Review ofReview ofThe Mismeasure of ManThe Mismeasure of Man

by: Stephen J Gouldby: Stephen J Gould

Sarah A. LechagoSarah A. Lechago

Western Michigan UniversityWestern Michigan University

Main thesisMain thesis

The books seeks to refute the viewpoint of The books seeks to refute the viewpoint of biological determinismbiological determinismBiological determinismBiological determinism: shared behavioral : shared behavioral

norms, and the social and economic norms, and the social and economic differences between human groups (races, differences between human groups (races, classes, sexes) arise from inherited, inborn classes, sexes) arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, is an accurate distinctions and that society, is an accurate reflection of biologyreflection of biology

Main theme in biological determinismMain theme in biological determinism

The book addresses a main theme in The book addresses a main theme in biological determinism from an historical biological determinism from an historical perspective: perspective:

Worth can be assigned to individuals and Worth can be assigned to individuals and groups by measuring intelligence as a groups by measuring intelligence as a single single quantityquantity

Two major sources of data support this ideaTwo major sources of data support this idea1.1. CRANIOMETRYCRANIOMETRY2.2. CERTAIN TYPES OF PSYSCHOLOGICAL CERTAIN TYPES OF PSYSCHOLOGICAL

TESTINGTESTING

Approaches to refuting biological Approaches to refuting biological determinismdeterminism

Sought to demonstrate 2 main aspects of Sought to demonstrate 2 main aspects of biological determinism viewpointbiological determinism viewpoint

1.1. Scientific weaknesses of studies upon which Scientific weaknesses of studies upon which these viewpoints were founded these viewpoints were founded (strengthened)(strengthened)

2.2. Political contextPolitical context

Gould asserts that science is NOT an objective Gould asserts that science is NOT an objective enterpriseenterprise

Science must be understood as a social Science must be understood as a social phenomenonphenomenon

““Science, since people must do it, is a socially Science, since people must do it, is a socially embedded activity.” embedded activity.” This viewpoint is in alignment with Whorf’s view that This viewpoint is in alignment with Whorf’s view that

language influences the way we attend to and language influences the way we attend to and interpret our environmentinterpret our environment

Viewpoint is also heavily aligned with Skinner’s Viewpoint is also heavily aligned with Skinner’s (radical behaviorism) viewpoint that science is (radical behaviorism) viewpoint that science is essentially verbal behavior as such, it is socially essentially verbal behavior as such, it is socially constructedconstructed

Interestingly, Gould believes that a factual Interestingly, Gould believes that a factual reality exists and that science can learn about reality exists and that science can learn about it – but it does so in a manner that is it – but it does so in a manner that is influenced by the larger cultural contextinfluenced by the larger cultural context

This is much like Giere’s views on science which This is much like Giere’s views on science which hold 2 very similar ideas to Gould’s:hold 2 very similar ideas to Gould’s:

1.1. That scientists are very much influenced by the larger That scientists are very much influenced by the larger cultural contextcultural context

2.2. Perspectival Realism : There is a factual reality out there Perspectival Realism : There is a factual reality out there that is too complex for scientists to know the whole of, but that is too complex for scientists to know the whole of, but they can know 1 real aspect of a phenomenon from their they can know 1 real aspect of a phenomenon from their unique perspective unique perspective

Two main fallaciesTwo main fallacies

Gould attempts to refute 2 main fallacies Gould attempts to refute 2 main fallacies associated with the abstraction of intelligence associated with the abstraction of intelligence as single entity and its location within the brainas single entity and its location within the brain

1.1. ReificationReification - tendency to convert abstract concept - tendency to convert abstract concept of “intelligence” into a real entity of “intelligence” into a real entity

2.2. RankingRanking – tendency to order complex variation as a – tendency to order complex variation as a gradual ascending scale – use numbers associated gradual ascending scale – use numbers associated with skull or intelligence measurement and rank with skull or intelligence measurement and rank people accordingly into a series of worthinesspeople accordingly into a series of worthiness

Polygeny and Craniometry before Polygeny and Craniometry before DarwinDarwin

A climate existed which accommodated A climate existed which accommodated findings of craniometryfindings of craniometryThomas Jefferson wrote “I advance it, Thomas Jefferson wrote “I advance it,

therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowment both of inferior to the whites in the endowment both of body and mind.”body and mind.”

Styles of scientific racismStyles of scientific racism

MonogenismMonogenism – origin of human being comes – origin of human being comes from a single source and are a product of from a single source and are a product of degeneration from Eden’s perfection. Races degeneration from Eden’s perfection. Races degrade to different degrees – whites the least degrade to different degrees – whites the least and blacks the mostand blacks the most

Polygenism Polygenism – human races were separate – human races were separate biological species, the descendants of different biological species, the descendants of different AdamsAdams So popular in US it was called American school of So popular in US it was called American school of

anthropology anthropology

Supporters of PolygenySupporters of Polygeny

Popular in the USPopular in the US Naturalist Agassiz converted to viewpoint when Naturalist Agassiz converted to viewpoint when

he moved to the US he moved to the US AFTERAFTER his first contact his first contact with black peoplewith black people

Samuel George Morton – dubbed the empiricist Samuel George Morton – dubbed the empiricist of polygenyof polygeny Gathered and measure skulls from all over the world Gathered and measure skulls from all over the world

to test the following hypothesis:to test the following hypothesis: Ranking of races could be established objectively by physical Ranking of races could be established objectively by physical

characteristics of the brain, particularly by its sizecharacteristics of the brain, particularly by its size

Morton’s findingsMorton’s findings It is no surprise that Morton’s cranial measurements It is no surprise that Morton’s cranial measurements

supported the status quo of the time – status and access supported the status quo of the time – status and access to power during his time accurately reflected biological to power during his time accurately reflected biological merit (according to Morton and most of the scientific merit (according to Morton and most of the scientific community)community)

Gould went back and reanalyzed Morton’s original raw Gould went back and reanalyzed Morton’s original raw datadata

Found that the data were patch worked and fudged to Found that the data were patch worked and fudged to support biological determinism ( the one that put whites support biological determinism ( the one that put whites in an advantage above everyone else)in an advantage above everyone else)

Interesting point: Interesting point: Found no evidence of conscious fraud – which suggests a Found no evidence of conscious fraud – which suggests a

general conclusion about the social context of sciencegeneral conclusion about the social context of science

Social versus EmpiricalSocial versus Empirical

Brings up the question Godfrey-Smith Brings up the question Godfrey-Smith brought up of social structure of science s brought up of social structure of science s antithetical to the empirical view of scienceantithetical to the empirical view of scienceThe science of the day truly believed The science of the day truly believed

themselves using empirical approach to the themselves using empirical approach to the study of racial ranking (skull measurement) – study of racial ranking (skull measurement) – but clearly they were under the influence of but clearly they were under the influence of each other’s findings and the political each other’s findings and the political ambiance of the timeambiance of the time

Mach too supported this social feature of Mach too supported this social feature of science in his discussion of the origins of science in his discussion of the origins of knowledgeknowledge Emphasized that humans’ interactions with their Emphasized that humans’ interactions with their

environment constitute the rudiments of human environment constitute the rudiments of human knowledgeknowledge

Scientist do not work independent of their Scientist do not work independent of their environment –clearly highlighted in 2 major ways in environment –clearly highlighted in 2 major ways in Gould’s book:Gould’s book:

The sheer popularity of biological determinism within the The sheer popularity of biological determinism within the scientific community and the culture at large at the time (esp. scientific community and the culture at large at the time (esp. in the US)in the US)

Agassiz’s radical shift to polygenic view in his move from Agassiz’s radical shift to polygenic view in his move from Europe to the USEurope to the US

Psychology tried to find its wayPsychology tried to find its way

Psychology sought to elevate itself to the ranks Psychology sought to elevate itself to the ranks of a serious science such as physicsof a serious science such as physics Evolution and the quantification formed the unholy Evolution and the quantification formed the unholy

alliance – the union formed first powerful theory of alliance – the union formed first powerful theory of “scientific racism”“scientific racism”

Numbers have amazing powers to convince.Numbers have amazing powers to convince. Theories are built on interpretation of numbersTheories are built on interpretation of numbers

Gould claimed that the interpreters of these numbers are Gould claimed that the interpreters of these numbers are trapped by their own rhetorictrapped by their own rhetoric

Williams and Whorf – also emphasized how our verbal Williams and Whorf – also emphasized how our verbal behavior influences the way in which we separate the world behavior influences the way in which we separate the world and understand the world, our viewpoint we bring to bear to and understand the world, our viewpoint we bring to bear to our analyses is influenced by our languageour analyses is influenced by our language

The many different ways numbers were The many different ways numbers were used to support biological determinismused to support biological determinism

Francis Galton (1822-1911) – Francis Galton (1822-1911) – Darwin’s cousinDarwin’s cousin Pioneer of modern statisticsPioneer of modern statistics Coined term “eugenics” (1883) – advocated regulation Coined term “eugenics” (1883) – advocated regulation

of marriage & family size according to hereditary of marriage & family size according to hereditary endowment of parentsendowment of parents

Believed could measure anything – believed socially Believed could measure anything – believed socially embedded behaviors had strong innate componentsembedded behaviors had strong innate components

Engaged in anthropometry – inheritance of Engaged in anthropometry – inheritance of intelligence – measured skulls and bodiesintelligence – measured skulls and bodies

Regarded as leading intellect of his timeRegarded as leading intellect of his time

More numbers in support of More numbers in support of biological determinismbiological determinism

Robert Bennett Bean – English surgeonRobert Bennett Bean – English surgeon1906 – published book comparing brain of 1906 – published book comparing brain of

white and black peoplewhite and black peopleCompared genu (front part of corpus callosum Compared genu (front part of corpus callosum

where intelligence is) and splenium (back part where intelligence is) and splenium (back part where sensorimotor are located)where sensorimotor are located)

Found that whites have larger genu hence Found that whites have larger genu hence more powerful intellect and blacks a larger more powerful intellect and blacks a larger splenuim hence more suited for labor worksplenuim hence more suited for labor work

Broca’s numbers from his school of Broca’s numbers from his school of craniometrycraniometry

Paul Broca (1824-1880)Paul Broca (1824-1880) Professor of clinical surgeryProfessor of clinical surgery Founded Anthropological Society for Paris (1859)Founded Anthropological Society for Paris (1859) Believed that larger skulls associated with larger Believed that larger skulls associated with larger

brains which are associated with greater intelligencebrains which are associated with greater intelligence Treated egalitarian scientists harshly b/c they Treated egalitarian scientists harshly b/c they

debased their higher calling as scientists b/c they debased their higher calling as scientists b/c they allowed ethical hope to cloud their judgment and allowed ethical hope to cloud their judgment and distort the “objective” truthdistort the “objective” truth

Broca’s findingsBroca’s findings

Assumed human races could be ranked in linear Assumed human races could be ranked in linear scale of mental worthscale of mental worth

Originally found whites to have the largest of Originally found whites to have the largest of brainsbrains

But when faced with contradictory data – Asians But when faced with contradictory data – Asians had big brains - used criterion differentially had big brains - used criterion differentially where it would lend support to his a priori where it would lend support to his a priori conclusion not only supporting biological conclusion not only supporting biological determinism but the superiority of whites above determinism but the superiority of whites above all other racesall other races

Measuring bodies in the name of Measuring bodies in the name of biological determinismbiological determinism

Ernst Haeckel – great German zoologistErnst Haeckel – great German zoologist Proclaimed “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” – Proclaimed “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” –

individual climbs his/her own family treeindividual climbs his/her own family tree This was extraordinarily impactful concept to many This was extraordinarily impactful concept to many

scientific fieldsscientific fields It also served as general theory of biological It also served as general theory of biological

determinismdeterminism If adult blacks and women are like white male children, they If adult blacks and women are like white male children, they

are living representatives of ancestral stage in the evolution are living representatives of ancestral stage in the evolution of white malesof white males

RecapitulationRecapitulation

Herbert Spencer – supported of social Herbert Spencer – supported of social DarwinismDarwinismStated the intellectual traits of the uncivilized Stated the intellectual traits of the uncivilized

are traits recurring in the children of civilizedare traits recurring in the children of civilizedG. Stanley HallG. Stanley Hall

Claimed higher suicide rated of women as Claimed higher suicide rated of women as sign of their primitive evolutionary statussign of their primitive evolutionary status

Criminal AnthropologyCriminal Anthropology

Lombroso- Italian physicianLombroso- Italian physician Established criminal anthropology – theory of innate Established criminal anthropology – theory of innate

criminalitycriminality Theory was specific Theory was specific evolutionary evolutionary theory based on theory based on

anthropomorphic dataanthropomorphic data Can tell a born criminal by his anatomy and even by Can tell a born criminal by his anatomy and even by

some of this social traits such as:some of this social traits such as:1.1. A special language that contains a lot of onomatopoeia – A special language that contains a lot of onomatopoeia –

speak differently b/c they feel differentlyspeak differently b/c they feel differently2.2. Tattooing (WOW!) – reflects the insensitivity of criminals to Tattooing (WOW!) – reflects the insensitivity of criminals to

pain and atavistic love of adornmentpain and atavistic love of adornment Lombroso’s stigmata were important criteria in many Lombroso’s stigmata were important criteria in many

criminal trialscriminal trials

The Hereditarian Theory of IQThe Hereditarian Theory of IQ

Binet – interested in intelligence testing as well Binet – interested in intelligence testing as well but frustrated with what he called “medical” but frustrated with what he called “medical” approach (craniometry etc) and decided on approach (craniometry etc) and decided on “psychological” method“psychological” method

He developed the test originally b/c He developed the test originally b/c commissioned to do so by minister of public commissioned to do so by minister of public education in order to ONLY identify children who education in order to ONLY identify children who are not succeeding in regular classroom and are not succeeding in regular classroom and therefore provide them with further supporttherefore provide them with further support

IQIQ

However, Binet’s test was since taken and However, Binet’s test was since taken and definitely not used for its original purpose – Binet definitely not used for its original purpose – Binet declined to call IQ a measure of inborn declined to call IQ a measure of inborn intelligenceintelligence

But hereditarians who got a hold of the test used But hereditarians who got a hold of the test used it as a way to measure “inborn intelligence” and it as a way to measure “inborn intelligence” and then rank people accordingly – this affectedthen rank people accordingly – this affected Education certain groups of people receivedEducation certain groups of people received Certain Jobs people were considered forCertain Jobs people were considered for

Intelligence TestedIntelligence Tested

Misuse of intelligence tests arises from 2 Misuse of intelligence tests arises from 2 fallacies:fallacies:

1.1. ReificationReification – intelligence is this real, singular – intelligence is this real, singular thing a person possessesthing a person possesses

2.2. Hereditarianism Hereditarianism – not simple claim that IQ is – not simple claim that IQ is heritable but 2 false implications drawn from heritable but 2 false implications drawn from this ideathis idea

1.1. Equation of “heritable” with “inevitable”Equation of “heritable” with “inevitable”

2.2. Confusion of within- and between-group heredityConfusion of within- and between-group heredity

HereditarianismHereditarianism

Hereditarianism equates “heritable” with Hereditarianism equates “heritable” with “inevitable”“inevitable”

Gould stated that genes so not make specific Gould stated that genes so not make specific bits and pieces of a body; bits and pieces of a body; they code for a they code for a range of forms under an array of range of forms under an array of environmental conditionsenvironmental conditions Midgley and Morris (1992) support this idea in Midgley and Morris (1992) support this idea in

their paper where they essentially asserted the their paper where they essentially asserted the notion that the nature nurture is a false notion that the nature nurture is a false dichotomy. Nothing including “instinct” is dichotomy. Nothing including “instinct” is “genetically determined” without environmental “genetically determined” without environmental inputinput

Prominent figures in the introduction of Prominent figures in the introduction of intelligence testing in the USintelligence testing in the US

H.H. GoddardH.H. Goddard – first popularizer of Binet scale in – first popularizer of Binet scale in America developed “scientific” term moron – America developed “scientific” term moron – those just under normal intelligencethose just under normal intelligence

Lewis M. TermanLewis M. Terman – mass marketing of the innate – mass marketing of the innate IQ – wanted to sort children to their “proper” IQ – wanted to sort children to their “proper” stations in lifestations in life

R.M. YerkesR.M. Yerkes – Army Mental Tests – faculty at – Army Mental Tests – faculty at Harvard – massive testing with army recruits – Harvard – massive testing with army recruits – established the superiority of whites over all established the superiority of whites over all others, wealthier over poorer, and certain types others, wealthier over poorer, and certain types of white Europeans (e.g. Nordic) over other of white Europeans (e.g. Nordic) over other types of white Europeans (e.g. Mediterraneans)types of white Europeans (e.g. Mediterraneans)

BoringBoring – applied intelligence test in army with – applied intelligence test in army with Yerkes – statistical interpretation of test which Yerkes – statistical interpretation of test which gave whites distinct advantagegave whites distinct advantage

C.C BrighamC.C Brigham – published (1923) book – published (1923) book A Study of A Study of American Intelligence – American Intelligence – which became primary which became primary vehicle for translating army results on group vehicle for translating army results on group differences into social actiondifferences into social action Ability to immigrate in the US – several Jewish Ability to immigrate in the US – several Jewish

individuals who anticipated the holocaust fled to seek individuals who anticipated the holocaust fled to seek refuge in the US and were denied on the basis of refuge in the US and were denied on the basis of assumptions of their “worth” that were assigned to assumptions of their “worth” that were assigned to them by these intelligence teststhem by these intelligence tests

The Bell CurveThe Bell Curve

In In 1994 1994 Herrnstein and Murray published: Herrnstein and Murray published: The bell curve: the reshaping of American The bell curve: the reshaping of American life by difference in intelligencelife by difference in intelligence

In this book, Gould refutes the arguments In this book, Gould refutes the arguments put forth by this bookput forth by this book

Critique of The Bell CurveCritique of The Bell Curve

Book was well received at the time it was Book was well received at the time it was published (1994) b/c of the general social published (1994) b/c of the general social climate of the time – an ungenerous climate of the time – an ungenerous climate looking to cut social programs and climate looking to cut social programs and can very justified in this by the argument can very justified in this by the argument that:that:Beneficiaries of these programs can’t really Beneficiaries of these programs can’t really

be helped b/c of inborn cognitive inability be helped b/c of inborn cognitive inability expressed in the form of the IQexpressed in the form of the IQ

Critique of The Bell CurveCritique of The Bell Curve

The Bell Curve rests on 2 arguments: The Bell Curve rests on 2 arguments: 1.1. Rehashing Social Darwinism which is Rehashing Social Darwinism which is

evolutionary argument about biological basis evolutionary argument about biological basis of human differencesof human differences

2.2. Extends argument for innate cognitive Extends argument for innate cognitive stratification by social class to a claim for stratification by social class to a claim for inherited racial differences in IQ – small inherited racial differences in IQ – small extension for Asian superiority over extension for Asian superiority over Caucasian but large extension for Caucasian but large extension for Caucasian over people of African descentCaucasian over people of African descent

Critique continuedCritique continued

Central fallacy of Bell Curve: using Central fallacy of Bell Curve: using substantial heritability of within group IQ is substantial heritability of within group IQ is explanation for average difference explanation for average difference between groupsbetween groups

The authors in interpreting the results of The authors in interpreting the results of IQ tests, omitted facts, misused statistical IQ tests, omitted facts, misused statistical methods (see above), and seemed methods (see above), and seemed unwilling to admit the consequences of unwilling to admit the consequences of their booktheir book

Critique continuedCritique continued

The authors were disingenuous with The authors were disingenuous with contentcontentMurray denied race as in subject important in Murray denied race as in subject important in

the book – blamed media for thisthe book – blamed media for thisBut race was 1 of 2 major themes in the book But race was 1 of 2 major themes in the book

and their claims about group differences had and their claims about group differences had major political impactmajor political impact

Critique continuedCritique continued Authors were disingenuous about the argumentAuthors were disingenuous about the argument

Book hid behind many complex numbers and figuresBook hid behind many complex numbers and figures The book is very one-dimensional – all the analysis rests upon a The book is very one-dimensional – all the analysis rests upon a

single technique applied to a single set of datasingle technique applied to a single set of data Authors failed to supply any justification for central claim: reality Authors failed to supply any justification for central claim: reality

of the IQ as a number that measures a real property in the headof the IQ as a number that measures a real property in the head In one part of the book, the authors essentially state that “….. In one part of the book, the authors essentially state that “…..

you cannot predict what a given person will do from his IQ score” you cannot predict what a given person will do from his IQ score” but in the very next statement they made the strong causal but in the very next statement they made the strong causal claim, “We will argue that intelligence itself, not just its claim, “We will argue that intelligence itself, not just its correlation with socioeconomic status, is responsible for these correlation with socioeconomic status, is responsible for these group differences.” group differences.”

Take home pointTake home point Science is a social endeavor – scientists bring their Science is a social endeavor – scientists bring their

cultural values to their analysescultural values to their analyses When biological determinism dominates, the When biological determinism dominates, the

consequences at the scientific, social, and political level consequences at the scientific, social, and political level can have a tremendous negative impactcan have a tremendous negative impact

Biological determinism espouses the idea that traits, Biological determinism espouses the idea that traits, especially cognitive abilities are innate and society’s especially cognitive abilities are innate and society’s structure should reflect these natural, biological structure should reflect these natural, biological differencesdifferences

Gould conducted a reanalysis of the data collected by Gould conducted a reanalysis of the data collected by the most prominent scientists past and present, and the most prominent scientists past and present, and demonstrated that these data were collected and demonstrated that these data were collected and interpreted on shaky scientific/statistical grounds under interpreted on shaky scientific/statistical grounds under the influence of the cultural climate of their timesthe influence of the cultural climate of their times

Take home pointTake home point The main point here is that these biological The main point here is that these biological

determinists were the most eminent determinists were the most eminent thinkers/scientists of their timethinkers/scientists of their time

They did not purposely commit fraud with the They did not purposely commit fraud with the data they collecteddata they collected

They truly attempted to conduct good science They truly attempted to conduct good science but were still very much influenced by the but were still very much influenced by the greater cultural contextgreater cultural context

Skinner was right – science is verbal behavior Skinner was right – science is verbal behavior and verbal behavior is behavior like any other, and verbal behavior is behavior like any other, subject to the same environmental influences as subject to the same environmental influences as all other behaviorall other behavior