Reviews

Lumsdaine, A.A. and Glaser, R. (eds) (I960;,Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning,Washington DC, N.E.A.

Pressey S.L. (1926), 'A simple apparatus which givestests and scores - and teaches', School & Society, 23,373-6.

Unwin, D. (1969), Media and Methods: InstructionalTechnology in Higher Education, London, McGrawHill.

Wilson, B. G. (1996), Constructivist Learning Environ-ments: Case Studies in Instructional Design,Englewood Cliffs NJ, Educational TechnologyPublications.

Judith Jeffcoate, Multimedia in Practice -Technology and Applications, BCS PractitionerSeries, Prentice-Hall International, 1995. ISBN:0-13-123324-6. £24.95.

Ray Welland concludes his editorial preface tothis book with the sentence: 'If you want to findout what multimedia is and what it has to offerthis is an excellent place to start'. The commentreflects the major strength of this book, whichdoes provide an excellent starting place foranyone wanting to learn more aboutmultimedia. The author explains what multi-media' is today and the technology involved,gives example applications, and projects currenttrends forward to explore the use of multimediain the future. She clearly states the perceivedaudience for the text as 'business managers andproject leaders who need to introducemultimedia technology into their applications'.A guide to using the text is provided: Parts Iand III are suitable for readers with no technicalknowledge; Part II requires familiarity withcomputer architecture, and Part IV is mostsuitable for managers planning a multimediaproject. These guidelines are useful, but the textas a whole will appeal to anyone who has aninterest in learning about multimedia. Technicalknowledge is advantageous in some sections,but the author takes time to explain clearly, anduses examples to illustrate points.

The book is very well structured. The authorprovides an excellent summary of the content inthe preface. This clarity of structure continuesthroughout the text; for example, each chapterbegins with a brief outline of its contents andconcludes with a summary and references.

Multimedia is a subject engulfed by acronymsand, to prevent confusion, the author provides adetailed glossary which at times proves to bevery useful. A bibliography and a full index arefurther resources which the reader can drawupon.

Part I, 'Multimedia Today', begins by paintinga scenario of a modern family using newtechnology in their everyday lives, then projectsthe same family into the year 2001, highlightingthe role technology may play in their lives in thefuture.

Part II, 'Technology', deals with the complexareas that make up multimedia, and is the mosttechnical section of the book, dealing withdifferent platforms, development tools, storagemethods and the components that make up atruly multimedia application such as images,audio and video. The chapters focusing on thedifferent media are divided into sectionsdescribing applications, capture, compressionand standards, as well as detailing informationspecific to each medium. A history of the mediais provided, enabling the reader to see, forexample, .how standards have evolved. Thistechnique of placing information within itshistorical context is used throughout the book,and is vital for a reader who may be coming tothe topic for the first time.

Part III returns to the theme with which thebook began: 'Applications'. It focuses onpresent use and future trends. Again the authorplaces the use of multimedia in its historicalcontext: the early use of multimedia was largelyfor off-line training and education usinginteractive videodisk and standalone players.

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Chapters in this section detail multimedia usesin training and education, kiosks, imageprocessing, the office and the home. The authordraws on real world examples.

Part IV, "The Impact of Multimedia', highlightsother issues that are important in thedevelopment of applications, discusses thehuman-computer interface, tackles legal issues,and identifies steps forward in computing thatwill influence the development process such ascollaborative computing and object-orienteddesign.

The author says in the preface that she faced acomplex task in writing the book 'becausemultimedia is not a single technology'. Thetechnology and applications are explained well,and recent research is used effectively tohighlight present and future trends. However, areader looking for greater detail on a topic willhave to explore other texts. I would neverthelessrecommend this book to anyone interested in,or already involved in, multimedia. It is such adiverse area that we can all benefit from whatthis book provides: an insight into the parts thatmake up the whole.

Julia Little, University of Wales, Aberystwyth

David Boud, Enhancing Learning Through Self-Assessment, London, Kogan Page, 1995. ISBN:0-7494-1368-9.247 pages, paperback, £19.95.

At the heart of learning technology is a complexweb of ideas on learning; how teachers assess itand how learners can influence it. David Boud'sbook provides us with a rich source ofinspiration that should influence any learningtechnologist.

Central to education and training is a need toensure that students benefit from their timeengaged in education and what we think of aslearning. After an effective class, learners can doand say things they could not have done before.They feel they know something - and they areaware of their learning. We have only a Slenderconception of the mysteries of consciousness ofperformance at present. How is it that we areconscious of what we know, and how is itpossible to influence our knowing or notknowing? Often when, learners or trainees areasked 'What did you learn from such and suchan intervention?', they can only answer'Nothing!'. To the courseware designer this is acruel attack. The careful design of screens, theconsultation with experts and the attention to

the latest multimedia techniques will lead toknowing and an awareness of knowing. Notonly will the learner know, but others will,through assessment, be able -to judge theintervention as effective. Sadly, this does notalways occur. Although we have a very effectiveexamination and assessment system in educationand training, designers often feel that assessmentis not for them. Assessment is external to theprocess of design. Assessment smacks of formaleducation - schools, Key Stages, Highers and ALevels: the external artefacts of a quality controlsystem that we all have to suffer.

Boud's book addresses issues of assessment andexamination, not from the outside - theobserver's view - but from the learner's point ofview. Learning is a self-regulating process.Admittedly, learners do not always see it in thisway. Often they feel the only function ofeducation is to get them to the examinationroom so that they can display their ignorance.Learning technology must address this problem,and this book is an essential guide to the way wecan produce more effective and efficientlearning experiences.

At the heart of Boud's excellent survey of ideason self-assessment is reflection or auto-monitoring. Good learners are aware of whatthey know and how they come to know.Learners who fail not only seem unaware ofwhat it is they should know, but what they cando about it. Boud has provided evidence andstories to give designers plenty of thought. Thebook is not a single narrative but a number ofmultiple perspectives on self-assessment.

Boud can speak with authority: he has beenwriting about reflection on learning for manyyears. Currently he holds the position of Headof the School of Adult and Language Educationin the University of Technology in Sydney. Heworked in the UK in the 1970s, and after asojourn in Perth, moved to the University ofNew South Wales where he developed ideas instaff development. He is a Fellow of the Societyfor Research into Higher Education and 'weelkent' across higher education.

The book consists of 17 chapters. In seven ofthese, Boud is ably assisted by otherpractitioners and experts in higher education.The book not only provides the theory andresearch - with an extensive bibliography - butalso good examples of how the ideas are putinto practice. Boud has divided the book intofour parts. After "Theory and Examples', Part

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III makes compelling reading as it deals withissues relating to the effect of self-assessment onformal examination processes. The final sectionconsiders, in a down-to-earth way, the practicalimplications for self-assessment. Here, I wouldlike to have seen more attention to the waycourseware designers - learning technologists -can make a positive impact on learning. Toooften I feel that designers are over-concernedwith presentation. They know about network-ing and multimedia, but there is a 'correctness'about shying away from assessment. Orthodoxdesign seems to avoid assessment as it is 'other-centred': something that the system will do tothe learner. If only we could build intocourseware, and other instruction, opportunitiesfor learners to reflect on their competencies, wewould be making a significant contribution tosuccess in life-long learning. One simpleexample should suffice. Feedback on perform-ance is essential for reflection to occur.Feedback has been shown to have a significantinfluence on the attitudes of learners to instruc-tion. Boud provides an excellent checklist onoffering feedback, and although the advice isgeneral and global, if designers were to read thisand to do something about it, learners would bebetter able to reflect on and influence their ownlearning. Boud says: 'Be timely; be realistic; bespecific; be descriptive; be non-judgmental; bediligent' - all things that good designers shouldbe.

Often the best advice we can get comes from anunexpected quarter. If we feel that assessment isonly to do with authority and quality control,we miss an important opportunity. Self-assess-ment is at the heart of learners owning theability to influence their own success. Designersshould thus read and pay attention to DavidBoud in this excellent book. He is anacknowledged master of putting difficult ideasin straightforward terms. Acquire this book andmake use of it.

Ray McAleese, Heriot-Watt University

Ian McGill and Liz Beary, Action Learning,London, Kogan Page, 1995. ISBN: 0-7494-1534-7. Second edition, 274 pages, softback, £19.95.

This guide sets out to provide a practicalapproach to action learning. Aimed at readersseeking to develop their personal learningthrough participation in action learning groups,as well as those wishing to introduce the processinto a wider educational programme.

The underpinning principles upon which actionlearning is based are discussed in sufficient detailto provide a basic grounding, but the mainstrength of the guide lies in its focus on thesuccessful practical implementation of actionlearning sets. This includes not only guidelinesfor implementing an introductory workshop, butalso for the range of skills required by setmembers to enable them to participate effectivelyas action learners. The authors aim to demystifyaction learning, and reveal its strengths as amethod of personal learning and development.

The book is divided into three sections. In thefirst, the focus is on the meaning of the termaction learning, and the presentation of anunderstanding of what it is to be an actionlearner. This is then developed in the secondsection, which looks at effective set membershipand the types of skills needed to ensure that theindividual is able to participate fully in theaction-learning process. The final second placesaction learning in a number of professional andeducational settings, and shows how it can beused to enhance personal development andlearning in those contexts.

In Part I, action learning is described by theauthors as the 'process of learning andreflection that happens with the support of agroup or "set" of colleagues working with realproblems with the intention of getting thingsdone'. In Chapter 2, action learning and the roleof the action-learning set are defined, withparticular emphasis on the importance of therelationship between action and reflection.Action learning is based on the principles ofKolb's experiential learning cycle, whichembodies the idea that systematic reflection onprior experiences can help in the generation offuture ideas, plans and actions. A usefuldistinction is made between action learning andaction research in order to avoid any potentialconfusion between the two approaches, giventhat both are closely aligned with models ofexperiential learning. Chapter 3 describes howan action-learning set is formed, and how itworks at a structural or organizational level,setting the scene for the two following chapterswhich describe in detail what it means to be aset member and a set facilitator. The concludingchapter in this section is an examination ofdifferent types of action learning.

In Part II, consideration is given to the way inwhich action learning can be introduced topotential participants. This section is very much

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about getting action-learning sets underway,and a large part of it is devoted to presentationof a format for an introductory workshop. Thisincludes a schedule and a set of suitablesupporting activities. The remainder of thissection describes the interpersonal and learningskills required by set members, which willenable them to participate fully in the activitiesof the group, and for the set to functioneffectively.

The final part of the book looks at the potentialof action learning in the settings of continuingprofessional development, managementdevelopment and higher education. Theconcluding chapter in this section addresses thepotential contribution of action learning toindividual, organizational and social change.

In the final chapter of the book, the authorsexpress a concern that by writing a how-to text,they run the risk of being too prescriptive and ofpresenting • a definitive approach to actionlearning. This is not the case. What they dopresent is a clear exposition of the underlyingphilosophy of action learning, with a sense ofthe boundaries within which it can be shown towork effectively. The book presents actionlearning in a clear and logical way, with a goodbalance between attention to the underlyingprinciples and the practicalities of being a setmember and/or facilitator. This book is thus avaluable resource, which will be useful to a widerange of readers, from those interested infinding out a little more about what actionlearning offers, to those seeking more practicalguidance in the facilitation of, or participationin, an action-learning set. The authors conveynot only a genuine belief in and commitment toaction learning, but also an enthusiasm for thecontribution it can make to personaldevelopment and learning. It is clear that thisbook is written by two people who care aboutaction learning, and who wish to share theinsights gained from their own professionalpractice with a much wider community.

Susan Fowell, University of Sheffield

Higher Education 1998 Transformed by LearningTechnology, edited by Joyce Martin, JonathanDarby and Bengt Kjoellestroem, published jointlyby CTTSS Publications (CTI Support Service,University of Oxford) and the Swedish Councilfor the Renewal of Undergraduate Education,University of Lund, 1994. ISBN: 0-9513896-6-1.Softback.

Although the art of prophecy is problematic;time tells whether our view of the future hasbeen rooted in the present. The art of prophecyis problematic because most seers are on ahiding to nothing. We live in a time of change,and merely predicting that change will comeabout is a truism. The issues of interest are therate of change, its nature and the vehicles bywhich it arrives on our doorstep (or gets lost enroute). Those involved in the promotion of ITand other forms of resource-based learning arefrequently driven by evangelical zeal, and areoften at a loss to understand why theirenthusiasm for all things digital is not shared byothers as they proclaim their millenarianvisions. On the one hand, technophiles tend todismiss sceptics as Luddites and dinosaurs,while those of a more moderate dispositionsimply assume that training is the panacea forthose poor myopic souls whose narrowconceptual horizons condemn them to asequestered life in the technological void. Bothsides, paradoxically, usually view thedigitization of the world as inevitable. The onlyquestion is how long the resistance can bemaintained.

This book is a brave attempt to operationalize aview of the future. How well does it do it?Unfortunately, not well. Even though its scopeis specific, comparisons with Negroponte'sBeing Digital, and even Bill Gates's view of TheRoad Ahead, are inevitable. Both those bookswere written by people with a serious vision(which we may or may not share), but, by wayof contrast, Higher Education 1998 is less avision of what life will be like on the campustwo years from the millennium than a series ofmechanistic extrapolations. In other words, ithas been assumed by the contributors (andcertainly the editors) that we will be doing muchas we do now, only more rapidly and with bettertechnology: more work at home, sandwich-stylestudy, extensive use of email, and a centralizednetwork providing communications andlearning resources. The change conceived is,from both an academic and organizationalperspective, incremental rather than qualitative.

The event from which this book derives was thefirst (and perhaps last) international CTIjamboree. The Computers in Teaching Initiativehad been set up in the UK in 1985 by the thenuniversities' Computer Board, to promote theuse of computers in university teaching. Thefirst of two phases centred on the funding of 139software development projects, many of. which

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quickly sank without trace. In the second phase,it was recognized that software did notimplement itself, so human beings were fundedto operate in academic disciplines through adissemination network of (currently 24) CTIsubject-based centres, most of which wereestablished in 1989 and which remain in place.Since they began, all CTI centres have publishedjournals and newsletters, undertaken reviews ofcourseware, provided an advice service, visiteddepartments within their disciplinaryconstituency, and organized workshops andconferences.

There have been two attempts to establish theCTI model beyond the UK: in Eire and Sweden.Of the former we know little. Prospectivefounder members of the Swedish CTI attendedthe UK CTI 1992 Spring forum in Stirling; andin the following year a joint conference was heldin Lund for members of the UK CTI andcolleagues from Sweden keen to establish asimilar organization in their country. The themeof the conference was a futuristic one: 'HigherEducation 1998 Transformed by LearningTechnology'. A scenario was set out, and thequestion asked: 'How did we get from there(1993) to here (1998)?'. The conference took theform of formal papers by invited speakers, casestudies, and participant-work in small groupslooking at various problems. The fruits of allare represented in the proceedings publishedhere. The task for the conference delegates wasto undertake a retrospective look 'back' overfive years and to analyse the processes thatmarked the changes posited to be in place. Atthe time of publication of this review, we arenow more than halfway 'there'. So with thebenefit of partial hindsight it is possible to beginto assess how accurate were the original visionand the integrated analysis.

Learning technology is not just perceived by itsproponents as being an application in search ofa solution. It has much loftier ambitions:nothing less than cultural change. Inherent inthis assumption is the view that because theadoption of information technology has alreadybrought about a considerable degree of changein society generally, linking together highereducation and computers generates aninexorable facility for widespread change inuniversities. Unfortunately, IT zealots seemremarkably naive as to just how much de factoopposition there is to the use of computerswithin teaching contexts in higher education.Granted, there is little likelihood of midnight

raids by modern-day torch-bearing Ludditesbent on physical destruction of computers, butthat probably has more to do with the fact thatmost of them do not know where the bulk ofcomputers are kept. Most of the 'opposition'seem quite content to do nothing; given thatonly a small (though growing) section of thelecturing community has come around to theidea of using IT in teaching. This suggests thatthe status quo says more about those doing thepromoting than those being addressed. Manylecturers teach IT, rather fewer teach with it.

I was disappointed to find the bookunconvincing, lacking in sedulous argument,conceptually disjointed, badly written in someparts and simply execrable in others. This is notto impugn the editors for the variable quality ofthe writing, although the imperious constraintsof a publishing deadline no doubt occasionedhasty editing in some sections of the work. Thechapters hang very loosely together all tootypically in edited works these days. The worstexample is of the final case study on interactivevisual electromagnetics, leading straight into thesection reporting on the outcome of small-group discussions, without any signposting forthe reader to prepare him or her for what is tocome, as shown by the first sentence of the nextchapter: "There was a consensus in the groupthat. . . ' . Anyone who missed the second paper,which set the stage, would be totally confused.Even those who do not use hypermedia do notnecessarily start at Chapter 1 and read books inan invariable linear sequence.

If the key to rooting the future in the present isdependent on international co-operation, allwill come to naught. Both the Irish and SwedishCTIs have failed to take off. A recent surveyshowed that, except in one CTI centre, no activeco-operation now exists beyond the exchange ofjournals. The UK CTI centres have some senseof history, and many of their papers do providean introspective temporal perspective ondevelopments. Unfortunately, many of theSwedish papers are simply descriptive snapshotsof the 'look what we are doing' variety. Moreimportantly, the book fails to take into accountthe two insuperable obstacles to change: thecombined lack of funds, and the erroneousassumption endemic in both the Swedish andUS contingents that once the technology is inplace, everyone and his dog will flock to makeuse of it. This is a myth, and many of us whowere there were rather surprised to learn thatmany (but not quite all) of the Swedes could not

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believe that there was a widespread degree ofresistance in higher education. Neither couldthey grasp something we knew only too well inthe UK: the absence of a common will toimplement the necessary structural andorganizational changes in institutions andcurricula. Conservatism in academia is sopervasive as to be ubiquitous, even inherent,and the lack of reward to overcome inertia is avital catalyst; without it, the vision of the futurepromoted here remains in the future.

Another missed element is the axiom that thosewho neglect to learn the lessons of history arecondemned to repeat them. Very few of theparticipants here had any sense of pastdevelopment, something being mirrored inmany TLTP projects. It is almost as if newgroups arrive on the scene every two years or so,totally ignorant of what has transpired to date.Beware the IT enthusiast: his/her evangelicalfervour automatically seems to block out thepast, almost as if the past never existed - only afuture to which they strive. Technologicalupgrades seem to make more than equipmentobsolete: there also seems to be a concomitantvaporization of modes of use.

The major flaw is made explicit in theintroduction to the final paper: 'Funding andtechnical obstacles were not allowed to affectthe group's discussions, so the picture thatemerged [. . .] was the perfect scenario for thestudent in 1998 - sufficient finance wasavailable and all technical problems wereresolvable'. Worse is to follow: '[. . .] it isimportant that there is a sound IT strategy ledby computer services within all institutions.'And we are not done yet: "The university'sadministration will also make use of IT for itwill help overcome scheduling difficultiescreated by the increase in student numbers.'With flawed thinking like that, no wondernothing substantial emerged.

The future remains open. Next, please.

John Castleford, University of Leicester

Jim Sterne, World Wide Web Marketing, NewYork, Wiley, 1996. ISBN: 0-471-12843-0. 331pages, softback, £15.95.

This is the best book I have read on using theWorld Wide Web (the Web) as a marketingdevice. It is profusely illustrated with sampleWeb pages, and it ranges from discussions ofdetailed issues on layout, buttons, and graphic

design, to measuring your impact, establishingyour criteria, and making your site fun. Even ifyou use the book just to get an overview of thevariety of information sources on the Web andhow people have used it for different aims, it iswell worth looking at. And if you areparticularly interested in promotion, marketingor other related value-added services, youprobably need go no further than this book.

There are 14 chapters. They cover a very goodgeneral introduction to the Internet, and thenfocus on the Web. The author looks at graphics,feedback, interactivity, value-added marketing,gaining attention, measuring success, startingpoints and, finally, adds a very interestingchapter which looks towards the future anddiscusses where the Web might be in a year ortwo.

The author claims that the book is written by amarketer for marketers. I am sure that is true,but there is also a lot of useful information thata non-marketer will get from it, and it will be avery good index against which to judgemarketers' advice. Anyone who has a Web sitewhich is essentially providing information willhave plenty of indices against which to judgethat site. And the book will provide a good wayof seeing through marketers' recommendationsand establishing your own objectives (as well asof borrowing ideas).

Sterne puts some very interesting information inhis appendices. He gives a run-down on a rangeof discussion groups all to do with marketing,including academic marketing. He then lists awhole range of marketing-oriented Web sitesthat he recommends, and finishes the book witha useful index which takes you through most ofthe sites he has mentioned, the companies, theconcepts and so forth.

Even though the Web is doubling in size every53 days and is changing radically as it grows,this book is still up to date, and has a largeamount of valuable data. All the way throughwe get the distinct impression that Sterne knowswhat he is talking about. His style isstraightforward and, what is more, every page isdisplayed from Netscape Navigator on aMacintosh (the fact that the book, so very muchfocusing on business, uses a Macintosh as thedelivery engine, appealed to me!).

If I have a criticism, it is that in describing pageswhich are displayed, Sterne sometimes states theobvious, and there is the occasional over-use of

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exclamation marks. But on the whole, this is awell-written and attractive book, and oversizedto allow for the large use of graphics. Indeed, ifyou do not want to listen to Sterne's ownaccount, just by looking in detail at theillustrations, you can get a fairly clear idea ofthe range of uses of the Web, and some of theclever ideas which have been picked up by arange of large and small companies.

I suppose I can sum up the book by quoting thefinal paragraph: 'So go surf the Web. Assemblea team. Read some books. Get some tools.Write a style guide. Get started. Get startedsoon. It will be much harder to catch up later'.The book is a good and fast read.

Nigel Paine, Chief Executive, Scottish Councilfor Educational Technology

Fred T. Hofstetter, Multimedia Literacy, NewYork, McGraw-Hill, 1995. ISBN: 0-07-911956-5.360 pages, paperback, plus CD-ROM, £20.42.

This book is published as an A4-size (American)edition with an accompanying CD-ROM. Thedisc is intended for use on MPC (MultimediaPersonal Computer)-compliant systems. The 40chapters that make up the book are organizedinto seven basic parts. Of these, the first four(chapters 1 to 17) are devoted to understandingmultimedia, a survey of its applications,selecting suitable hardware, and looking atimminent and long-term future developments.The remaining three parts (comprising chapters18 to 40) each present a hands-on tutorial usingthe various software resources presented on theCD-ROM. These tutorials cover multimediatools and techniques, developing a simplemultimedia application, and creating advanced'multimedia packages. The chapters begin with astatement of objectives which specify whatreaders should be able to achieve on completionof their associated study units. Apart from thosein Part 6, every chapter includes a set ofexercises which provide various opportunitiesfor involvement in hands-on activities using theCD-ROM.

The 'theory' section of the book (Parts 1 to 4)includes introductory chapters that deal with thevarious MPC specifications, a multimedia objecttaxonomy, and descriptions of variousapplication areas such as education, entertain-ment, business and industry, government andmedicine. The sections that deal with corporatetraining, just-in-time training, medical training

and education are particularly interesting, andrelevant to those involved in the pedagogicaspects of computer use. Subsequent chapters inthis section deal with a variety of different topicsincluding application development packages(PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics, ToolBook,PODIUM - see below -, AuthorwareProfessional and Quest), competing multimediastandards ('multi-multimedia'), multimedia PCcomponents, checklists for buying a multimediacomputer, and how to configure MPC systems.Some thought is also given to possible futuredevelopments in these areas and the legal issuesthat multimedia technologies create. The booktherefore considers recent developments inelectronic publishing, the impact of the informa-tion superhighway, virtual reality and emergingtechnologies. Various societal issues associatedwith multimedia (and the Internet) are alsodiscussed. Throughout the theory part of thebook, the author makes frequent references todemonstration material contained on the CD-ROM. Thus, after reading about a topic, systemor package, you can follow up these referencesand use demonstration versions of the softwarediscussed in the text.

The hands-on section of the book is based on theuse of a multimedia authoring tool calledPODIUM. This tool is available for purchasefrom the University of Delaware, but a cut-down version of the system is supplied on theCD-ROM for use with the tutorials. The firsteight of these tutorials (chapters 18 to 25, whichmake up Part 5 of the book) deal with the use ofscreen-based text, simple graphics (based onbitmap images), triggering events, waveformaudio, CD audio clip-making, MIDI sequenc-ing, digital video recording, and videodiscclip-making. For those who are new tomultimedia techniques, the practical activitiesembedded in these chapters would serve as auseful means of developing the necessarybackground skills. In Part 6 (chapters 26through 30), the tutorials lead readers in a step-by-step fashion through the development of asimple multimedia application that deals withthe history of flight. The essential steps involvecreating a pictorial menu (using images ofaeroplanes taken from the CD-ROM), andlinking these to related multimedia information(again taken from the CD-ROM). The tenchapters that make up the final part of the bookare used to illustrate the stages involved increating a more advanced multimedia applica-tion. The case study that is chosen deals with the

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use of various information-superhighwayservices such as ftp, telnet, gophers and newsfeeders. Within this section, readers are takenthrough the steps involved in creating the basicpackage using PODIUM. A bill-boardmetaphor is used as the basis for the end-userinterface; this is also used for linking in thevarious Internet resources that are called upon.

I found this book exciting and easy to read (itcontains a multitude of useful illustrations, allof which are in colour and of an extremely highquality). The book is very readable for tworeasons: first, because it does not delve toodeeply into the highly technical detail ofmultimedia; and second, because it givescomprehensive explanations of all the stepsinvolved in undertaking multimediadevelopment tasks. Because it uses a friendlyhands-on environment for teaching, this bookwould undoubtedly make a useful starting pointfor those who are computer literate and want tofind out more about creating and publishingmultimedia learning resources.

Although the book can be read independentlyof its CD-ROM, the latter certainly adds valueto the learning experience. The polymediaapproach to publishing (paper and CD-ROM)taken here is, not surprisingly, becoming anincreasingly popular way of providing activelearning experiences.

Philip Barker, University ofTeesside

J. Brown, R. Earnshaw, M. Jem and J. Vince,Visualization - Using Computer Graphics toExplore and Present Information, New York,Wiley, 1995. ISBN: 0-471-12991-7. 287 pages,paperback, plus CD-ROM, £35.00.

To paraphrase the authors' own words: thepublication is a non-technical guide whichprovides a brief background on the field ofvisualization - the use of computer graphics toexplore and present information. It is intendedfor IT professionals who need to evaluate orimplement a computer-graphics or visualizationfacility.

The nine chapters lead the reader from anintroduction to the concepts of visualization,through the commercial possibilities of its use,the range of currently available hardware andsoftware and a number of case studies, to acautious vision of likely developments in thenear future. Throughout, there are screen-shotsof visualization applications in use and

references to specific software producers andtheir products.

Chapter 1 gives a brief and rather spasmodichistory of the ideas behind visualization,starting with mankind's first use of maps andmentioning the discovery of X-rays on its wayto bringing in computer graphics and virtualreality.

Chapter 2 discusses the global markets forvisualization applications in Computer AidedDesign, Geographical Information Systems andVisual Data Analysis. Estimates of the currentsize of the markets and their likely growth aregiven as quotes from various commercialsources. The chapter continues with a briefdiscussion of the issues to be addressed by acompany entering the field. Comparisons aremade between custom and off-the-shelfsoftware, in-1iouse development and out-sourcing, and the adoption of ISO versus defacto standards.

The third chapter covers the range ofpossibilities of computer-generated images andthe ways they can be produced. Methods ofcreating visualizations from subroutine andobject libraries, from fourth-generation lan-guages and from visual programming tools arecatalogued. The whole range of visualizationoutput is covered, from 2-D charts and graphsto animated, rendered, 3-D models. Importantconcepts are introduced - viewports, inter-polation, contours, iso-surfaces, vector fieldvisualization and geometric modelling, but, incommon with the rest of the book, thedescriptions are superficial, concentrating onbreadth of coverage rather than detailedexplanation.

In chapters four and seven, the conceptsintroduced are revisited in terms of particularapplication fields. Software requirements forComputer Aided Design, Finite ElementAnalysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics,Geographical Information Systems andMathematical Visualization are analysed inChapter 4, and suitable visualization productsfor these fields are listed. There is also adiscussion of typical hardware platforms fromPCs to supercomputers, and of image-relatedoutput peripherals. Chapter 4 concludes with aBuyer's Guide, a table showing the features of anumber of current visualization and graphicsproducts (for those interested, a morecomprehensive list is given in the November1995 edition of IEEE Spectrum). Over 20 short

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visualization case studies are described inChapter 7. The rationale for using visualizationtechniques is given in each case, and sometimesthe software and hardware used is mentioned,but there is no other technical detail.

The other two chapters in the book contain anuncharacteristically detailed section on the useof colour and a history of GUIs, with someexplanation of the structure of X-Windows andMotif, and a description of the Internet.

The accompanying CD-ROM contains digitizedcopies of all the images in the text, some of thetables, and 16 QuickTime movies showingvisualization in action. None of these areexplicitly referred to in the text, but they areorganized into directories which match thechapters of the book. The CD is dual-format,readable by PCs and by Apple Macintoshes.

There are two viewers included: Adobe Acrobat(although the Buyer's Guide is the onlydocument in this format), and Apple Quick-Time for viewing the digitized videoclips. Theimages and figures from the book are stored inTIFF format, and no viewer is provided forthem. TIFF viewers are readily available, andare built into some word processors, but it doesseem rather inconsiderate not to provide a wayof looking at the bulk of the content of the CD(had the images been stored in JPEG format,they could have been seen with the suppliedQuickTime viewer).The images and movies aredrawn from commercial visualization examples.The movies, many with sound, are mostlypublicity or demonstration material producedby large corporations, and show very slickexamples of high-quality computer graphics. Itis questionable whether digitized video is thebest medium to use for these examples, but Isuspect that the novelty value of a book with anaccompanying CD-ROM is still enough tooverride such practical considerations.Nevertheless, distributing a video tape with thebook would be a better way to experience thehigh quality of state-of-the-art visualization.The quality would be much better, and theexamples could more easily be shown to a largeaudience. Of course, there are reasons for usingCD instead; they are cheaper to produce thanvideo tapes, more compact, and only oneversion is needed to cover the main formats. Ifelt, though, that the authors have not made thebest use of the possibilities of the CD-ROMmedium. They could have included demonstra-tion versions of visualization software, some of

which the manufacturers are falling overthemselves to give away, or simple simulationsto illustrate some of the concepts introduced:visual programming, choice of colour invisualization design, and 'walking through'data, for example. They have missed theopportunity to convey the sensation ofinteracting directly with data, which is surelythe biggest selling point for visualization tools.

As for possible use of the book in education, itis too light on detail to be used as avisualization or computer-graphics textbook. Itmay have a place, however, as a primer forstudents who are about to embark onvisualization or multimedia projects. Thepublication's broad taxonomy of applicationsand the state-of-the-art examples it providesmay inspire them to explore more widely thepossibilities of the field.

Richard Storer, University of Paisley

Andrew Bradbury, Successful Presentation Skills,London, Kogan Page, 1995. ISBN: 0-7494-1749-8.107 pages, paperback, £6.99.

This book is a new addition to the well-knownKogan Page series of guides for businessmanagers, 'Better Management Skills'. Like allbooks in the series, the intention is to provide apractical but comprehensive coverage of thearea in a readily accessible and easily read form.Since effective presentation, the topic of thisparticular book, is informed by a wide range ofquite complex material, including studies ofcommunication theory, learning styles, bodylanguage, visualization, and memory, theauthor has had a particular challenge. Readersneed to be able to understand enough of thetheoretical ideas that justify the suggestions,and to see these in an integrated framework togain confidence for implementation. Hence,within a text of just over 100 pages, there are 14very short chapters, each one covering a rangeof different ideas leading to practicalsuggestions. The book begins with two basicmessages: that everyone in business shouldrealize the importance of presentation forsuccess, and that everyone can learn how tomake a successful presentation. In the followingchapters, the author suggests how this may beachieved.

'How we communicate' includes a repeat of themessage that needs to be repeated so manytimes - the importance of non-verbal signals

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(93%) to verbal content (7%) in presentations.Systematic ways of building up confidence areoutlined in the next two chapters. Laterchapters deal with objectives, structure andorganization. The critical thing to identify is theobjective. Once this is clarified, the appropriatestructure and organization can be decided. Thechapter on knowing your audience stresses theimportance of putting the customer first. Here,the treatment of learning styles may be cursory,but is sufficient to stress the need to considerthem in both the preparation of material andhow questions are to be handled.

There are two chapters on fitting the words tothe presentation frame. The first deals with howmany points you can hope to cover within giventime-slots, and offers advice on how to adaptmaterials. The second emphasizes theimportance of the conclusion. Presenters oftenpay a great deal of attention to theirintroduction, but neglect the need to provide agood ending.

A following chapter deals with the critical first60 seconds of a presentation. A joke? Aquestion? An anecdote? What helps? What doesnot help? This topic provides a useful way intothe two chapters that deal with visual aids. Thefirst of these reviews the advantages anddisadvantages of chalkboards, whiteboards,flipcharts, overhead-projector transparencies,slides, computer-based displays, video and film.This is followed by a brief treatment ondesigning effective visual aids.

A welcome chapter on the setting up of displayfacilities provides a reminder to the presenternot to forget to consider the arrangements forthe audience as well. As in all the chapters, thereare useful tips: for example on how to deal withsituations where you have a large number ofseats and only a small audience, and when andwhere to have refreshments served.

Why, when and how to deal with questionersand hecklers is the subject of the next chapter.This topic not always covered in texts onpresentational skills, yet it can be one of theaspects of a presentation about which the novicepresenter is most nervous.

The final chapter looks at personalpresentation, and once again the message is theimportance of paying attention to how you saywhat you want to say as well as what you wantto say.

The whole text is written in a very lively manner

with ample use of boxes, bullet points, reviewquestions, lists of key ideas, tips andmnemonics. I particularly liked PANIC, whencalled on to make an unexpected presentation.PANIC unpacks most helpfully as Purpose,Audience, Need, Information, Communication.Sometimes, however, the reader may feel theneed of a further glossary. The instruction to'indicate whether batteries are included'translates into letting your audience know whattheir follow-up action or success criterion willbe. Such examples illustrate how the book isintended for a business readership. This pointdoes raise some minor concerns. First, such areadership may readily accept the 'sound byte'approach, but not all readers will. Snappyheadings are used over-abundantly not only forchapter headings but for sections withinchapters, and for some readers, such atreatment may jar. Secondly, some academicreaders may wince at the summary treatment oftheir particular area of academic interest. Thereis a brief basic bibliography appended.

But the skills of effective communication arecommon to business and academicpresentations. This book contains many helpfulpractical suggestions on presentation which arerelevant to readers who present research papers,lead seminars, give lectures and run workshops.And it must be admitted that although there iscurrently a lot of emphasis on communicationskills in the academic field, the presentation ofthe subject matter, if addressed at all in thestandard course texts, tends to concentrate onwritten reports. This book can help to fill thegap.Dianne Phillips, Manchester MetropolitanUniversity

J. Ceserani and P. Greatwood, Innovation andCreativity, London, Kogan Page, 1995. ISBN: 0-7494-1593-2.192 pages, paperback, £12.95.

This is one of the Kogan Page 'Fast-trackMBA* series which aims to present core subjectsfrom a typical MBA syllabus in a lively andaccessible way. The claim is that the seriesprovides texts that have a 'practical, action-oriented style which involves the reader inself-assessment and participation'. The intendedreadership is managers wanting either to refreshor further to develop their capabilities, or thoseactually undertaking study for an MBA - whoshould find that the series provides a solidgrounding in the subjects to be covered. At the

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Reviews

outset, the book states that it is 'not a book',but rather a prompt to a journey of exploration.Indeed, the reader is encouraged to read themain sections in any order.

Part 1 introduces the 'toolkit'. Some analysis ofthe importance and extent of innovation inbusiness is reported. For example, some 80% ofUS companies say that innovation is veryimportant to their business (though no evidenceis offered of the situation in other countries).Only 4% of these companies say that they aregood at innovation. Sales, profits, and marketshare were all found to be improved ininnovative companies. The advice which followsis an attempt to encourage forms of thinkingwhich may lead to innovation. It often does thisby phrases such as 'you are creative'; 'you arean innovator'; 'take this thought into yourself.Albert Einstein is quoted several times. Thereare also many short examples of ways in whichnew thinking has led to product innovation.There are maps and diagrams, some of whichare superfluous. There is helpful advice on howto run meetings in order that unconventional oreven silly suggestions can be considered with-out participants feeling uncomfortable orthreatened. A structure for creative problem-solving is then proposed.

Part 2 purports to demonstrate a map of theterritory of innovation. However, it differs fromPart 1 only in some details. One of these lies inconsidering the participants in a meeting as acast of Jungian characters, though it is doubtfulwhether the descriptions accurately mirrorJung's theory of psychological types. The levelof subtlety introduced clouds any practicalbenefits: I tried viewing a (real) problem fromseveral of these angles and found thedistinctions impossible to apply.

Part 3 is entitled 'The Author is You', whichmeans that after being told that creativity is likesex, there follows 30 pages of simple questionswith blank boxes for the answers.

In attempting to teach creative thinking, thisbook has several flaws. It is a slim volume withmany pages that convey very little information.For those who require structure, it does notoffer a coherent and systematic methodology;indeed it confuses by a plethora of simplisticexamples backed up by gimmicky phrases.Many are entertaining, some are useful, buttaken as a whole there is little of substance. It isnot 'not a book'. It is simply a book which isnot academic: it appears to be written for

people in a hurry, and who are not prepared toconcentrate on gaining a deeper understandingof the subject. It has surface but no depth.Perhaps people studying for an MBA are likethat, but I doubt it. The authors have abackground in training business personnel usingthese techniques. Perhaps this is the book'smain deficit: in direct face-to-face training,trainees may be led to gain an understanding -through several differing exercises - of a moreideational and playful form of thinking whichmay lead to innovation. In the hands of a skilledtrainer, these disparate threads can be pulledtogether. In this book the threads are lefthanging. It is strange that though the text oftenuses examples based on manufacturing industry,it neglects the use of those who are skilled (andtalented) in creative thinking, for exampleindustrial designers. Now that really would beinnovative.

David Darling, Edge Ltd. Hartlepool

Julie Cotton, The Theory of Assessment: anIntroduction, London, Kogan Page, 1995. ISBN:0-7494-1709-9.160 pages, paperback, £14-95.

Towards the end of this book, the author JulieCotton advises assessors to be 'positive first';and like much of the practical advice containedin The Theory of Assessment, I propose to takeit. The book provides much valuable practicaladvice on how to construct effective andsuitable modes of assessment; but as adiscussion of the theory of assessment, it isfrankly disappointing. To some degree thiscriticism arises directly from one of the book'sgreatest strengths. The author describes thebook as 'an introductory book with suggestionsfor activities to help you apply the theory toyour work'; and this is exactly what it is. Thedifficulty, if it is one, is that it is stronger onapplication than theory.

For example, in the introduction the authorwrites: 'Assessment is not a bolt-on extra toteaching and training but an integral part of theplanning, preparation and delivery. Indeed,good assessment is a consolidating tool withinthe learning process'. One can only concur; butthis remains an assertion rather than adeveloped theoretical position. Nonetheless, it isone of the fundamental assumptions of thebook, and much of what is valuable in the bookarises from it.

The book is divided into 10 chapters each ofwhich covers some issue or issues that arise

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from considering the role of assessment ineducation and training. Each chapter carefullysets out several 'concepts', the development ofwhich is punctuated by short sections that invitereaders to 'stop and reflect', or by some'activity' designed to make readers evaluatetheir own practice as assessors. Thus at onepoint in Chapter 2, 'Traditional Methods', thereader is asked to reflect on the question: 'Doyou think that regular assessment encouragedor discouraged your progress during formalstudy?'; and later to perform the followingactivity: "The next time you set an "end" testpaper, write it in the form of a structured paperwith a clear marking scheme and write a studentfeedback form. Check to make sure that thelearners get better feedback from thisexperiment.' Pursuing these strategies as areader may not exactly lead one to theorizeone's modes of assessment, but it can certainlyprovide a fruitful way of reflecting upon them.

Chapters 1 to 6 consider a range of testingstrategies and methodologies, including variousforms of objective, standardized, andpsychometric tests. In general, the discussionsare most fruitful when dealing with modes ofassessment that do not invite open-endedanswers. There is comparatively littleconsideration given to the theoretical or indeedpractical issues that arise in assessing, forexample, open-ended essay-type questions. Ofcourse, much of the general discussion of suchissues as 'Reliability and Validity' (Chapter 6)applies equally to open-ended examinationsituations and more closed objective testing.Furthermore, since many readers of ALT-J arelikely to be involved in some form of computer-aided learning where open-ended assessment isnotoriously difficult anyway, this concentrationon more closed forms of examination andtesting is by no means a serious fault. Forexample, Chapter 5, 'Statistics and Records',provides an eminently readable and helpfulintroduction to the intelligent use of statisticalanalysis within an assessment situation.Certainly, there is much there that could be usedby CAL/CBT developers to help them deviseintelligible modes of representing data gatheredabout student performance in computer-basedlearning environments. Similarly, much ofCotton's practical advice about how to devisevarious forms of tests applies equally to

computer-based and paper-based modes ofassessment. However, given the current interestin computer-based assessment, viz. the recentedition of Active Learning devoted to thesubject, it is somewhat disappointing thatCotton only gives it a single page ofconsideration.

The book has a strong bias towards'competency-based learning'. The subject isintroduced in Chapter 3, and much of whatfollows seems to accept that this is the mostappropriate form of assessment. Again one isinclined to concur, but the arguments in favourmight have been more strongly developed. Forexample, in Chapters 7 and 8 which deal withexternal and internal verification respectively,the author accepts the NVQ approach as anexample of good practice. At the very least, thisis a contentious claim, but it is not debated assuch. No doubt this is partly because of theauthor's considerable expertise in the field ofNVQs, but it also appears to be partly afunction of her acceptance of the competence-based model. Nonetheless, for those readersinvolved in developing or teaching within theNVQ framework, these two chapters shouldprove invaluable. Indeed, for anyone interestedin NVQ, the whole book is a valuableintroduction.

The final two chapters, 'Trends in Assessment'and 'Self-evaluation and Appraisal' are the leastinteresting in the book, and seem, after thedetailed analysis of NVQ, to come as somethingof an afterthought. Even the proposed 'activity'with which the book closes falls somewhat flateven though one could not argue with theappositeness of ending this book with thewords: 'Write your own appraisal form as self-evaluation. What better to finish this book thanto fill in this form for yourself to start your ownsystem of self-evaluation!'

One final criticism that is in no way theresponsibility of the author. The book did notsurvive the process of review. When I was just .over half way through, pages began to fall out.This is not what one expects from a publisher asrespectable as Kogan Page or from a bookpriced at £14.95.

Bruce Douglas Ingraham, University ofTeesside

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