Kaveri isalso referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. In theWestern Indian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety called Ambemohar is very popular. This rice has acharacteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.


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Unpolished long-grain rice grainswith bran

Polished Indian sona masuri ricegrains

Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most notedcultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna rice, Vietnamese fragrantrice, and a hybrid cultivar from America sold under the trade name,Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma andflavour. In Indonesia there are also red and black cultivars.

High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems called the new rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivars have

been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve foodsecurity in West Africa.

Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars, indica andaponica , were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a model

organism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively smallgenome (~430 megabase pairs). Rice was the first crop with a completegenome sequence. [82]

On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored bymore than 40 countries.

High-yielding varieties

Main article: High-yielding variety

The High Yielding Varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increaseglobal food production. Rice, like corn and wheat, was genetically manipulated to increase its yield. This projectenabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The first "Rice Car",IR8 was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which is based in the Philippines at theUniversity of the Philippines' Los Baños site. IR8 was created through a cross between an Indonesian varietynamed "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen." [83]

Scientists have identified and cloned many genes involved in the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1(Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice). [84] Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead tosignificantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem isreduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates becomeredirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. In

the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two tothree times.

Future potential

As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the "GreenRevolution" is cited as the model for economic development. With the intent of replicating the successful Asian

boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African agriculturalsystems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way this can happen is the production of "New Rices for Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African


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agriculture are produced by the African Rice Center, and billed as technology "from Africa, for Africa". The NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (October9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economicresurgence. Ongoing research in China to develop perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and foodsecurity.

Golden rice

Main article: Golden rice

Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who obtain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitamin A deficiency. German and Swiss researchers have genetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene,the precursor to vitamin A, in the rice kernel. The beta-carotene turns the processed (white) rice a "gold" color,hence the name "golden rice". The beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice. [85]

Although some rice strains produce beta-carotene in the hull, no non-genetically engineered strains have beenfound that produce beta-carotene in the kernel, despite the testing of thousands of strains. Additional efforts are

being made to improve the quantity and quality of other nutrients in golden rice. [86]

Expression of human proteins

Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin, lysozyme, and human serum albuminwhich are proteins usually found in breast milk. These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungaleffects. [87]

Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions which are used totreat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may alsohelp reverse anemia. [88]

The expression for eating a meal in Burmese, "Htamin Sar" means to eat rice. It is similar in the Thai "ginkow". Vietnamese use the phrase " ă n cơ m" in the same way, as do Bengali people use the phrase "bhatkhaowa".Bengali people identify themselves as 'Bengali by rice and fish', alluding to their collective food habit.A proverbial saying in Japan states: "The farmer spends eighty-eight efforts on rice from planting to crop."This teaches the sense of mottainai and gratitude for the farmer and for rice itself. [89]

There is a Sri Lankan saying, 'deyyange haal kawila', meaning 'having eaten God's rice'. This is used toexplain a crazy person or his actions in general with humour. The reasoning behind this is that when the

rice harvest is collected, a small fraction of the best part is dedicated to the gods and that is sacred - if a person eats that, they will be afflicted with curses and lose mental stability/act crazy.The Korean term for meals is "bap " which means rice. It is equivalent to the Japanese word "meshi

" which also means rice. Both of which are also equivalent to the Chinese word "fan " which alsomeans rice.Hmong culture has a saying, "annokao bin biao", literally "grains of rice", which is a metaphor for greateffort or exertion.In the Philippines there is an expression "One grain of rice equals one bead of sweat". This expression ismeant to encourage appreciation of the high level of labour involved in the production of the rice and of food in general and to discourage wasting it.In Costa Rica there is a popular expression "arroz con mango", which literally means, "rice with mango",


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that it's used to denote an absurd or nonsensical situation. This, because in Costa Rican cuisine rice is amain dish and mango, being a sweet fruit (and often used as a dessert) are never supposed to mix or evenmingle in any kind of dish.

Category:Rice production

Ambemohar Basmati riceBeaten riceBhutanese red riceBlack riceBrown rice syrupForbidden riceInariIndonesian rice tableJasmine rice

List of rice dishes

List of rice varieties Navara rice New Rice for Africa Nutritious Rice for the WorldPost-harvest losses (Grains)Protein per unit areaPuffed riceRed riceRice BeltRice bran oil

Rice ethanol

Rice shortageRice wineRisottoRosematta riceStrawSystem of RiceIntensificationWeedy riceWhite riceWild rice

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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice"Categories: Model organisms | Rice | Tropical agriculture

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