RHETORICAL TECHNIQUES (FALLACIES)

What about fallacies?

A fallacy is traditionally defined as a logical failure or mistake in an argument. You might encounter a definition similar to this if you take a logic class in college.

Fallacies are sometimes called “specific rhetorical techniques.”

A fallacy is a reason or support that is generally incomplete, misleading, manipulative or erroneous.

Rhetorical Techniques

Writers, speakers, and advertising executives (even you-you probably just don’t know the name for them!) use these techniques because they believe they can successfully appeal to pathos or ethos or logos that way. 

The problem is that they can also be used in a manipulative way to sway the audience.

There are many rhetorical techniques (fallacies). We will study the following:

Questionable Cause (Post Hoc; Ergo Propter Hoc)-Logos Hasty Generalization-Logos Appeal to (False) Authority (Ad Vericundium)-Ethos Ad Hominem (“to the man”)-Ethos and Pathos Ad Populum-(“to the people”)-Pathos Appeal to Pity   (Ad Misericordium) -Pathos Bandwagon -Pathos Plain Folks-Pathos Snob Appeal-Pathos Either/Or (False Dilemma)-Pathos Transfer of Emotions

1. Questionable Cause-- Logos(Post Hoc; Ergo Propter Hoc = if this; therefore because of this)

Definition: Questionable Cause happens when one assumes or mistakenly believes that one event caused another event (they occurred together), when there could reasonably have been some other cause or causes for both events. (Is it reasonable to conclude A caused B?)

When people put up umbrellas cars generally become wet, but putting up umbrellas does not cause cars to become wet, the rain causes both.

Why use it? One might intentionally use this technique because it will

lead to the conclusion he/she wants. One might be guilty of it accidentally just because of

sloppy thinking.

1. Questionable Cause --Example

Ask yourself-is it reasonable to assume that one thing caused the other thing? What evidence do I have to support that A caused B?

“I studied for my test for only 5 minutes before class; that is probably why I only got 50% on it.”

“Ugh! I knew it was bad luck when I broke the mirror this morning! No wonder I only got 50% on my test!”

“My kid got vaccinated and then started showing signs of autism. The vaccination must have caused it.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uuqfZB1WlWI

2. Hasty Generalization--Logos Drawing a conclusion without enough

evidence. This often happens when we take one

situation and apply it to all situations. It is generalizing and stereotyping.

My friend’s Honda broke down-they must be junk so I won’t buy one. (Hondas are consistently rated very highly for reliability.)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pem_FwggPsM

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5dGNPMyJfos

2. Hasty Generalization Example Letter to the editor-from student project “Instead of lowering the voting age, we

should lift it. People shouldn’t be able to vote until they at least hold a full-time job. That way, they can be more attuned to where their hard-earned dollars are going for taxes. And how elected officials are spending them.”

Really? People who get laid-off, stay-at-home parents, and part-time employees are not qualified to vote?

3. Appeal to False Authority-Ethos Appeal to False Authority (Ad Vericundium) Someone who is not an expert in a topic makes

claims they are not likely to be knowledgeable about.

It should be somewhat specialized or technical. Happens when someone does not offer support

for claims, especially if he or she is not an expert.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSJVQu3EogU

3. Appeal to False Authority

Dr. Richard Jarvik, inventor of the artificial heart, promotes Lipitor, a cholesterol drug.

“The campaign had come under scrutiny from a Congressional committee that is examining consumer drug advertising and has asked whether the ads misrepresented Dr. Jarvik and his credentials. Although he has a medical degree, Dr. Jarvik is not a cardiologist and is not licensed to practice medicine.”

NY Times-2/26/2008

4. Ad Hominem-Ethos & Pathos Attacking or name calling a person or

their ideas rather than rationally addressing the issue.

This is intended to damage the credibility of the opponent by stirring up a negative emotional reaction to them.

It can also distract from the issue. If you have siblings within a few years of

your age, you are guilty of ad hominem attacks!

4. Ad Hominem Example

The Gestapo (Rochester City Council) has decided that it would be great to turn all the city employees into vigilantes to collect extra money for the city coffers by using them to write tickets on ordinance violations. (Letter to the editor-Post-Bulletin)

“George Steinbrenner, that heartless capitalist and owner of the New York Yankees…”

“Only the nutcases from the NRA would argue that people should be allowed to carry guns in banks, hospitals….”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=koKN5i4bbBM http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebT1Oo6yDMI

4. Ad Hominem Example

5. Plain Folks—Pathos/Ethos

Claiming to be ordinary and similar to the audience to gain its trust.

Often used by someone who is powerful or wealthy-such as politicians and celebrities, but can be used by almost anyone.

“I learned the value of hard work as a boy working on my grandparents’ farm in the summers-I know what life is like for the average American…” (John Q. Politician- Wealthy Ivy League Grad)

There’s no such thing as being too safe. Baby gates are just the beginning. They never truly know what it means to keep them safe. But we do. We’re parents just like you. We’re also the company with more Five-Star crash test ratings than anybody in the country. According to the NHTSA crash tests and IIHS testing, the all new 2008 Ford Taurus X is rated the safest seven-passenger crossover in America. The Taurus X earned perfect Five-Star safety rating in all four impact categories, and IIHS names the Taurus X a Top Safety Pick. The all new Ford Taurus X. check it out at your Ford Dealer .

5. Plain Folks

Does this ad use plain folks as part of its appeal? How does it incorporate pathos into the ad?

Dove Campaign for Real Beauty http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2006

/dove-little-girls-in-true-colors/ http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=TaU3fjVAFbE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hibyAJOSW8U

6. Snob Appeal—Pathos/Ethos Appealing to a person’s desire to be part

of an “exclusive club” of people who are smart, beautiful, powerful, wealthy, cool, etc.

Must believe or do what the writer or speaker believes to be part of this “club”.

Key Club-The club the cool, smart kids join! Katy Perry uses ProActive for clear, good

looking skin!

6. Snob Appeal--Pathos

6. Snob Appeal

Jif ad http://www.google.com/#q=choosy+mot

hers+choose+jif+commercial&hl=en&tbo=u&source=univ&tbm=vid&sa=X&ei=amfLULPgO7OHyQHf24CQAw&ved=0CDkQqwQ&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&fp=134247c803552a88&bpcl=39967673&biw=1280&bih=856

Can smart be tasty?You wouldn’t think so. But consider new Smart Start Cinnamon Raisin. When it comes to the heart, it’s quite ingenious. How? It’s designed to help lower cholesterol. And its combination of potassium and low sodium helps lower blood pressure, too. Brilliant, right? But throw in a little cinnamon and some plump, sweet raisins, and “brilliant’ suddenly rises to the level of “extremely delectable.” Which is just a smarter way of saying it’s super duper yummy.”

7. Ad Populum- “to the people” An ad poplum appeal happens when a

speaker or writer appeals to common values that are shared by “the people”. Examples include patriotism, family values, protecting the innocent-children, elderly, even pets. Words or images are common tools for ad populum.

How could this technique be used fairly? In a manipulative way?

7. Ad Populum- “to the people” “With manufacturing plants in the United States

producing thousands of cars each year, made by thousands of American workers, you can feel good buying a Toyota. “Toyota-Built by Americans(Toyota is a Japanese company. Some do not want to buy a foreign car because they want to support American jobs.)

Reagan Ad 1984-Prouder, Stronger, Better http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1984 What popular values does this ad use to persuade the

audience to believe that the country to re-elect Ronald Reagan?

8. Appeal to Pity—Pathos

Using emotions of pity, grief, or sorrow to persuade an audience.

Sad images/music and sad personal stories are common tools to appeal to a person’s sense of pity.

Common in appeals for donations to charity. Have you ever tried to lay a guilt trip on your

parents to get what you want? That is appeal to pity!

How could this technique be used in a manipulative way?

8. Appeal to Pity-Pathos

“If I don’t get an A in this class, I’ll never into Harvard, and my chances for a good job and a happy life will be ruined!!”

“You can feed, clothe, and educate a poor child for just 58 cents a day, please call now.”In an ad accompanied by images of a sad, hungry girl in a far-off land.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7MiZ8i_Ra4M

9. Bandwagon--Pathos

Because many people believe or do something, you should too.

People have a tendency to trust “the group”.

“But Mom, everyone gets a car when they turn 16!”

“Over 27 million people have turned to Celebrex to ease their pain!”

Crest is the #1 selling toothpaste in America.

9. Bandwagon--Examples

“187 million MSN Hotmail accounts are better protected by Trend Micro PC-Cillin technology. Shouldn’t you be too?”Consider this one. Do MSN users all choose their virus/spyware protection? No-a few tech experts at MSN do. But the headline implies that millions of individuals choose it.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPBs5_ZYTrg

10. Either/Or--Pathos

Reducing a complex issue to two positions. Sometimes one position is clearly correct and the other is clearly wrong. Sometimes neither position is desirable. This forces the reader/listener into a corner where the only solution is the one proposed by the writer/speaker.

Either/Or reduces the discussion to two positions. Often there are many sides to the issue, many perspectives. Either/Or reduces the argument to only 2 sides.

10. Either/Or--Examples

“After all, every American who has a relative with one of these diseases—which means nearly every American—is beginning to understand the issue in a new way: it’s “pro-cure” versus “anti-cure,” with the anti-stem-cell folks in danger of being swept into the medical waste bin of history.”

“Why don’t homeless people just get a job and get off the streets!” (Just maybe it is not so simple as that…)

“Dropouts don’t care about their education.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-23kmhc3P8U https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EMo6o0BtFG8

NOT Either/Or examples: Should I buy the blue shirt or the red shirt?  Should I buy Tide or Era? Should I recycle this pop can or should I throw it in the trash? This IS an Either/Or example: Either we can recycle and have a clean, pure environment for our

future children or we can fill the landfills and create a cesspool of pollution in our rivers.

“Either you allow the federal government to tap into your phones and email or the government will not be able to keep you safe.”

“Either we stop the government from tapping into our phones and emails or we will wind up having a Big Brother style society and our treasured Freedom of Speech will be forever lost.”

11. Transfer of Emotions--Pathos This occurs when a person is trying to get you to

feel positive or negative emotions that are not directly connected to their persuasive goal in hopes that you will then transfer those feelings to their product, argument, message, etc.

Ex: Humorous ads often times have nothing to do with the product in question. (Ex. Pepsi straw ad or Geico gecko). The goal is to make you laugh and feel happy…and then transfer those positive feelings to the product.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-1NX8KYzf4

Quote out of context

Definition: Misinterpreting a portion of text or speech to serve one’s own agenda

When a passage of the original material has been taken out of context and thereby given a meaning that is exactly the opposite of what was intended.

Quote out of context

A statement meant ironically can be taken wrong when in written form because much irony is communicated through the emphasis when spoken. Sometimes, however, that irony is communicated more clearly through the addition of more material. For example:

1. This has been the best play I've seen all year! Of course, it is the only play I've seen all year.

2. This was a fantastic movie, as long as you aren’t looking for plot or character development.

Quote out of context

In both of these reviews, you start out with an ironic observation which is followed by an explanation which communicates that the foregoing was meant to be taken ironically rather than literally. This can a dangerous tactic for reviewers to employ because unscrupulous promoters can do this:

3. John Smith calls this "the best play I've seen all year!"

4. "...a fantastic movie..." - Sandy Jones, Daily Herald.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efTM4DPG7cE

12. Appeal to Tradition

Definition: People have always done/believed this way.

Are the reasons to change legitimate? Why it works: People tend to cling to traditions

and may be loathe to change them.

What it might sound like: “This is the way that we’ve always done it.” “Last year, we…” “History has proven that…” American Eagle: Est. 1977

Appeal to Tradition

When could this technique be used fairly? Ex. “The cousins loved the family picnic

that we had last July. Let’s do it again! Call ahead and reserve the same picnic shelter!”

Ex. “Your family has the most lovely birthday traditions!”

When could it be used in a manipulative way? Ex. If someone offers up a new way of

doing something and you shut them down by telling them that the group already has a plan and doesn’t need their input.