research on the practical parameters of sex pheromone traps for the oriental fruit moth

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Research ArticleReceived: 1 August 2012 Revised: 28 May 2013 Accepted article published: 8 June 2013 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 15 July 2013

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/ps.3592

Research on the practical parameters of sexpheromone traps for the oriental fruit mothZhi-guo Zhao,a† Er-hua Rong,a† Sheng-Cai Li,a Li-jun Zhang,a Wei-na Kong,b

Rong-shan Hu,a Jin-tong Zhanga and Rui-yan Maa∗

Abstract

BACKGROUND: The oriental fruit moth (OFM) is a worldwide fruit-boring insect pest. In China, OFM monitoring traps use a sexpheromone lure, but their overall design is varied. As such, there is a critical need to develop a standardised OFM trap design.In this field study, ten different trap shapes in varying combinations of colours and sizes (such as trap length and surface area)were examined.

RESULTS: The results showed that there was no significant difference in the trapping efficiency between eight colours. The ship-shaped trap could kill more OFM in a short period, whereas the automatic watering basin trap could be more effective in the longrun. The optimal trapping diameter of the basin trap was 25 cm. The trapping efficiency of triangle traps with diameters of lessthan 10 cm was better than that of triangle traps with diameters of over 30 cm. The trapping number of pasteboard traps obviouslydeclined when the surface area increased, and the pasteboard trap with a single board possessed excellent trapping efficiency.

CONCLUSION: The results provide useful information for the design of standardised sex pheromone traps for monitoring aswell as trapping of OFM in the field.c© 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: parameters of traps; sex pheromone trap; oriental fruit moth; monitoring and mass trapping

1 INTRODUCTIONThe oriental fruit moth (OFM), Grapholita molesta (Busck), is aworldwide fruit-boring insect pest1 with a distribution includingAsia, North America, Europe, Australia and Africa. The OFM is alsoregarded as a very serious agricultural pest in China, especiallyin the country’s northern and eastern regions. The host rangeof G. molesta mainly includes apple, Malus domestica (Borkh)(Rosaceae), pear, Pyrus communis L., quince, Cydonia oblonga(Mill.) (Rosaceae), apricot, Prunus armeniaca L., cherry, Prunusavium L., and plum, Prunus dornestica L. Neonate larvae bore intothe fruit and remain there throughout their feeding stages, thusreducing the fruit quality and the economic income of the farmers.In some studies, the incidence of fruit or shoot damage variedbetween 20 and 30%, and it can reach as high as 80% when OFMpopulations are high.2 Currently, the main pest control methodin agricultural production is dependent on chemical pesticides.However, long-term pesticide use will result in environmentaldeterioration and significantly increase the possibility of pesticideresistance development.3 Meanwhile, pesticide residues also causefood safety problems related to human health.4

Sex pheromones are chemical signals emitted by insects in traceamounts that are usually species specific and are often utilised astrap attractants in the monitoring and control of pest species.5

Compared with most chemical pesticides, sex pheromones arehighly selective and non-toxic, which makes their use in integratedpest management (IPM) strategies ideal in sustainable agriculturesettings.6 The sex pheromone of OFM, (Z)-8-dodecenyl acetate,has been successfully used in OFM monitoring/trapping andmating disruption procedures in the United States, Canada and

Australia.7–17 In China, the application of mating disruption inlarge areas to control OFM is obstructed because of high inputcost, while inspection and trapping are widely used. In addition,trapping devices used by agricultural specialists and farmers arenot consistent and their application is too varied. This makesit difficult to evaluate an OFM control tactic effectively. Themajor goals of the present study were to examine various trapparameters, such as shape (including diameter), colour and surfacearea, and then to design an optimal, standardised trap (utilising asex pheromone lure) for monitoring and controlling OFM.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1 MaterialsSex pheromone lures (obtained from the Institute of Zoology,Chinese Academy of Sciences) were used to monitor OFMpopulations in each treatment. Blue rubber septa were loadedwith 200 µg of OFM pheromone which consisted of 95%(Z)-8-dodecen-1-yl acetate and 5% (E)-8-dodecen-1-yl acetate.Pheromone lures were effective for 60 days.

∗ Correspondence to: Rui-yan Ma, College of Agriculture, Shanxi AgriculturalUniversity, Taigu 030801, China.E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

† Zhi-guo Zhao and Er-hua Rong should be regarded as co-first authors.

a College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, China

b Institute of Plant Protection, Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Science, Taiyuan,China

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www.soci.org Z-G Zhao et al.

2.2 MethodsThe field experiment was conducted in peach orchards in TaiguCounty of Shanxi (longitude 37◦ 20′ 28′′ E, latitude 112◦ 32′ 01′′ N),where Okubao was the main cultivar. The study was arranged in arandomised block design. The OFM traps were designed accordingto different colours, shapes, diameters (side lengths) and surfaceareas. The experiment time and location are listed in Table 1.The trials were also carefully designed to avoid prevailing winddirections and edge effects. The traps were all set up in a randomposition for 3 days and then exchanged randomly to minimise theerror of the field experiment. The traps were hung from a peachbranch 1.5 m above the ground, with an interval between eachtrap of 30 m. The number of OFM caught in traps was counted at6:00–8:00 a.m. every day.

2.2.1 Traps with different coloursThe colour experiment was arranged with nine treatments (thatis, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple, black and clear)and three replications. The colours were set according to CMYKprinting-plate values and were printed on sunscreen paper withsunscreen film overlaid to prevent the colour from fading in thesunshine. The colourful paper was pasted to the outside surfaceof basin traps.

2.2.2 Traps with different shapesThe shape experiment was arranged with ten treatments [a basintrap (A), a floater and basin trap (B), a modified plastic bottle (C),an automatic watering basin trap (D), a ship-shaped PheroconIC (E), a triangle trap (F), a pasteboard (G), a modified plasticbottle trap (H), a modified plastic cola bottle (J) and a basin andpasteboard trap (K)] and three replications. The structures of thetraps are shown in Fig. 1a.

2.2.3 Traps of different diametersBasin-shaped traps were designed in six different diameters (10,15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 cm) with four replications, and triangle trapswere designed in five different triangle side lengths (10, 20, 30, 40and 50 cm) with five replications. The lure was fixed with pins tothe middle position on the pasteboard, 1 cm away from the board.

2.2.4 Traps of different surface areasA single pasteboard with a surface area of 13 × 26 cm2 was used asa unit. In a vertical and overhead view, a single piece of pasteboardbecame ‘ – ’ style, three pieces of unit pasteboard were shown as‘ ’ style, four pieces of unit pasteboard displayed ‘+’ style and fivepieces of unit pasteboard became ‘ ’ style (Fig. 2a). Traps withdifferent surface areas were designed with three replications.

2.3 Statistical analysisAll the results were analysed by SPSS 18.0 software, and multiplecomparisons were performed by Fisher’s (protected) LSD test at a5% level of significance.

3 RESULTS3.1 Mean daily catches of basin traps in nine differentcoloursThere was no statistical difference in daily catches among ninedifferent treatments (F8,108 = 1.939, df = 8, 108, P = 0.061). Asshown in Fig. 3, the trapping number of the clear trap was thehighest, and those of the orange and red traps were relativelyhigh. The mean daily trapping number of the clear trap was 10.9per day.

3.2 Mean daily catches of traps in ten different stylesAccording to Fig. 1a, the ranking of the average daily number ofall styles of trap was as follows: ship-shaped Pherocon IC (E) >

automatic watering basin trap (D) > basin trap (A) > modifiedplastic bottle (C) > basin and pasteboard trap (K) > floater andbasin trap (B) > triangle trap (F) > modified plastic cola bottle (J) >pasteboard (G) > modified plastic bottle trap (H). The average dailytrapping number of ship-shaped Pherocon IC (E) was significantlyhigher than that of other styles. The difference of the automaticwatering basin trap (D) from the basin trap (A), floater and basintrap (B), triangle (F), pasteboard trap (K), modified plastic bottle (C)and modified plastic cola bottle (J) was significant. The differenceof Pherocon IC (E), the automatic watering basin trap (D) and themodified plastic bottle (C) from the modified plastic bottle trap(H) was also significant (F9,80 =11.477, df = 9, 80, P < 0.01). Theaverage daily trapping number of Pherocon IC (E) was 38.0, whichwas significantly higher than that of the automatic watering basintrap (D) (19.9). The average daily trapping number of the modifiedplastic bottle (C) was 15.6, and that of the basin trap (A) was 16.2,while that of the triangle (F) was 10.0. The average daily trappingnumber of the modified plastic bottle trap (H) was the lowest (4.6).

3.3 Mean daily catches of basin traps of six differentdiametersThe capture efficiency of the basin traps increased as the diameterincreased from 10 to 25 cm, but declined as the diameter increasedfrom 30 to 35 cm (Fig. 4). The trapping number of traps of 20, 25and 30 cm diameter was significantly different from that of trapsof 10, 15 and 35 cm diameter (F5,66 = 3.553, df = 5, 66, P = 0.007).The average daily trapping number of traps of 25 cm diameter wasthe highest, reaching 44.3, while the difference between traps of20 and 30 cm diameter was not significant.

3.4 Mean daily catches of triangle traps of five different sidelengthsAs shown in Fig. 5, the trapping number gradually decreased asthe side length increased from 10 to 50 cm. The capture efficiencyof triangle traps of 10 and 50 cm side length was significantlydifferent (F4,39 = 4.261, df = 4, 35, P = 0.007). The averagedaily trapping number of traps with a side length of 10 cmwas 27.6, which was not significantly different from that of trapswith a side length of 20 cm. The lowest trapping number wasobtained in traps with a side length of 50 cm, which was 6.6 indaily average.

3.5 Mean daily catches of traps of four different surfaceareasAs shown in Fig. 2b, the trapping number gradually decreased asthe surface area increased from II to V. The capture efficiency oftype II was significantly different from that of other types (F3,40 =3.837, df = 3, 43, P = 0.017). The trapping numbers of types II, III,IV and V were converted to average trapping numbers per squaremeter and amounted to 607, 119, 78 and 45 respectively. Type IIhad the smallest surface area and highest trapping numbers andthus had the lowest cost and highest efficiency.

4 DISCUSSIONActive monitoring is a key component for effective pest control.Sex pheromone traps have been demonstrated to be an effectiveapproach to the monitoring and trapping of insect pests.18 Besides

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Table 1. The four different styles of sex-pheromone-baited trap

Traps Site GPS information Date Experimental design

Different colours Xiaochang village E: 37◦ 29′ 57.85′′ 15 June 2008– Three replications

N: 112◦ 37′ 32.80′′ 23 July 2008

H: 795 m

Xishandi village E: 37◦ 21′ 27.90′′ 18 June 2009– Three replications

N: 112◦ 33′ 27.46′′ 25 July 2009

H: 856 m

Different shapes Jingshen village E: 37◦ 20′ 28.72′′ 16 June 2008– Three replications

N: 112◦ 32′ 01.06′′ 16 July 2008

H: 886 m

Dongguan village E: 37◦ 26′ 00.57′′ 20 June 2009– Three replications

N: 112◦ 34′ 21.14′′ 20 July 2009

H: 793 m

Houcheng village E: 37◦ 24′ 12.34′′ 19 June 2010– Three replications

N: 112◦ 35′ 18.97′′ 19 July 2010

H: 836 m

Different diameters Jingshen village E: 37◦ 20′ 28.72′′ 23 June 2009– Four replications

N: 112◦ 32′ 01.06′′ 2 Aug 2009

H :886 m

Dongguan village E: 37◦ 26′ 00.57′′ 26 June 2010– Four replications

N: 112◦ 34′ 21.14′′ 5 Aug 2010

H: 793m

Different side lengths Jingshen village E: 37◦ 20′ 28.72′′ 23 June 2009– Five replications

N: 112◦ 32′ 01.06′′ 2 Aug 2009

H: 886 m

Different surface areas Jingshen village E: 37◦ 20′ 28.72′′ 5 June 2008– Three replications

N: 112◦ 32′ 01.06′′ 28 July 2008

H: 886 m

Shagou village E: 37◦ 27′ 52.43′′ 1 June 2009– Three replications

N: 112◦ 39′ 51.07′′ 23 July 2009

H: 842 m

a high-efficiency lure, the appropriate trapping device also shouldbe carefully selected. In choosing an efficient and accurate devicefor monitoring, most consideration is given to increasing thecapture efficiency, in addition to feasibility and low cost. Anattempt was made to evaluate the mean daily catches of differentsex pheromone traps in the present study. Results suggest thatthe optimal diameter is 25 cm and the optimal colour is red for abasin trap, while the suitable side length of a delta-shaped trapis 10 cm. A single pasteboard trap with a surface area of 26 ×26 cm2, a delta trap or a modified plastic bottle trap are suitablefor monitoring. For mass trapping of OFM in the peak period,ship-shaped Pherocon IC is more feasible, but the pasteboardsmust be changed frequently. An automatic watering basin trap isalso another good choice.

4.1 The colours of the trapping deviceThe response of an insect to trap colours is based on the instinctof its visual system. This mainly stems from distinguishing foodcolours when the insect is seeking food.19 Different insects aresensitive to different colours. For example, for Cydia pomonella L.,the capture efficiency of a white device is twice as high as thatof a blue device.20 For Heliothis armigera H., the capture numberof a green device is higher than that of a brown or red device.For the male of Cydiatrasias (Meyrick), the capture efficiency ofwhite, green and yellow devices is significantly higher than that of

a blue device.21 For Parnara guttata Bremer et Grey, the captureefficiency of a purple or blue device is significantly higher than thatof a yellow or green device. The present results have proved thatOFM has no obvious colour preference, as the capture efficiency ofall the colours shows no significant difference, which is consistentwith previous reports.22 However, the OFM capture efficiency ofa red trap device is slightly higher than that of devices of othercolours. According to previous reports, OFM shows preference todark red fruits, and it often lays the eggs on red-coloured fruits.23

Thus, it can be concluded that OFM has no sensitivity to colours inthe visible light spectrum, but favours red slightly. A red trappingdevice is suggested, with a CMYK value of 0:100:100:0.

4.2 The shapes of the trapping deviceThe main factors in luring and killing the pests are the shapes of thetraps and the ways of killing. Different insects behave differentlywhen flying and landing under the control of sex hormones.24

The shapes of the traps could affect the concentration of sexpheromones, and the ways of killing could influence the captureefficiency. Gathered male insects could advance the normal rhythmof OFM sexual response. The capture efficiency is found to increasewhen male insects gather on the pasteboard.25 According to thecapture efficiency of four ways of killing and ten types of trappingdevice, the ship-shaped Pherocon IC had the highest capture

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Figure 1. Average daily number of OFM by sex pheromone traps with different shapes. (a) Trap shapes: (A) basin trap; (B) floater and basin trap; (C)modified plastic bottle; (D) automatic watering basin trap; (E) ship-shaped Pherocon IC; (F) triangle trap; (G) pasteboard; (H) modified plastic bottle trap; (J)modified plastic cola bottle; (K) basin and pasteboard trap. (b) The daily average capture numbers were obtained and analysed by multiple comparisons.Different lower-case letters indicate a statistical difference (P < 0.05).

Figure 2. Average daily number of OFM by sex pheromone pasteboard traps of different surface areas. (a) The pasteboard traps were assembled in fourdifferent styles with different surface areas: II, 13 × 26 × 2 = 676 cm2; III, 13 × 26 × 3 × 2 = 2028 cm2; IV, 13 × 26 × 4 × 2 = 2704 cm2; V, 13 × 26 × 5 × 2= 3380 cm2. The surface area of a unit pasteboard was 13 × 26 cm2. The number 2 indicates insect glue was brushed into two sides of the pasteboard. (b)The daily average capture numbers were obtained and analysed by multiple comparisons. Different letters in each group indicate a significant differenceof the different treatments (P < 0.05).

efficiency. Diverse applications could be designed on the basis ofthe different performance of different types of trap:

• The ship-shaped Pherocon IC trap is most efficient in capturingOFM; however, in practical use, the capture number decreasesas time goes by. The main reason for this may be that thepasteboard becomes fully stuck with insects. Meanwhile, thecapture numbers are not steady, showing a large differencebetween the highest and the lowest capture numbers. Thus,the ship-shaped Pherocon IC is not suitable for a monitoring

application but can be used in short-term trapping and killing,such as mass trapping in the OFM peak period.

• The capture efficiency of the basin trap is steady. The problemis water replenishment. In summer it takes a lot of work toreplenish water every day.

• The capture efficiency of the automatic watering basin trap ishigh and there is no water replenishment problem. Furthermore,its costs are low and it is easily accessible, which makes it suitablefor the trapping and killing of OFM.


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Figure 3. Average daily number of OFM by sex pheromone basin trapswith different colours.

Figure 4. Average daily number of OFM by sex pheromone basin trapswith different diameters of the basin traps. The diameters of the basintraps ranged from 10 to 35 cm. The average daily capture numbers wereobtained and analysed by multiple comparisons. Different lower-caseletters indicate a statistical difference (P < 0.05).

Figure 5. Average daily number of OFM by sex pheromone delta traps withdifferent triangle side lengths. The delta traps were designed in differenttriangle side lengths from 10 to 50 cm. The daily average capture numberswere obtained and analysed by multiple comparisons. Different letters ineach group indicate a significant difference of the different treatments(P < 0.05).

• The modified plastic bottle trap is not preponderant but issteady in capture efficiency. In addition, the catches of modifiedplastic bottle trap can reflect the peak period of OFM in time.Thus, it can be used for long-term monitoring in combinationwith other ways of prevention.

4.3 The diameters of the trapping deviceUsually, the OFM flies into the lure in a Z-shaped path along aconcentration gradient of sex pheromones,26 followed by a circulartrack taking the lure as the centre.27 When approaching the source,the OFM would reduce its flight speed and land on the trap.28

Therefore, it is suggested that the radius of the circular flight path

may be related to the diameter of the traps. Willis shows that theaverage flying diameter of male OFM around the lure is about 33cm.28 The present results show that the most suitable diameter ofa basin trap is 20–30 cm, a basin trap of 25 cm diameter beingthe most efficient. It is suggested that a basin trap of 25–30 cmdiameter be considered in the field experiment because this isefficient in capturing and will result in relative reductions in theamount of water, labour and cost.

4.4 The surface areas of the trapping deviceThe surface area of the pasteboard is related to the insect gluedosage. Thus, the balance between suitable capture number andsurface area should be considered. The results of using differentsurface areas show that a single pasteboard has the highest captureefficiency. It is reported that the optimal surface area in capturingCydiatrasias (Meyrick) is 500 cm2 for delta-shaped traps.21 If thesurface area of the pasteboards is increased, the sex pheromonelure will be surrounded, which will lead to difficulty in sexpheromone diffusion. This is not conducive to producing a pinnateconcentration gradient in the wind direction and thus disturbsmale orientation and causes a reduced trapping number.29 Asingle pasteboard could be used in short-term monitoring. In thepeak period, only one pasteboard per day is needed, and this willbe convenient for exact and active monitoring.

Besides the parameters of the device, the question of the spatialarrangement of traps in the field also needs to be addressed,including the hanging height of the traps, the interval betweenthe traps and so on. Consideration of these factors could leadto optimal capture efficiency using sex pheromones. Thus, thenumbers of pests could be reduced, but the sex pheromone trap isnot the only way to defend against these pests. It should be usedin combination with other management measures to achieve agood effect.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was supported by the National Department PublicBenefit Research Foundation (Agriculture No. 201103024), theShanxi Agriculture University Innovation Fund (No. 2010007),SXAU Innovative Talent Support Program(BJRC201201), the ChinaPostdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 125375) and Scienceand Technology Development Funds of Shanxi Colleges andUniversities (Grant No.2007120). The authors sincerely thank thestudents of 2007 and 2008 specialising in Plant Protection and of2008 specialising in Biological Information, including Li-ding Zhao,Ji-gang Li, Wen-jun Ren, Xian-wei Li, Yuan-xing Sun and others, fortheir contributions to this study.

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