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UNIT 10 -Report

WritingStudySkills

Unit 10 - Report Writing

How to structure Reports

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Introduction

As part of your course you may have to writereports. You may also have to write reports for otherpurposes which are not part of your course (caraccidents, insurance claims, etc.).

This unit will

explain why you are asked to write reports aspart of your course

suggest a way in which you should structureit.

Learning Outcomes

If you work through this unit you will be better ableto:

understand why you have to write reports structure your report.

Why Write Reports

Reports are usually written to record themethodology, results and conclusions of aninvestigation (especially those of a practical nature).They are used to enable your lecturer to assess(either summative or formative) the way you haveapproached your investigation, collected your dataand evaluated your results.

Structuring Your Report

Your report should have sections similar to thosethat follow.

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1. The Report Title

This should give the reader a very short but crystalclear idea about the topic of the Report. It should beno longer than one sentence although you may

include colons and semi-colons. For experimentalreports it is often best to use the relationshipbetween the independent and dependent variablesas the title e.g.

The Effects of Organising Information on its Recall.

The Golden Rule for titles is be accurate andconcise not cryptic!

2. Abstract (Summary)

A very brief summary of the whole report's contents(but not simply the title of each section) should beincluded. Keep the abstract as brief as possible,about 100 words or a decent paragraph, whilst stillbeing useful and informative.

Very often the reader will make the decision whetheror not to read the whole report based on theabstract and therefore it should be sufficient for thereader to know what the report is all about, including

what the investigation has found.

It is probably a good idea to write the abstract after you have written the rest of the report even though itis presented near the beginning.

3. Introduction

This gives the background to the investigation. Itmay include a brief review of the relevant literature(there is little point in writing a long review of

literature just to prove that you have read it!).

The Introduction "sets up" the report by putting yourinvestigation into its research context and giving thereader some idea as to the reasons for doing thepiece of work. You should give enough backgroundso that the reader can understand the value andimportance of the research question. You should



end this section with a clear statement about theaims of your own study and its experimentalhypothesis where appropriate.

4. Method

Readers will want to know exactly what you did. It isimportant that the information here is sufficientlydetailed to enable someone to exactly replicate theentire investigation. The method section is oftensub-divided into the following sub-sections:

Design. A short section (one or twosentences) in which you make a clear andaccurate statement of the principal featuresof your design. It is a formal statement

outlining what sort of investigation was used. Sample. You should provide a brief

description of the critical features of anyrespondents used.

Who were the subjects of the study?

How were they selected?

How many were there?

The reader must be able to assess whetheryour findings can be generalised and if thereare any variables which will confuse yourresults.

Materials/Apparatus. What sorts ofmaterials were used? For example,experimental stimuli, tests, questionnaires,etc. If using established tests/materials, theseshould be fully referenced. Any apparatusused should be described accurately (use

diagrams/photographs?). Procedure. This should be a description of

exactly how you carried out the investigation,i.e. what exactly happened during theinvestigation, from the start to the finish, inenough detail to allow replication. Rememberto use third party, past tense, e.g. "Thequestionnaire was given to all 1st year



students on the B.A. Business Studiesdegree at their first lecture. The day after thedeadline for return of the questionnaires hadpassed, the answers to each question wererecorded using simple tally charts."

Method of Analysis. As your analysis is partof what you did, you should include astatement of what methods of analysis wereused and why they were chosen.

5. Results

You should start this section with a brief outline ofyou data including a reminder of what the data was(e.g. "a total of 45 questionnaires were returned","during the 15 minute observation, the routes of 78

individuals were recorded"). This must be followedby a summary of your results including descriptivestatistics. The use of tables and graphs is notsufficient, you must include some explanatory text.

N.B. Raw data should be included in an Appendix.

If you are using inferential statistics these shouldcome next. State precisely how the data wasanalysed. Give the degrees of freedom, thesignificance levels of the results and whether you

have accepted or rejected the experimentalhypotheses.

A very common mistake is to confuse the boundarybetween the Results section and the Discussionsection which follows. The Results section showswhat you have found (numerical data and results ofstatistical analyses): the Discussion section focuseson the most reasonable explanation of the findings.

6. Discussion

This covers the interpretations of the results,evaluation of the theoretical significance of thefindings and a general discussion of theinvestigation. It should answer questions such as

What has your investigation shown?



Why was it important?

What theory does it support or contradict?

How does it fit with other studies?

What are the most plausible explanations of yourfindings?

Why do these explanations make sense?

Are there any possible criticisms of theinvestigation?

How with hindsight could the study have beenimproved?

The discussion should

build on the material in the introduction evaluate the adequacy of your methodology suggest design features that may have

affected the results include whether the results would be different

under different conditions.

Also you could comment on what new studies would

be necessary in order to test the interpretations andtheoretical speculations derived from the results ofyour present study.

7. References

Make sure references are given correctly. Somespecific examples follow for referencing

A whole book Martin, P. and Bateson, P. (1986) Measuring

Behaviour: An Introductory Guide.Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. An article in a Journal

Furnham, A and Kirkcaldy, B. (1996) Thehealth beliefs and behaviour of orthodox andcomplementary medicine clients. BritishJournal of Clinical Psychology, 35(1), pp 49-62.



A paper or chapter in a book containingitems by a number of different authors

Arntz, A and Schmidt, J.M. (1989) PerceivedControl and Experience of Pain. In Steptoe,

A. and Appels, A. (Eds) Stress, Personal

Control and Health. Chichester. John Wileyand Sons.

This is covered in more detail in the Citation andReferencing Unit.

8. Appendices

Do not put results here: only the raw data should bepresented in an Appendix.

Some other materials may be usefully included in an Appendix (e.g. blank questionnaires, copy of writtentests used, etc.).

N.B. Do not include anything in an appendix thathasn't been referred to in the text.

Summary

This unit has covered why reports are important andgiven guidance on how they should be structured.

Your subject tutor may give you furtherinstructions.

What Should I Do Now?

When you have to write a report, read theseguidelines again to enable you to

realise the importance of the report give your reports a consistent structure.



Report Writing FAQ

Section 1: Getting StartedFrom the day you walk into university until the day you leave, there are many reports you'll have to write. As a student, these

reports might be the bane of your life - but the truth is, you'll have to write them no matter where you go. From a simple work

assessment report to the high-flying technical write-up, reports are a common form of workplace communication. You may have to

write a report to a 'client' or an assessing manager. Report writing is an essential skill for professionals; master it now and writing

reports won't have to be a pain. Here's where to start.

How do I consider the audience?

As you write, ask yourself:

Why have they asked for a report?

What do they need to know?

How will they use the report?

Throughout your study and future career you will write reports for people who have littleor no background in the area of work your report covers. If this is your audience, thenyour report should be easy to understand. Define terms, offer some backgroundknowledge and use relevant examples. For example, an environmental impactstatement for a newspaper would be written in a style that best suits the non-technicalreader.

On the other hand, if you are writing a technical report intended to be read by a team ofengineers, you can assume a level of prior knowledge and use specialised technicallanguage. Someone expert and knowledgeable in your own field will not necessarilylook upon your work kindly if you write your report with a layperson in mind.

How do I analyse my task?

Analysing your task is very important. If you haven't got a clear picture in your mind ofwhere you want to go, planning the report is going to be difficult. So, here are somequestions you should ask yourself:

Do you understand the type of report needed? (e.g. experimental report, design proposal, etc.)

Do you know how big your report needs to be?

Do you know what is required in the report?

Who is my audience? (e.g. clients, lecturers, assessors, managers etc.)

What is the problem/question?

What is the aim of the report?

What key points or issues need addressing?

What information do you need to collect?



Now that you've got these basic ideas in mind, how and where will you find the relevantinformation?

How do I clarify my aim?

The aim of your report should be clear from the type of report needed. In anexperimental report the aim is very different to that of a design report. For example:

Experimental Report

An experimental report aims to report on:

an experiment or research.

what was achieved during the course of the experiment.

what was concluded and how this compares with previous published results.

Technical Design Report

A Technical Design report aims to:

solve a problem or;

recommend a design

What is the basic structure of a report?

Types of reports can vary greatly; they can range from an experimental report to an environmental impact statement. There is

however, a basic structure common to most reports, irrespective of their type.

Major Components of A General Report

Title Page

Abstract In less than 200 words ... what was the problem, how was it investigated, what did youfind out and what do your findings mean?

Table of Contents A list of the major and minor sections of your report.

Introduction Set the scene; give some background information about the topic. State theaim/purpose of the investigation. Outline the body sections.

Main Body Organise the sections in a logical sequence: what you investigated, what you found,



what interpretations and what judgements you made. Use short informative headingsand subheadings.

Conclusion What has been achieved and what is the significance of your findings and your

discussion? Have your aims been successful or not?

Recommendations What do you recommend as a course of action following your conclusion?

References A list of all the sources you used.

Appendices Any information (graphs, charts, tables or other data)

you used in your report but did not include in thebody. Writing the Report

This section deals with the next step, writing the important sections of your report: theintroduction, conclusion and abstract. They are important because 9 times out of 10,readers will focus on these sections.

Abstracts, Introductions & Conclusions—what's the difference?

An abstract is a brief statement which outlines the report in full; what was done,

achieved, decided and concluded.

The introduction is a section which states your aims and some required backgroundknowledge. An introduction will also outline the body of the report (where you state whatyou will do). Don't confuse the introduction with the abstract or summary; they are verydifferent. Writers often confuse the main purpose behind writing an introduction and anabstract. The common misconception is that one is simply a smaller version of the other(that the introduction is a rewritten, chopped-up version of the abstract). However, this isnot the case.

The Abstract

Most reports need an abstract, but they are generally more important for technicalreports or scientific documents.

An abstract is a succinct passage which provides a brief outline on what was achieved/decided/concluded in your report.

An abstract is placed on a separate page before the contents page.

An abstract can be written last so that every bit of necessary detail is taken from the finished report.



An abstract is one part of a report that will certainly be read by a client/assessor/manager. The rest of the report is read if more

detail is required.

An abstract is about half a page in length. Sometimes a word limit is given. This can range from 50-300 words.

Example Abstract

A trailer rig was used to analyse the properties of an undampedsystem and experiment with a range of instrumentation. [1]

It was found that two modes of vibration exist, these beinglongitudinal vibration and rotational. The damping ratio and naturalfrequency were calculated and are included in this report. Thedamping was found to be linear. [2] While the experiment wasuseful it did not closely resemble road conditions. Actual roadconditions would result in successive bumps and constantvibration while the wheels rotated the whole time. [3] Finally, it was

decided that given cost considerations, the XY plotter providedaccurate results and manageable data. [4]

[1] Set upprocedure

[2] Initial findings

[3] Conclusions

[4] Recommendations

The Introduction

The aim of an introduction is to state what you have been asked to achieve and list yourcurrent course of action.

Example Introduction 1

This document compares a range of instrumentation of varyingcost and sophistication and investigates the properties ofundamped systems. [1] The natural frequency and damping ratioof these systems will give an indication of their behaviour when‘excited’. Furthermore, an analysis of the mathematical model ascompared to actual road conditions must be completed andequipment suggested for further studies of the trailer. [2]

[1] Purpose

[2] Aim; part of amajor report.Requires an outlineof the steps you willtake

Example Introduction 2

Machinery and equipment in industry is heated up andbrought on line gradually to avoid problems generated bythermal generated stresses. [1] In this experiment theseverity of stress due to sudden temperature changes are

[1] Background

[2] Aim; it is not necessaryto outline everything in a



examined. [2] short of introductory report.Be succinct!

The Conclusion

The conclusion (along with the introduction and abstract) is generally the section mostread by clients. If you can conclude your work /findings well, you facilitate your client’sunderstanding of your work’s significance, your achievements and whether your aimshave been successful or not. Even in the face of failure, e.g. your experiments do notwork, a proper conclusion would demonstrate an understanding of what you achieved.Here is how to do that:

Note the shortcomings and pitfalls of the methods and/or equipment used

State your findings from the analysis of your data

Outline possible recommendations (e.g. provide suggestions for further research). Recommendations may form a separate heading

if substantial.

A Note of Caution

Do not use your abstract to write your conclusion or vice versa as the reader will believeyou have not put enough thought into why you are doing your work. Remember theabstract, introduction and conclusion have different purposes, different emphasis anddifferent structures.

Example Conclusion

The results of the damping coefficient and the natural frequencyof the system are fairly consistent given the small amount ofdata given and how prone this method is to error. [1]

In looking at the data provided by the pointer and scale it issurprising that the results were so consistent. The equipmentwas difficult to use and read and not really adequate for thistype of testing. [1]

The LVDT transducer provided clear results for the XY plotterand the digital oscilloscope, both providing graphs that werevery clear. I recommend the use of the XY plotter over thedigital oscilloscope due to their difference in price ($4000 for aXY plotter and $7000 for a digital oscilloscope). The XY plotterdoes not require the use of a computer and printer to get it intoa hard copy form where the data can be analysed. [2]

[1] Findings and whatwas achieved

[2] Recommendations



How should I present my report?

READ assignment guidelines in your course outlines. Reading these instructions will inevitably save you hours in that final effort

to finish the report.

Impress your marker by making it look like a professional report. You can do this easily because many word processing

programs have a report template you can use or adapt.

Type your report; it makes your work easier to read.

If you need to do calculations by hand, adhere to the following guidelines:

o Rule your page. Put answers to all your calculations in a right hand column. This stops the reader from having to search

your page for them.

o Double space your work. Don't squash visuals and text together.

Everything must be geared towards making it easy for your readers. See our brochure on Technical Writing for

additional advice on language and layout of reports.

Project and thesis reports are kept in the collection of the main library and your school library. Refer to these as models.

Remember, keep it simple!

1. What was the original request? Does your work fulfil the requirements?

2. What does the audience need/want from your report? Have you included it?

3. When editing your report, retain what is important/ relevant, delete what is not.

4. Is there much repetition? Can you merge or delete sections?

5. Do your conclusions come from your findings and not from generalisations? (Seeexample below).

Example Conclusions. . .

3 academics are traveling on a train through Britain. As the train crosses into Scotlandthey see a black sheep in a field.

The 1st academic remarks "Oh look, the sheep in Scotland are black".(overgeneralising)

The second academic replies "No, some sheep in Scotland are black". (a reasonableconclusion)

The third academic declares "There is at least one sheep in Scotland that is black on atleast one side". (a precise and cautious conclusion)

Need to know more?

IF ALL ELSE FAILS, revisit your original task analysis and TALK TO YOUR 'CLIENT'(lecturer, tutor, marker etc.) and clarify what they want in the report.

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Report Writing

Study Skills Home

Essay and Report Writing Presentation of Work

Method of Citation

Essay Writing Skills Report Writing Skills

The difference between an essay anda Report

Assignments

Essay and Report WritingSlides

Sample Essay Test Essay

Further Skills

Working as a Group

Managing Your Time

Making the Most of yourTime in the Department

Oral Presentation Skills

Resources Web Resources for

Information Professionals

What’s the difference between an essay and a Report?

The key differences are that a Report is usually prepared for a specificclient or readership, and it has specific ‘terms of reference’ (objectives).

Reports usually include:

Title Page: Essential. A Report should be well presented – you may bepersuading someone to letyou do something or give you money!

Abstract: Essential. Long Reports may also have an ‘ExecutiveSummary’ which summarises the arguments and recommendations (forbusy clients who haven’t got time to read the whole thing.

Credentials of the author(s): Essential when the Report is for an outsideclient and you need to assure them of your expertise. E.g. a ResearchBid.

Terms of Reference: Similar to Objectives. What have you been askedto do by the client? What is the outcome to be? Recommendations? An Action Plan? Options? Are there financial limits within which you mustwork?

Contents Page: Lists your sections and the page on which they appearor start.

Body of the Report: Will depend on your terms of reference. Sideheadings are essential. Reports often use ‘legal numbering’ for side

headings, e.g.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Current Position

1.2.1 The UK

1.2.2 USA

For short Reports it may be unnecessary to go beyond second level: 1.1,1.2, 1.3 etc.

The idea of numbering in this way is that it shows the relationship

between headings (subordinate subjects etc.) and makes it easy for theclient to refer to specific parts of the Report.

The body of the Report may contain your arguments, an analysis ofoptions (for and against, pros and cons, strengths and weaknesses etc.)

Recommendations (or Action Plan or whatever your ‘client’ has specified

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in your terms of reference):

That financial provision should be made for….

That an analysis of future needs be undertaken…..

That an IT Manager should be appointed…..

References/Bibliography: It is usual for a Report to end with Referencesrather than a Bibliography – the ‘client’ is primarily interested in what‘experts’ (sources) you have called upon to support your arguments orustify your recommendations. i.e. Every source you list should be cited inthe text of your Report.

Appendices: It is common for Reports to have appendices. These followthe References and may include supporting documentation such as aQuestionnaire you used, full statistical tables, in short, material that wouldhave made the Report indigestible if incorporated into the text but whichstill may be of interest to a minority of readers.

Other points: A report needs to put across its message very succinctlyand clearly. Time is money and busy clients need Reports, which areeasy to assimilate and understand. A Report tends to use more visualdevices than an essay, in order to achieve this. These may includeindentation, bullet points, use of Bold or Italic faces, tables, diagrams,charts etc. It is usual, in Reports to use ‘listing’ to highlight key issues,recommendations etc. rather than incorporate them into narrativeparagraphs, e.g.

Assignments

The above points are general – not specific to any assignment.

In terms of assignments in ‘Report’ format you may be expected to write itas yourself with the Tutor as ‘client’ or, if you are given a case study youmay choose to ‘role-play’ as a consultant for the Organisation.

The advice in the Students’ Handbook regarding Presentation of Workalso applies to Reports. All tutors will expect you to reference your reportsin a similar way to essays. You MUST justify your arguments andrecommendations with reference to the literature.

Students are advised to check with their Module Tutor if they are in anydoubt.



Report writing skills

A report is a formal piece of written work based on facts, process or test. It is usually written in a

concise style, giving precise details. It is useful to draw the attention of your learners to three

important points:

audience - Who is the report for?

aims - What end result do they want - to inform, persuade, recommend?

topic and focus - What is the main subject area and which particular aspect/issues will the

report cover?

The procedure of report writing includes:

defining the aims to be achieved

deciding the appropriate format

writing a report plan

selecting the content

structuring clearly

drafting

editing - related to: correction of style and language errors, critical rationalisation of the

content, pagination, layout, etc.

writing final version

The main structural elements of every report are: title, author, summary, abstract/synopsis,

acknowledgment, terms of reference/remit, foreword, aims, objectives, introduction,methodology, findings/results, conclusions, recommendations, references/bibliography,

appendices and index.

You can suggest that learners use the following planner to plan activities and improve their

report-writing skills.

Planner: "Improving report-writing skills"

Notes on improvementneeded

Actions to betaken

Resources/supportneeded

Bywhen?

Identifying aims

Identifying readers' needs

Planning (tasks, time andresources)



Structuring the report

Gathering information

Criticising/evaluating

Presenting the report

Using images/visuals

Signposting

Editing

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