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Index

Aborigines, stone tool use, 157,216Abrader

function of, 45Illinois system, 82

Abrasive modificationsground stone tools , 74-85meaning of, 64

Adzesas bifacial tool , 65tranchet adze , 206

Afton points, mass analysis , 131Agate , for sharp-edge tools, 19Agricultural equipment

damage/modification from, 69-74plow damage experiments, 71-73

Agricultural tools, types of, 176Aguadulce (Panama), starch grain analysis ,

161Ahler, Stan , 131Alder Creek (Ontario) site, stage of tool

manufacture, 122Alibates, visual sourcing of, 28, 30Altun Ha (Belize), ritual stone objects , 217Americ an Antiquity effect , 124Ames Hemastix test, 166Amorphous cores, 63Amphibole, chemical composition, 17Anderson , Patricia , 164Andesite

crystal structure, 16for ground stone tools , 83and sharp-edge tools, 17, 21texture , 17

Animal blood. See Blood residuesAnimal hide . See HideAnimal processing, 185-187

bison example, 186-187butchering tools , 186

Animal procurement, 177-181projectile points , 177-180scavenging, 180

Anisotropic, definition of, 31Antler

and percussion flaking, 59, 61for percussive tools , 44for pressure flaking, 61-62

Anvil technique, 60-61Aphanitic crystal structure, stone containing,

16Argillite, for sharp-edge tools, 21Arrowroot starch, analysis of, 161Artifact, definition of, 4Assemblage

of complex societies , 10definition of, 4, 6type collection concept, 90-91

Assemblage comparisons, 110-118Brainerd-Robinson coefficients, 116-118cumulative graph in, 113-114by evenness , 112-1 13evenness measure , 112-113by richness , 111-112snowflake diagrams, 115-116

Assemblage variability, 6-7analysis of. See Lithic analysisMousterian tools, 7primary agency issue, 62-63theories of, 6-7types issue , 7

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), 3,38-39

obsidian sourcing study, 36pros/cons of, 38-39

Attributedefinition of, 87discrete attribute , 125

247

248

Attribute analysisdebitage analysis , 125-129process, 103redu ction stage determiners, 126- 128

Auroc hs , 177Australia

Aborigines . stone tool use. 157 , 2 16sta rch grains analys is. 160-161, 183-1 85

Axesas bifac ial tool , 65 . 67 . 74chipped stone axe, 188ground stone. production of. 75-78

Axial term inations. feature s of, 58

Bann erstone s, Illino is system, 82Barn es, Alfred. 63Basalt s

crys tal structure . 16for sharp-edge tools , 17

Base camps, 131Bead production

Cahokia, 207- 209Channel Island s, 206-207. 214co ntro l of produ ction . 2 14Illin ois sys tem. 82microlith drill bit as tool, 207Sant a Cruz Island . 207. 209

Bear. blood residue analysis. 168Bear Gulch (Idah o), obsidian source . 36Bedded cherts , 20 , 2 1Bedrock mortar. 79Bending fractures, 47-48

fracture sequence, 48Bevell ed pounders, plant processing.

183-1 84Biface redu ction flake . features of, 121Bifaces, generic. 65. 68Bifaci al retouch

examples of . 65-67meanin g of. 45

Bifacial tool s, 65-67adzes, 65axes . 65. 67 . 74bifaces.ofburin s, 109dr ills, 65 , 67 , 74hoe, 67, 74mano (handstone) , 82non-reduction bifac es, 109oval biface exa mples, 206

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Bifacial tools (conr .)

proje ct ile points, 65 . 74retouch , 65-67traje ctory determinat ion . 97-102ultrathin biface, 192-1 93

Billet , function of . 44Binford. Lewis. 6-7. 10Binocular metallurgical microscope with

incident lightfeatures/ut ility of. 148-150use- wear analys is. 8. 148- 152See also High-p ower analysis

Biogenic rock . types of. 18Bipolar flak ing

debit age analysis, 121functions of. 49-50. 59. 6 1signs of. 61

Bisonblood residu e analys is, 166. 168. 169. 170.

180butchering of, 186-1 87Folsom site. 177hide clothing from, 190project ile point kill s, 177

Blade, definiti on of. 45Blank . mean ing of. 45 . 65Blechnum indicum, processing of. 183-1 85Blind test

of low-power techn ique. 146-147process of. 137

Block y frag me ntcharacteristics. lack of. 122definition of. 45uniface , 66 . 68

Blood residu e analys is. 9, 165-1 72Ame s Hema stix test. 166anima l type determination . 166-1 72cro ss-over immuno-electr oph oresis (CIEP).

167.170-171DNA analysis. 169effectivene ss of. 170-171enzyme-linked immuno-absorbant assay

(ELI SA>. 167Head-Smashed-In (Canada) site. 170hem oglobin crystals. illustration of. 168illustration. red blood ce lls. 166isoelectric focusi ng (lEF), 166, 169

projectil e point s. 180radio-ammunoassay (RIA) . 167-1 68Toad River Canyo n site, 166-1 69

INDEX

Blunt indenteraction of. 46types of. 46

Boneand percussion flaking. 61for percussive tools. 44for pressure flaking. 61-62

Bordes. Francois. 6-7Bowls. ground stone method . 75. 78Bragg 's formula. 34Brainerd-Robinson coefficients

assemblage comparisons. 116-1 18calculations. I 18formula. 116Illinois Valley example. 118-120pros/cons of. 118

Breccias. 18Briuer, Frederick . 157Brookeen Creek Cache (Texas). tool damage.

69-71Buckshaw Bridge (Illinois) site. nut processing.

182Bulb of percussion

Herzian fractures. 55and percussion flaking . 59on ventral surface. 54

Bulbar scar. on ventral surface. 55Bullboats , 190Bungwall, processing of. 183-185Burination, as retouch method. 74Burins

bifacial, 109burin spall, features of, 121comer-struck, 68. 74

Burton. John. 130Butchering

of bison, 186-187and edge fractures, 146-147and residue analysis. 157tools for. 186, 192

Cahokia (Illinois) sitebead production stages, 209microdrill s and shell bead production .

207-209Calico Hills (California) site, human

manufacture controver sy. ICampbell Hollow Early Archaic (Lower

Illinois Valley) siteevenness of assemblage. 113

249

Campbell Hollow (COni.)

raw material availability , 199richness of assemblage, 111-112

Carbonate rocks. 18Cassegros (France)

hide scrap ing. 189high-power technique . 150

Cathodoluminescence, information derivedfrom. 32

Catlinite.38CB-North (Illinois) site. stage of tool

manufacture, 122Cementation. sedimentary rock. 17. 18Center for American Archaeology (CAAl , 29Central America . obsidian sourcing study. 30-31Cerros (Belize) site

as chert consumer site, 204-206, 209high-power technique example, 149lithic types of. 206

Chaine operatoire, procedure in. 5-6Chalcedony. for sharp-edge tools, 19Channel Islands. bead production . 206-207. 214Chert , 19-20

bedded cherts . 20, 21genesis of. 20location and geomorphic process, 22-24nodular cherts. 20. 21. 23producer-con sumer model (Mayan) , 204-206for sharp-edge tools. 19.21use for tool production. 19.21visual sourcing of. 28-30

Chevelon Canyon (Arizona). plant residues, 157Chi-squ are statistics , assemblage study, 7Chipped stone axe. 188Chipping. modifications by. 64-66Chisel , 81Classification

definition of, 87ground stone tools. 81-82igneous rock. 16. 17metamorphic rock, 20sedimentary rock. 18system construction, 108-109type-collection concept , 90-91type criteria chart. 107vectors of variability and analysis. 89-103

Clastic. definition of, 16Clastic rock. 18-19

types of. 19use for tool product ion, 18-19

250

Cleavage, metamorphic rock, 20Clothing making, 189-1 90

hide clothing, 189-190woven material, 189

Clovis assemblage, cumulative graph. 113-1 15Coal, 18Cody assemblage, cumulative graph. 113- 115Colha (Belize) site

resource control, 213ritual stone objects, 2 17toolmakin g as industry, 204, 209, 2 13trade of hoes, 176

Collectors, mobility of, 10, 190-1 91Color, visual assessment of, 28Combe-Capelle-Bas (France) site, distance from

raw material , 199Compaction, sedimentary rock, 17, 18Complex societies, 202-217

assemblages of, 10craft specialization, 203-207resource control, 213-21 4surplus goods, 203tool types, replacement of, 2 14-217trade, 207-213

Compound structures, plant remains,157-1 58

Compression, definition of, 44Compressio n rings, on ventral surface , 55Concho idal, definition of, 16, 18Conference on Lithic Use-Wear (1977) , 137Conglomerates, 18Conjoining analysis, procedure in, 5Continuum-based statistics, assemblage study, 7Core, definition of, 45Cores

bipolar flaking, 49-50core rejuvenation flakes, 121flake trajectory determination, 9 1-97idealized core forms, 63pyramidal flake, 68reduction, purpose of, 74

Cortex cover, and reduct ion stage, 126-1 27Cortication flakes, features of, 121Craft specialization, 203-207

bead production, tool for, 207effects on lithic products, 204-207evidence for specia lization, 207meaning of, 203-204producer-consumer model, 204-206and trade, 207-2 13

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Crickley Hill (England) site, debitage analysis,130

Cristobalite,20Cross-over immuno-electrophoresis (CIEP),

blood residue analysis, 167. 170- 171Cryptocrystalline , definition of. 16, 19Crystal structure, types and igneous rock, 16Cuddie Springs (Australia) site, grinding stones

find.BfCumulative graph

in assemblage comparisons, 113-114construction of, 113-114limitations of. 114-11 5

Curwen, Cecil, 8Cylindrical cores. 63

Dalton Sloan biface. 216Damage

from agricultural equipment, 69-74trampling experiments, 67-69

Day Creek chert, 30Day site (Oklahoma), tools from, 68Debitage analysis, I 18-1 32

attribute studies, 125-1 29chronological period determination, 129core reduction versus tool production,

124-1 25debitage. categories of. 123flake typologies, 121-1 24mass analysis, 130- 132reduction stage determi ners, 126-128replication, 125-1 26sampling problems, 120-1 2 1stage of tool manufacture determination, 122type of site determination, 130

Debrisanalysis of. See Debitage analysismeaning of, 123

Deer Creek (Oklahoma) site, bison hides, 190Deformation

elastic, 44, 47Herzian fracture, 50plastic, 44. 47

Density, visual assessment of. 28Dhoukani, plant processing, 182Diagenesis

definition of. 16and petrographic methods, 3 1-32sediment, 17,20

Diatoms, in cherts, 20

INDEX

Digging tools, 189Diorite

crystal structure, 16and percussive tools, 21

Direct percussion, meaning of, 45Distal end

meaning of, 44on ventral surface , 54

DNA analysis, blood residue analysi s, 169Dolomite s, 18Dorsal facet count , and reduction stage, 127Dorsal surface, meaning of, 44Down stones controversy, IDrills

as bifacialtool, 65, 67, 74Cahokia site, 208-209microlith and bead production, 206-209

Duck Creek (Oklahoma) site, tools from , 67Dunham Tract (Cahokia), microdrill s, 208Dynamic force

meaning of, 46and percussion flaking, 59, 61

Dynastic Mesopotamian tools, 10

Earth , crust and rock formation , 15-17Eccentrics, ritual use, 217Edge retouch . See Marginal retouchElastic, definition of, 44, 47Element, definition of, 16Elizabeth Mound s (Illino is) site

high-power technique , 155snowflake diagram, 116-117

Enzyme-linked immuno-absorbantassay(ELISA) , blood residue analysis, 167

Eoliths controversy, I, 62---63Equador, phytolith analysis, 162-163Eraillure, on ventral surface, 54, 55Erosion, and rock deposition/location, 23Ethnoarchaeology, value of, 3-4Europe, Neolithic flint mining, 2Evaporites, 18Evenness

assembl age compari sons by, 112-113Exotic sources, research process , 27-28Expanding-bit axe, 81

Facet count, and reduction stage, 126Feather termination, features of, 57Feldspar, chemical composition, 17Felsic rock , types of, 17

251

First Use-Wear Conference (1977), 8Fissures, on ventral surface, 55Flake, definition of, 45Flake features

distal end , 44dorsal surface, 44lateral edges, 44proximal end, 44terminations , 56-58ventral surface, 44, 53-56

Flake terminations , 56-58axial terminations, 58feather terminati ons, 57in fracture sequence, 44, 46hinge terminations, 57outrep asse, 58step terminations, 57, 58on ventral surface, 54

Flake trajectory determination, 91-97Levallois technique , 91-92minimum analytical nodule (MAN) analysis,

93,96piece refitting, 92-93

Flake typologiesbiface reduction flake, 121bipolar flakes, 121burin spall , 121core rejuvenation flakes, 121cortication flakes, 121debitage analysis, 121-124hoe flakes, 121interior flakes, 122interpretation-free units , 122-125interpretive units , 121-122lame a crete, 96, 121outrepasse, 121sharpening flakes, 121shatter , 122Sullivan-Rozen Technique (SRT), 122-125

Flaking , 58-62bipolar flaking, 49flake removal analysis. See Flake trajectory

determinationpercussion flaking, 58-61pressure flaking, 61-62from rectangular block , 92-93

Flint, and sharp-edge tools , 19,21Flint mining , Neolithic era Europe, 2Flintknapping, modem replication,SFluore scent X-rays, 37

252

Flutes. and pressure flak ing. 6 1Flut ing. as specia lization. 5Fol iation . metamorphi c rock. 20Folsom (New Mexico). projectile point s.

5.177Food processing

an imal processing, 185-1 87plant processing. 181-1 85tool-activity assoc iation flowchart. 184use-groun d tools. 78- 80

Food production . See SubsistenceForagers. mobility of. 10. 190Force on material

compressio n. 44and lithic analysis . 73static and dynamic. 46stress , 44. 46tensile strength. 44tension . 44

Ford, James, 7Fracture characteristics

condhoidal, 16cryptocrysta lline. 16homogeneous. 16isotropic. 16

Fracture mechanisms, 44-58bending fractures. 47-48flake featu res. 44. 53-58and force. 44. 46fracture seque nce. 44. 46Herzian fracture s. 50-53and indenter. 46removal types. 45retouch types. 45and stress. 46-47wedging fractures. 49-50

Freehand percussion. 59-6 1Freeze-thaw. and rock fracture, 45Fully-grooved axe. 8 1

Gabbrocrystal structure. 16and percussive tools. 21

Geoc hemica l methods. 3. 32-4 1atomic abso rption spec trosco py (AAS ). 3.

38-39fluorescent Xvrays, 37inductively-coupled plasma analys is (lCP).

40-41neut ron activation analysis (NAA), 3. 33-34

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Geoc hemica l methods (co nt .)

proton-induced gamma-ray emission(PIGME). 37

proton-induced X-ray emissio n (PIXE). 35. 37remnant magnetism. 41X-ray diffraction (XRD), 38x-ray fluorescence spec trosco py (XRF). 3,

34-35 .37Geo logica l information

geomorphic processes, 2) - 24obsidian formation. 212rock formation. 15-20

Geo morphic processes, 2 1-24chen . example of. 22- 24and location of material. 2 1-24rock deposits. variations in, 22 , 23

Glass. bovifacts of. 67. 70Gorgets, Illinois sys tem, 82Graham Cave (Missouri) site. snowflake

diagrams. I 17Granite

crys tal structure. 16for ground stone tools . 83and percussive tools. 17. 21. 44

Grasses . phytolith analysis . 162- 163Gravers

graver spur. 106marginal retouch. 74as unifacial tool, 65, 66

Greywackes , 19Grimes Graves (England) site

debitage analysis. 130Neolithic flint mining, 2. 130

Grona di Sant' Agostino (Italy). raw materialavailability. 199-200

Grona Guatt ari (Italy) site. raw materialavailability. 199-200

Ground stone axeproductio n of. 75-78subtypes. 8 1

Ground stone tools. 74-85ca tegor ies of, 74-75grinding to shape tool. See Manufacture­

gro und toolsgrind ing tools. See Use-ground toolsstone mater ial for. 83

Gro und stone tools analysis. 80-85catego rization/subtypes. 81- 82descr iption of assemblage. 82-83human grinding modification analysis . 80-8 1

INDEX

Ground stone tools analysis (COlli. )

inspec tion tools, 83sequence of steps in, 84use-modification analysis, 83-85use-wear analysis, 85

Gull wing, on ventral surface, 54, 55-56Gumu- sana Cave (North Africa) site, lithic

reduction sequence, 97, 98

H statistic, evenness measure, 112-11 3Hafting devices

butchering too ls, 186- \87prehensile traces on, 153scrapers, as bifacialtool, 67, 74

Hafting traces, projectile points, 177-179Hamm erstone

function of, 44illustration of, 206

Hand lens, usc-wear analysis, 139-140Hand speci mens, 28-3\

definition of, 28inaccuracy problem , 28, 30minimum ana lytic nodule (MAN) analysis, 31propert ies of material, 28scanning electron microscope (SEM), 31ultraviolet light method, 31

Hand on tool, prehension, aspects of, 152-1 53Handstone (mano)

funct ions of, 78-79subtypes, 82use-wear studies, 78-79, 83,85

Hayden, Brian, 137Head-Smashed-In (Canada) site, blood residue

analysis, 170, 180Herzian fractures , 50-53

bulb of percussion, 55flake removal process , 50fracture sequence, 50-53

Heta people, grou nd stone axe , prod uction of.75-78

Hidehide clothing, 189-1 90scraping and tool edge, 146

High -power analysisbinocular metallurgical microscope with

incident light, 8, 148-152combined with low-power analysis , 155Hopewell artifacts (Murphy site) , 155instrumentation , clea ning of, 15 1pros/cons of, 138, 149-15 2

253

High-power analysis (co nI .)

studies, 137- 138use-wear analysis , 148-15 2

Hill Creek Mississippian farmstead (LowerIllinois Valley )

evenness of assemblage, 113low-m icroscopic analysis , 145

Hinds Cave (Texas) , plant residues, 157-1 58Hinge term ination, features of. 57-58Hoes

as bifac ial tool. 67, 74features of. 176hoe flakes, features of, 121

Holmes, William H., 2, 3Homogeneous, definit ion of, 16Hopewell people

obsidian sourcing study, 36-37trade network of, 36

Hopewell sites , high and low-power techniqu es,155

Hornfels, 21Human behavior

clothing making. 189-1 90mobility strategies, 190- 191, 196- 198prehensile traces on tools, 152-1 53raw material procurement , 193-1 96response to raw material avai lability, 198- 202shelter and facilities, 188-1 89subsistence, 176-1 87tool design, 191-1 93See also Complex socie ties; Hunting­

gatheringHuman Relations Area Files , 10Hunt ing-gathering

animal proce ssing , 185-\ 87animal procurement , 177-181mobility strategies, 190-1 91plant processing, 181-1 85plant procurement , 176See also Human behavior

Hyaloclastites, 18Hydration dating

limitat ions of, 36-37obsidian sourcing study, 36

Hydrothermal. defin ition of, 16Hydrothermal conditions, and metamorph ism:20

Igneous rock, 15-\7classification of, 16, 17color/composi tion, 17

254

Igneous rock (cont .)

crys tal structure, 16genesis of, 15-17texture, 17use for tool production. 17

Ignimbrites. 18Illinois

chert transect study. 29-30See also Lower Illinois Valley

Irnmunoassays, blood residue analysis.167-1 68

Indenterblunt indenter, 46and fracture mechan isms, 46sharp indenter , 46

Indian Territory (Oklahoma), flintmining, 2

Indirect percussion, meaning of, 45Inductively-coupled plasma analysis (lCP).

40-4 1advantages of, 40-41

Industry, definition of, 4Initiation, in fracture sequence, 44, 46Intentional modification. See Seco ndary

modifica tion; RetouchInterior flakes, features of, 122Intrusive rocks, definition of, 16- 17Invasive retouch

meaning of, 45process of, 74tools, types of, 74

Irish Stone Axe Project , 32Ironstones, 18Ironwood, 59Ishi,4Isoelectric focusing (lEF), blood residue

analysis, 166, 169Isotropic, definition of. 16, 18, 3 1

J statistic, evenness measure. 112- 113Jablines (France). Neolithic flint mining, 2Japan . microblades, 96-97Jasper, for sharp-edge tools, 19Jinmium Rock Shelter (Australia). plant residue

analysis, 160-161

Kammin ga, Johan, 8. 137, 144, 183Keeley, Larry, 8, 137, 150-1 51Kelly, Bob, 10Kirk come r-notched points, 216

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Knapping equipment, 44-45abrader, 45billet. 44hammerstone. 44pressure flaker, 44

Knife River (North Dakota) site, butchering tool .192

Knutsson, Kjel, 141Koster Horizon (Illinois Valley). snowflake

diagrams, I 17Kozak. Vladimir. 76Krzemionki (Poland), Neolithic flint mining. 2Kuhn, Steve. 180

La Riera Cave (Spain) site. tools and aminalremain s. 180

Lamanai (Belize). ritual stone objects. 217Lame iI crete . features of, 96. 121Lance, on ventral surface, 54, 55Lasley Vore (Oklahoma) site. 82. 156. 188Lateral edges . meaning of, 44Levallois technique. 9 1-92

flake trajectory determ ination, 9 1-92illustration of. 92process. 9 1

Levant. metal as replacement tool, 215-2 16Levi Sala, Irene. 152Limestone. 18.20

and percussive tools. 44. 59Lineation. metamorphic rock. 20Lipping. and percussion flaking. 59Lithic. definition of. 4Lithic analysis. 3-11

assemblage comparisons, I 10- 118assemblage variability, 6-7behavioral factors. See Human behaviorbiface trajectory determination. 97chaine ope ratoire, 5--6classification system construction. 108-109conjoining analysis. 5debitage analysis. I 18-1 32ethnoarchaeology approach, 3-4experimentation/replication, 5flake trajectory determin ation. 9 1-97levels of analysis, IImicroscopes. See Microscopic analysismobility organization factors. 10by morphology. 103-107raw materials. 89reduction trajectory modeling, 97- 103

INDEX

Lithi c analysis (co nt.)

residue analysis. 9. 156-172sourcing studies. 2-3. 13-15.24--42statistical methods. 7type-variety systems. 104-1 05use-wear analysis. 8-9.136-156vecto rs of variability. 89- 103

Lithic Analysis Laboratory. 29Lithic form s

blade. 45blocky fragment. 45core. 45ftake.45nod ule. 45

Lithic mater ial. See Raw mater ial; Raw mater ialprocur ement

Lithificationdefinition of. 16sedimentary rock. 17. 18

Loca l. delineation of. 24-25Loc al raw material

avai lability of. 24-26sampling of. 25-26. 29-30

Location of material . and geomorphic processes.21-24

Log istical mobility. 10Low-power analysis

co mbined with high-power ana lysis.155

Lowe r Illinois Valley. 144-1 45. 155pros/cons of. 146-148stereomicroscope, 143-1 44studies. 137tool activity dete rmination. 143-147tool material determinatio n. 147-148use-wear analys is. 142-1 48

Lower Illinois Valleylow-power ana lysis examples. 144-145.

155richness of assemblage . 111- 112watercourse procurement . 2See also Campbe ll Hollow Early Archaic

(Lowe r Illinois Valley) site; Hill CreekMississippian farms tead (Lowe r IllinoisValley); Smiling Dan (Lower IllinoisValley ) site

Lowilva. See Lowe r Illinois ValleyLoy. Tom. 165- 169Lue dtke. Barbara. 13. 23Lussatite. 20

255

Macroblade , illustration of. 206Macroscopic techniques

lim itat ions of. 139-140 . 154use-wear analysis. 139-1 40

Mafic rock. types of. 17Magma. and rock format ion. 16-1 7Maize

grain starch analysis. 161phytolith analysis. 162- J63

Mano. See Hand stone (mano)Manufacture-ground tools. 75-78

axe. prod uctio n process. 76-77categorization of. 8 1Heta technology. written acco unt of . 75-78

types of objec ts. 75. 78. 8 1Marginal retouch

edge-retouched types. 108-109meaning of . 45purposes of. 65. 74tools. types of. 74

Mass analys isdebitage analys is. 130--132process of. 13 1pros/cons of. 131-1 32

Mayaprodu cer-consumer model. 204-206. 209.

213stone. ritual use. 216-217

Medrocks, 18Mercu ry iodide detector. 34-35Metal. as replacement tool. 215-2 17Metamorph ic rock. 20--21

classification of. 20naming conventions. 20use for tool production. 20--21

Metamorphism. definition of. 20Meta te.78Meye rs. Tom. 29Microbl ades

Japanese. 96-97produ ction methods. 96-97

Microcrystall ine. definiti on of. 19Microdrill s. and bead produ ction. 206-209Microscopic analysis

binocular metallurgica l microscope withincide nt light. 8. 148-152

blood residues. 165-170high-power microscopes. 148-1 52low-power microscope s. 142-148plant tissue. 157-1 58

256

Microscop ic ana lysis (conI.)

scanning electron microscope (SEM). 8-9.140-1 4 1

stereomicros cope, 143- 144stereoscopic. reflecti ve- light. dissect ing

micro scope . 8use-wear studies . 8-9

Mill ingstone Horizon (Ca lifo rnia ) site . millstonereju venation, 8 1

Mill stonerejuvenation of. 8 Jas use-ground tool . 78

Mineral. definition of, 15. 16Mines and quarries

Grimes Graves site. 2. 130as lithic material sourc e. 2-3petrograph ic sourc ing. 32

Minimum analytical nodul e (MAN) analys isflake trajectory determination. 93. 96hand speci me n analysis. 3 1process. 95-96

Mobilit y strategiesof co llec tors. 190-191of fora gers. 10. 190prehi storic hum ans. 190-191. 192-1 98and raw material procurem ent . 196--198

Modi ficat ionpri mary. 62-{j3secondary. 64-74

Modified SRT (MSRT) . 124-1 25Modoc Rock Shelter, snow flake diagrams. 117Morph ology. 103-107

attribute analys is. 103stone type and identification. 106type-variety sys tems. 104-105

Mortarbedrock mortar. 79feature s of. 79-80

Mount Witori. 212Mousterian tools. assemblage var iabilit y. 7Mud stone , 18. 19

for sharp-edge tools. 2 1Mul e deer. blood residue analys is. 168Mun sell co lor chart. 28Murphy (Ill inois ) site . high-power techniques.

ISS

Napoleon Hollow Woodl and Hill slope andFloodpl ain (Ill inois Valley)

evenness of assemblage. J 13

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Napoleo n Hollow (COlli .)

low-power ana lysis . 145 . 155raw materia l ava ilabi lity. 199richn ess of assemblage. I I 1-11 2

Nass igny (France ) site. flake remova ls. 92 . 94Natural forces. prim ary age ncy quest ion . 62-63Neo lithic era. flint mining. 2Ne utron activation ana lysis (NAA ). 3. 33-34

obsidia n sourcing study. 36pros/cons of, 33-34

New Britain Island. obsidia n sourcing studies.2 10-2 12

Newcomer. Mark. 138Nodules

bipolar flakin g. 49- 50definition of. 45nodular cherts. 20. 21. 23

Nom arski optics. 152Non -reduction bifaces. 109Norm al m ess. meaning of . 46Nun amiut Eskimo. ethnog raphic study of. 10

Nutsnutting sto nes. function of, 79. 97processing of. 182

Obsidiancores . illustrat ions of. 2 11geo logical eve nts rela ted to. 212Hopew ell sourc ing study. 36--37and sharp-edge too ls. 17. 2 1sourci ng studies. 2 10-213texture. 17visual sourcing of, 30Willaum ez Peninsula sourc ing study.

39-40Ob sidian Cliff (Yellowstone Park ). 36

Ocea n floorand met am orphi c change. 20sed imentary rock . 17-1 8

Oceaniabead production . 207 . 209obsidi an sourcing studies. 2 10-2 14plant residu e ana lysis. 159. 183

Ode ll. George. 8. 29. 137. 155Oil shale. 18Ol ivine . chemical co mposi tion. 17Opal-A. 20Opal- CT. 20Orthoq uartzi tes, 19

for sha rp-edge tools. 2 1

INDEX

Outrepasse , features of, 57, 58. 121Overshot. See Outrepasse

Pabst site. snowflake diagra ms, 117Pacific Ocea n islands . See Ocea nia ; speci fic

loca tionsPaleoindian points, and pressure flak ing, 6 1Panama

phytolith analysis, 162-1 63starch grain analysis . 161. 183

Papu a New Guinea . plant residue ana lysis . 159.183

Pasty. Jean-Francois, 92Pearsall . Deborah . 162Percussion

dire ct. 45indirect , 45

Percu ssion flaking . 58---{) Ianvil technique. 60-61bipolar flakin g, 60-61freehand percu ssion . 59---{) Ipunch technique, 61

Percu ssive activities. 17. 21Persussive tools

billet, 44hamm erstone, 44hard and soft, 59indenters. 46rock used for, 17. 2 1

Pestle. product ion of , 80Petrographi c methods, 31-32

ca thodoluminesce nce , 32petrography. 31-32use in archaeology, 32

Petrography, 3 1-3 2info rmation derived from. 3 1-32

Phaneritic crys tal structure. stone containing, 16Phenoc rysts, 16Phosphates. 18Phyt ol iths, 9, 162-165

deposition in plant cell. 162food processing tools . 183illustrati on of. 163-164melted appearance. 164-1 65resistance to decay, 162tropic al area research, 162-1 63

Piece refitting. 92- 93flake trajectory determination, 92-93process, 92-93

Pipern o, Dolores, 162

257

Pipe s, gro und stone method . 75, 78

Pitts. Michael. 129Plant processing. 181- 185

bevelled pounders. 183-1 84Blechnum indicum examp le. 183-1 85nut processing, 182Ihreshing sledge. 182use-ground tools. 78-80

Plant procur ementfor subsistence . 176tools for, 176

Plant remains. 156--165comp ound structures. 157-158phytoliths. 9. 162-165plant processing tools. 183-1 85starch grains. 159-161

Plasma-atomi c emi ssion spec trosco py OCP) , 32Plastic. definit ion of. 44 . 47Plows

damag e/modification from. 69-74experiments with, 71-73

Plunging termin ations, features of. 58Polari zed light , limitations of. 3 1Polish . See Use-pol ishPorcellanite . 32Porphyritic crys tal struc ture, stone conta ining,

16Post-depositional surface modification (PDSM).

e lements of, 138Pottery. impact on gro und stone technology. 75Pottery studies. 38, 39Powell Mound (Cahokia) . microd rills, 208Precipitate, definition of. 16Preform , meaning of. 45Prehension . aspects of . 152-1 53Prehistoric Technology (Sernenov) , 8. 136Pressure flaker, funct ion of. 44Pressure flaking. 6 1---{)2

mean ing of. 45process of. 61- 62tools for, 6 1

Primary agency issue. 62---{)3Primary modifi cation . 62---{)3Primary specimens, location of. 3 1Problem defin ition . 24-28

determining source of mater ial, 26--28local availability of material, 24-26

Procur emen t. See Raw mater ial procurementProducer-consumer model. Mayan chert.

204-206. 209

258

Projectil e pointsfor animal kills, 177-180association with animal remains, 177, 180as bifacial tool, 65, 74blood residue analysis , 180hafting reconstructions, illustrations, 179

Propa gation, in fracture sequence, 44. 46Proton-induced gamma-ray emissio n (PIGME).

37Proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). 35. 37

pros/cons of, 35, 37Proximal end

meaning of, 44of ventral surface. 54

Punch techniqu e, 6D-61Pyramidal cores, 63Pyroxene, chemical composition, 17

Quartzchem ical composi tion, 17in sedimentary rock , 18- 20

Quartzi tegenesis of, 21for ground stone tools, 83for sharp-edge tools, 21

Radial cores, 63Radial striations, on ventral surface, 55Radio-ammunoassay (RIA ), blood residue

analysis, 167-168, 169Radiolaria, in cherts, 20Raw material

and asse mblage characterization. 89-90exotic sources, 27-28geoc hemical analysis, 3local material, 24-26, 29-30mass analys is, type of site determinat ion.

130-1 32Neolithic flint minin g, 2study of. See Sourcin g studies

Raw material procurem ent , 193-1 96availability, behavioral response to, 198-202distance from lithic source. 198- 20 Ilocal availability, 24-26and mobility organizat ion, 196-1 98retooling models, 193-1 96

Reduction trajectory modeling, 97-103biface trajec tory pieces, 100- 102blocky fragment pieces , 99-100modeling process flowchart , 99

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Reduction trajectory (co nt .)

reduction stages . 100retouched flakes, 98. 101shaped objects , 98Smiling Dan site example , 101-1 02

Remn ant magnetism, limitations of, 41Removal types

direct percussion, 45indirect percussio n. 45pressure flaking. 45

Replacement of lithic tools, 214-2 17metal as replacement tool, 215-2 17pottery for ground stone implements, 75

Repl icati ondebit age analysis . 125-1 26meanin g of. 125-126as study method, 5

Researchproblem definition step. 24-28sequence of steps in, 14

Resident ial mobility. 10Residue analysis, 156-1 72

blood residues, 9, 165- 172plant remains. 9. 156- 165

Resource control. 213-2 14analytic determin ation of. 213-2 14

Retooling models, 193-196Retouch , 64-66

and assemblage characterization , 90-91, 106,108

bifacial. 45. 65-67burination, 74core reduction. 74defini tiona l issue, 64edge- retouched types, 108- 109intenti onal versus damage , 64-66. 90invasive retouch. 45. 74marginal retouch. 45, 65, 74meaning of, 64pressure flaking, 61-62and reduct ion trajectory modeling, 98. 10Iunifacial , 45

Reverse hinge term inations, features of, 58Rhyolite, 32

crys tal structure. 16texture. 17

Richness. in assemblage com pariso ns. 111- 112Rijckhold-St. Gee rtruid (Nether lands). Neolithic

flint mining, 2Ripples. on ventral surface , 55

INDEX

Ritual use. stone. 2 16-2 17Rock

definition of. 15. 16lithic forms, 45

Rock Color chart. 28Rock formation

igneous rock. 15-17metamorphic rock. 20-21sedimentary rock. 17-20

Rodent hair. residue of. 157- 158Rosen. Arlene. 163Rots, Veerle, 153Rough stone. definition of. 16.26Rovner. Irv, 162Rozen. Ken. 122-125

Sacred Cenote (Chichen Itza), 216-217Saddle-quem. 78Sampling

exotic source areas. 27-28local materials, 25-26. 29-30

Sandstone. 18. 19.20quartzite as product of. 2 1

Santa Cruz Islandbead production. 207, 209obsidian sourcing studies. 210-2 12

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)hand specimen analysis. 31pros/cons of. 140-141quartz tools study. 141use-wear analysis. 8-9, 140-1 4 1

Scavenging, of animals by humans. 180Scrapers

hafted, as bifacial tool, 67. 74marginal retouch. 74as unifacial tool. 65. 66. 67

Sea-lion. blood residue analysis. 168Secondary modification , 64-74

abrasive modifications. 64. 74--75from agricultural equipmen t. 69-74by chipping. 64--66retouch, 64--66trampling experiments . 67-fJ9

Sedentism, and food processing. 182Sediment

definition of, 16diagenesis. 17. 20

Sedimentary petrography. See Petrographicmethods

Sedimentary rock. 17-20

cherts. 19-20classification if, 18clastic rock. 18-1 9genesis of. 17identifying features. 18use for tool production. 18-19

Seeds. and grinding stone finds. 85Sernenov, Sergei. 8. 136, 143Shale

limitations for tool production, 19slate as product of. 20-2 1

Shannon-Weaver Information Statistic H,evenness measure, 112

Sharp-ed gesbipolar technique . 59-fJ Itypes of rock for. 17. 19.21

Sharp indenter, action of. 46Sharpening flakes. features of. J21Shatter. meaning of. 122. 123Shear stress, meaning of, 46Shear waves. on ventral surface. 55, 56Sheep . blood residues. 166Shells. bead production . 206-207Shelter and facilities

construction, tools for. 188-189digging tools. 189

Shott . Mike. 10Sickles

features of. 176sickle gloss. 176

Sievert . April . 216-217Silica

amorphous (Opal-A). 20phytoliths. 162-165and use-polish, 176

Siliciclastic rock. types of. 18Silicificat ion, sedimentary rock. 18-20Siltstone s. 19Ski spalls, microblades, 97Slate. genesis of. 20-21Smiling Dan (Lower Illinois Valley) site

evenness of assemblage . 113low-power analysis, 145. 155reduction trajectory modeling , 101-102richness of assemblage, 111-11 2

Snowflake diagrams. 115-116Elizabeth Mounds site example . 116-117HeltonlHeltonoid occupations example s.

117pros/cons of. 116

259

260

Sou rce areasexotic source areas , 27-28loca l sources , 24-26

Sou rcing studies, 13-15,24-42geoc hemical methods. 32-41and geomorphic processes, 21-24hand specimens, 28-3 1obsidia n, 210-213petrogra phic methods, 31-32problem defini tion, 24-28rock form ation information. 15- 21sequence in resea rch . 14

Spaulding, Albert, 7Special-purpose camps, asse mblage features at.

130-131Spie nnes (Belg ium) site, Neolithic flint

mining. 2Sponge spicules, in cherts. 20Stafford, Michael . 2 17Stages

bla nk. 45preform , 45

Sta rch, produc tion/fo rmatio n in gra in.159

Starch grains, 159-1 61Aus tralian studies, 160-1 61, 183- 185illustration of , 160prepration for anal ysis, 161and sediment size , 159- 160tropical area studies, 161, 183

Static force, mean ing of, 46Statistica l methods

assemblage com parisons , 110assemblage variabi lity, 7evenness meas ures , 11 2-11 3

Step terminations, featu res of , 57, 58Stereom icroscope

featu res/utility of, 143-1 44See also Low- powe r analysis

Ste reoscopic, reflective- light, dissec tingmicroscope , use-wear analysis, 8

Stiner, Mary, 180Stone , ritual use of , 216-217Stone tool desig n, 191-1 93

desig n analysis. 192-1 93Stone tool function

residue analysis, 156-1 72use-wear analysis , 136- 156

Stone too l prod uctio nflaking, 58-62

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Stone tool (conI.)

frac ture mech an isms, 44-58ground stone tool s. 74-85knapp ing equipment, 44-45lith ic form s. 45microblades, 96-97prima ry modification. 62-63and prope rties of rock. 18. 21removal types. 45retouch, 45, 64-66seco ndary modific atio n, 64-74stage designations, 45techn ology, 90-103tools used for. See Stone tool production

instrum entsStone tool production instrument s

of antler, 44 , 59, 61-62of bone, 44 . 6 1-62manufacture-ground tools, 75-78for percussive flaking, 59-6 1percussive too ls, 44. 46for press ure flaking, 61sharp-edge tools, 17, 19, 21of wood , 44, 59, 61

Stone too lsanalysi s and study of. See Lithic ana lysisbifacial tools, 65, 66, 67defin ition of, 4lithic forms. 45manufacture. See Stone tool prod uctio ntermination of use. See Replacement of lithic

toolstypologies. 7unifacial tools, 65

Stream-rolled spec imens, location of, 31Stress. 46-47

amo unt for frac ture , 47de finition of, 44, 46and lith ic analysis . 73norm al stress, 46shear stress, 46

Striationsdefined. 136high-power technique, 149

Striking platform . on vent ral surface, 54Strueve r, Stuart , 144Sub-assemblages, definitio n of, 4Subsistence, 176-1 87

an ima l processing, 185-187animal proc urement, 177-1 81

INDEX

Subsiste nce (cant .)

plant processing, 181- 185plant procurement, 176

Sullivan, Alan , 122-125Sullivan-Rozen Technique (SRT), 122- 125

debitage categories, 123Modified SRT (MSRT), 124-1 25pros/cons of, 124, 126

Sumeria, reso urce control, 2 14Surplus goods, and complex socie ties. 203

Technology, 90-103in assemblage charac terization. 90- 103biface trajectory, 97flake trajectory, 91-97reduction trajectory modeling, 97- 103retouch, 64-66, 89-90See also Stone tool production

Templates, texture assessment, 28Tensile strength, definition of, 44Tension, definition of, 44Term inations. See Flake terminationsTexture, visual assessment of, 28Thompson, E.H., 2 16-2 17Three-quaner grooved axe, 8 1Threshing sledge, plant processing, 182Timber wolf, blood residue analysis,

168Toad River Canyon (British Columbia) site,

blood residue analysis, 166-169Tomenchuk , John, 137Tool

definition of, 4See also entries under Stone tools

Trade, 207-2 13analytical issues, 209-210Colha (Belize) site examples, 176, 204, 209,

2 13determinati on from lithic data. 209-2 13of hoes, 176obsidian sourcing studies. 210-213social purpose of, 39-40

Trajectory, definition of, 87Trajectory determin ation

biface trajectory, 97flake trajectory, 91- 97reduction trajectory modeling. 97- 103

Trampl ing experimentsdamage asses sment, 67~9scuff marked flakes, 69

261

Tranchet adzeillustration of, 206reworked. 206

Tribulum, plant processing, 182Tringharn, Ruth, 143Tropical areas

phytolith analysis. 162- 163starch grain analysis, 161

Tuffs , 18Turkey-tail, 2 16Type, definition of, 87Type-collection concept. 90-9 1Type-variety systems, 104-1 05Typologies, and assemblage comparisons. 7Typology. definition of, 87

Ultrathin biface, 192-1 93Ultraviolet light

hand specimen analysis, 3 1limitations of, 3 1

Undulation, on ventral surface. 54. 55Unger-Hamilton, Rornana, 164- 165Unifacia l mano, 82Unifac ial retouch

examples of, 65~6, 67meaning of, 45

Unifacia l tools. 65~7gravers. 65, 66scrapers , 65, 66, 67

Unretouched debris, analysis of. See Debitageanalysis

Use-gro und tools. 78- 80categorization of, 81-82grinding intensity, 83handstone (mano), 78-79. 82mortar and pestle, 79- 80nutting stones, 79use-life estimates, 83

Use-modification analysis. gro und stone tools,83-85

Use-polishand hide scraping. 146phytolith analysis, 164-1 65sickles, 176utilization studies, 8-9. 83-84

Use-wear analysis, 8-9. 136-156of handstone (mano), 78-79. 83, 85high-power microscopes, 137, 148-1 52low-power microscopes. 137. 142-148macroscopic techniques, 139-140

262

Use-wear analysis (cont.)

microscopic analyses, 8-9scanning electron microscope (SEM).

140-141Semenov 's work, 8.1 36. 143studies. 137-1 38wear features and tool use method . 8

Utilization of tools. study methods.7-9

Validityand debitage analysis , 126meaning of. 126

Variable , definition of. 87Vaughan. Patrick. 150Ventana Cave site. grindin g tools. 182Ventral surface. 53-56

features of. 54-56meaning of, 44

Visual sourcinghand specimens. 28-31improved methods, 3 1propert ies for inspection. 28

Volcaniclastic rockbedded chert s. 20types of. 18

LITHIC ANALYSIS

Wallner lines. on ventral surface. 55. 56Wapiti . blood residue analysis, 168Water immersion. density assessment, 28Watercourses. as lithic material source. 2-3Wedging fractures. 49- 50

fracture sequence. 49- 50Weight. and reduct ion stage. 126Weilbull function. 131Willaume z Peninsula (New Guinea). obsidian

sourcing study. 39-40Wilmoth site (Oklahoma). tools from. 66Witthoft. John. 8Wood

and percussion flaking, 59. 61for percussive tools. 44

Wooly mammoth. blood residue analysis. 168Woven material, 189

X-ray diffraction (XRD). 38pros/cons of. 38

X-ray fluoresce nce spectroscopy (XRF)obsidian sourcing study, 30pros/cons of. 34-35

Yahi people. 4Yerkes. Richard. 155