References

Introduction : the relevance of the past

For a discussion of such sociological issues see Brian Turner, Marx and the End of Orientalism (London, 1978) especially pp. 39-80, and Brian Turner, Weber and Islam (London, 1974) pp. 39-106, 137-50; Maxime Rodinson, Islam et Capitalisme (Paris, 1966) particularly pp. 19-45; Maxime Rodinson, M arxisme et Monde Musulman (Paris, 1972) pp. 95-129; Jean-Paul Charnay, Sociologie Religieuse de I'Islam (Paris, 1977) pp. 325 ff.

2 For an authoritative, modern ShiT exposition of this subject see Mul,1ammad I;Iusayn Tabataba'i, ShT'ah dar Islam (Tehran, 1348/1969) pp. 28-58 (English translation by S. H. Nasr, entitled Shi'ite Islam (London, 1975) pp. 63-106). See also Mul,1ammad Jawad Maghnlyah, At-tafsIr al-käshij' (Beirut, 1968) vol. I, pp. 13-15, 88.

3 F or recent SunnI presentations of the theory of government and Caliphate see Mul,1ammad Abü Zahrah, Al-mujtama' al-insänT fi ?ill al-Islam (Beirut, n.d.) pp. 154-206. Abü Zahrah was a distinguished Sunni Egyptian scholar who, although never abandoning his strongly orthodox vision of Islam, worked for reconciliation between ShI'Is and Sunnls.

4 Richard P. MitchelI, The Society ofthe Muslim Brothers (London, 1969) p. 320. Cf. 'Abd Allah Al-'Arawi (Laroui), AI-ldTyulujiyyat' al- 'Arabiyyat' al-mu 'äijirah (Beirut, 1974) p. 129. A lucid account ofthe ideas ofKhawarij can be found in Henri Laoust's Les Schismes dans {'Islam (Paris, 1965) pp. 36-48.

5 Mul,1ammad Iqbal, Reconstruction ofReligious Thought in Islam (Lahore, 1934) p. 4; see also Mul,1ammad 'Abduh, Risälat' at-tawI}Td, 10th ed. (Cairo, 1361/1941-2) pp. 17-18.

6 See the present author's 'The Political Philosophy of the Ikhwan a~-Satä" in S. H. Nasr (ed.), The Isma'ili Contributions to the Islamic Civilization (Tehran, 1977) pp. 25-49.

7 Abu'l I;Iasan al-Mawardi, Al-al}kam as-sul{äniyyah (Cairo, 1380/1960) pp. 33-4.

8 H. A. R. Gibb, Studies in the Civilization of Islam (London, 1962) (hereafter cited as Gibb, Studies) pp. 142-3.

9 Erwin I. J. Rosenthai, Political Thought in Medieval Islam (Cambridge, 1958) p.43.

10 Dominique Sourdei, 'L'Imamisme Vu par Cheik al-Mufid', Revue des Etudes Islamiques, XL (1972) pp. 217-96.

11 [Abü 'Abd Allah Mul,1ammad] Ibn IdrIs, Kitäl as-sarä' ir (Tehran, 1390/1970) p. 203; [Abü Ja'far Mul,1ammad Ibn I;Iasan Ibn 'Ali] at-Tüsi, An-nihäyah (Tehran, 1342/1963) p. 358. On the ShITs view about the 'obligatoriness of rulership' (wujüb ar-riyäsah) see TüsTs Kitäb al-ghaybah (Tehran, 1385/1965)

196 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

pp. 4 ff. For a modem version of the same view in support of 'just, temporal government' see Lutf Alläh ~-$äfi, Ma'al-Kha{ib fi khu(ü{ihi'l-'aritjah

(Tehran, n.d.) pp. 75-81. 12 [Taqf ad-Dfn Al)mad] Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhäj as-sunnat'an-nabawiyyah fi

naqd kaläm ash-shl'at'al-qadariyyah (Cairo, 1962) vol. I, p.37!. See also his As-slyasat' al-shar'iyyah (Cairo, 1951) p. 173.

13 Gibb, Studies, pp. 148-9. 14 See below, Chapter 2. 15 'Abd al-'Aziz al-BadrI, Al-Islam bayn al- 'ulumä' wa'l ~ukkam (Mecca, n.d.)

pp. 156 ff.; the author also depicts the sufferings of members of the Prophet's family, particularly l;Iusayn, Zayd and the Ja'far a~-$ädiq, in their resistance against unjust rulers (pp. 129-49).

Chapter 1

I Cited in Bernard Lewis's The Origins of Ismailism (Cambridge, 1940), p. 24. 2 Henri Corbin, En Islam Iranien, 4 vols (Paris, 1971) (hereafter cited as Corbin,

Islam Iranien) especially vol. I, pp. 12 ff. 3 W. Montgomery Watt, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961)

pp. 106-10. 4 Cited in Y. Marquet's 'La place du travail dans la hierarchie isma'lienne

d'apres rEncylopedie des Freres de la Purete' Arabica, VIII (1961) p. 236. 5 I. P. Petrushevskii, Islam dar Irän (Persian translation by Karfm Kishävarz)

(Tehran, 1350/1971) p. 283. 6 George Makdisi, 'L'Islam Hanbalisant', Revue des Etudes Islamiques, XLII

(1973) p. 242. 7 S. Husain M. Jafri. Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam (London,

1979) p. 312. 8 [Abü Ja'far Mul)ammad Ibn l;Iasan Ibn 'All] at-Tüsi, al-AmäTl (Najaf,

1384/1964) vol. I, p. 19. 9 Fadl Ibn Shädhän Nayshäbüri, al-14iiIJ (Tehran, 1351/1971) (hereafter cited

as Ibn Shädhän, al-I4ä~) pp. 125-6. 10 Sayyid al-Murta<;lä, Kitäb al-intbjär (Najaf, 1391) vol. I, p. 6. 11 Mul)ammad Kii?:irn al-Khuräsäni, Kifäyat'al-u!jül (Tehran, n.d.) vol. 11,

pp. 68-70. See also Mal)müd Shihäbl's Taqrirät-i ljsül, 7th ed. (Tehran, 1344/1965) (hereafter cited as Shihäbi, Taqrirat) pp. 114-17.

12 Corbin, Islam Iranien, vol. I, p. xiv; also pp. 181, 186,210; vol. III, p. 254. 13 Rasä'il ikhwän a!j-!jafa' wa khillän al-wafa' (Beirut, 1377/1957) vol. I, pp. 42-7. 14 Mul)ammad I:Iusayn Käshif al-Ghitä', A!jl ash-sh7'ah wa U'füluhä (Tehran,

1391/1971) pp. 79-80. 15 Rasä'il, vol. III, p. 264, also p. 253. 16 'Ibn Khaldün, Muqaddimah, ed. Quatremere, vol. I, pp. 305-7; see also

Mul)sin Mahdl's Ibn Khaldün's Philosophy of History (London, 1957). 17 [Taqi ad-Dln AbI Mul)ammad] Maqrizi, An-nizä' wa'at-takhä!jumjimä bayn

bani umayyah wa bani häshim (Leiden, 1888) especially pp. 69-71. 18 [Abu'l Qäsirn Jär Alläh Mal)müd Ibn 'Umarl] az-Zamakhshari, AI-Kashshäf

(Calcutta, 1856) p. 959; [Nä~ir ad-Dln Abi Sa'id 'Abd Alläh Ibn 'Umar Ibn Mul)ammad ash-Shiräzl] al-Bay<;läwf At-tafsir (Cairo, 1330/1911) vol. IV,

pp. 48, 85; 'Abd Alläh Ibn Al)mad an-Nasafi, Madärik at-tanzll wa ~aqä-iq at-ta' wll (Cairo, 1343/1924) vol. III, p. 70.

REFERENCES 197

19 [al-Fac.il Ibn al-l;Iasan] at-Tabarsi, Majma' al-bayän (Cairo, 1354/1935) vol. IV, part 7, pp. 66, 67, 152,239.

20 Corbin, Islam Iranien, vol. I, p. 80, also footnote no. 54 on the same page. 21 W. Ivanow, Studies in Early Persian Ismailism (Leiden, 1948) pp. 29-30. 22 [Abü Ja'far M~arnmad Ibn 'Ali] a~-Sadiiq, 'Uyün akhbär ar-RUjä (Najaf,

1384/1964) vol. I, p. 30. 23 [Najm ad-DIn Ja'far Ibn l;Iusayn]l;IiIIf, Sharäyi 'al-Isläm (persian translation)

(Tehran, 1352/1973) vol. VI, pp. 1623-4. 24 Abu'l Qäsim al-Müsawial-KhuI, TawrjiIJ al-masä'il(Tehran, 1382/1962)p. 153. 25 Louis Gardet, L'Islam (Paris, 1967) p. 88. 26 Fazlur Rahman, Islam (London, 1966) p. 35. 27 T. Izutsu. Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur'iin (MontreaI. 1966) pp. 65 ff. 28 D. M. Donaidson. The Shi'ite Religion (London. 1933). 29 F. R. C. Bagley, 'The Azhar and Shi'ism', Muslim World, vol. L 2 (\960) p. 129. 30 Mullä Mul;1arnmad MahdI Naräqi, MulJriq al-quliib (Tehran, 1247/1831) p. 4. 31 Tähä l;Iusayn, Min tiirikh al-adab al- 'Arabi (Beirut, 1970) vol. I, pp. 463 ff.;

Shawqi I;)ayf, Tiirikh al- 'adab al- 'Arabi (al 'a~r al-Isliim!) (Cairo, 1963) vol. 11,

p. 42; on the 'AlIds' contribution 10 the religious elegiac poety, see p. 181. 32 Abu'l Qäsim 'AU Ibn Musa' Ibn Ja 'far Ibn M~ammad Ibn M~arnmad

atTäwüs al-'Alawi al-Kä?imi, Muhaj ad-da'wiit wa manhaj al-'inäyät, manuscript no. 284, written in 1099/1687, no pagination; M~ammad Ric.iä Ibn Ämir M~ammad (Aäsim al-l;Iusayni a'-Qazvini, BalJr al-maghfirat, manuscript no. 210, no date, no pagination (both manuscripts in the Caro Minasian Collection, Wadham College Library, Oxford).

33 [Jamäl ad-DIn l;Iasan Ibn Sadid ad-DIn YüsufIbn 'Ali] Ibn Mutahhar l;Iilli, 'Minhäj al-karämah ff ma'rifat'al-imämiyyah' (hereafter cited as l;Iilli, 'Minhäj'), text in Ibn Taymiyyah's Minhäj as-sunnat' an-nabawiyyah fi naqtj kaläm ash-shf 'at' al-qadariyyah (Cairo, 1962) (hereaftercited as 'Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhii]) vol. I, p. 132.

34 Mul;1ammad Bäqir Majlisf, BilJiir al-anwär (Tehran, 1301-15/1883-97) vol. VIII, pp. 253/344.

35 l;Iilli, 'Minhiij', pp. 140-5. 36 [Abü Ja'far M~arnmad Ibn Ya'qüb Ibn Isl;1äq] al-Kulaynf, U~l kiifi, ed.

l;Iajj Sayyid Javäd Mu~tafavi (Tehran, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Kulayni, Käfi) vol. 11, p. 216; Ibn Shädhän, al-J4älJ, pp. 281-3.

37 Majlisi, quoted by Käfi's editor, vol. I, p. 217. 38 Ibn Shädhän, al-J4älJ, p. 285. There are also quotations by Käfi:s editor from

Majlisl's BilJär, al-Mul;1addith al-Qumml's Safinat' al-bilJiir, and other sources asserting the equality of Arabs and Iranians, and on 'Ali's equal treatment of both, pp. 284-5 (footnote).

39 Henri Masse, Croyances et Coutumes Persanes (Paris, 1938) vol. I, pp. 166-70. 40 'Abd al-l;Iusayn Sharaf ad-Din al-MiisaWi, An-na~~ wa'l-ijtihiid (Najaf,

1384/1964) pp. 315 ff. 41 Ibid. pp. 82-4, 103, 156; see also 'Abd al-Jalil Ibn Abi '1-l;Iusayn Ibn

Abu'l-Fac.il al-Qazvini, Kitäh an-naqtj, ma'riif bi bat! mathälib an-nawä#b fi naqtj ba'tjfatjä'ilJ ar-rawäfirj (Tehran, 1371/1951) pp. 623-5.

42 Abu'll;Iasan al-Khunayzi, Ad-da'wat' al-islämiyyah ilä wälJdat' ahl as-sunnah wa 'l-imämiyyah (Beirut, 1376/1956) vol. I, pp. 96-107.

43 For further specifications of these works, see above, note 33. 44 Shihäbl, Taqr"iriit, p. 53.

198 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

45 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhä}, vol. I, pp. 6-9, vol. II, p. 360; cf. M. St. Guyard, 'Le fatwä d'Ibn Taymiyyah sur les Nosairis', Journal Asiatique XVIII (1871) pp. 162-78.

46 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhäj, vol. I. pp. 56-60, 75. 47 lbid. vol. I, p. 384. 48 Ibid. vol. H, pp. 361-76. 49 Ibid. vol. I, pp. 379-85. 50 Ibid. vol. H, p. 361. 51 [Abu'l l;Iasan Ibn MuJ:tammad] 'Abd al-Jabbär [Asadabadf al-Hamadani],

AI-mughnl./i abwäb at-tawlJid wa '1- 'adl (Cairo, 1966) vol. XX, pp. 112-97. 52 Qazvfni, Kitäb an-naqc!, p. 625. 53 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhä}, vol. I, p. 28. 54 Ibid. vol. I, p. 43. 55 Ibid. vol. I, p. 27. 56 M. Mole, 'Les KubraWiya entre Sunnisme et Shiisme', Revue des Etudes

lslamiques, XXIX 1 (l961)(hereaftercited as Mole, 'Les KubrawIya') pp. 61-142. 57 Ibid. p. 74. 58 Ibid. p. 99. 59 D. S. Margoliouth, 'NürbakhshIya', in Encyclopedia oflslam, 1st ed. 60 Mole, 'Les KubrawIya', p. 130. 61 Ibid. p. 129. 62 Z. Thabitiyan, Asnäd va nämih-häy-i tärikhl va Utimä7 dawrän-i [jafavl

(Tehran, 1343) pp. 231 ff. 63 Hamid Aigar, 'Shl'ism and Iran in the Eighteenth Century', in T. Naff and

R. Owen (eds), Studies in Eighteenth Century lslamic History (London, 1977) pp. 288 ff.

64 Ibid. p. 292. 65 Ibid. p. 299. 66 MuJ:tammad 'Abduh, Risälat' at-tawlJid, 10th ed. (Cairo, 1942) pp. 12-19. 67 For a definition of Salafiyyah and its political significance see below, Chapter 3,

seetion 1. For Ri<;la's views on ShI'ism see his As-sunnah wa'sh-shl'iah (2 vo1s in 1) (Cairo, 1366/1947) pp. 4-49. For his earlier pro-ShI'i stance see ibid. pp. 14-25; also below Chapter 3, section 1.

68 Jamal ad-Dfn al-l;Iusayni al-Afghani and MuJ:tammad 'Abduh, Al-u'irwat' al-wuthqä wa'th-thawrat' al-kubrä (Cairo, 1957) p. 242.

69 On the ShI'f leadership of the Iraqi revolt of 1919-20, see Fariq al-MU?hir, AI-lJaqä' ÜJ an-nä~i 'ah fi'th thawrat' al-iräqiyyah (Baghdad, 1371/1952) pp. 192, 243-5; Abd ar-RalJmän al-Bazzäz, MulJäcjarät 'an al- 'lräq min al-ilJtilällJatta'l-istiqläl (Cairo, 1954) pp. 29, 33 n. 4; 'Abd Alläh al-Fayyä<;l, Ath-thawrat' al-'lräqiyyat' al-kubrä (Baghdad, 1963) pp. 81-2: Sayyid 'Abd ar-Razzäq al-l;Iasanf, Al- 'lräq ./i dawray al-ilJtiläl wa 'l-intidäb (?Najaf, 1354/1935) vol. I. pp. 71 ff.; Kämil Salmän Jubürl, AI-Küfah ./i thawrat' al-'ishrln (Najaf, 1392/1972) pp. 13-14 and 229-33; and Raja l;Iusayn l;Iusayni al-Khattäb, Al- 'lraq bayn 1921 wa 1927 (Najaf, 1976) pp. 272 ff.

70 AJ:tmad AmIn, l)ulJa 'l-lsläm, 6th ed. (Cairo, 1936) (hereafter cited as AmIn, l)ulJa 'l-lsläm) vol. III, pp. 209, 233, 250,267; Fa}r al-lsläm, 8th ed. (Cairo, 1933) (hereafter cited as AmIn, Fa}r al-lsläm) p. 112. For a study of AmIn's ideas in general see Detlev Khalid, 'AJ:tmad Amin and the Legacy of M u};lammad 'Abduh', lslamic Studies, LX I (1970), pp. 1-32. Cf. A};lmad Amin, My Life, translated from Arabic with an introduction by J. Boullata (Leiden, 1978).

REFERENCES

71 AmIn, Fair al-Isläm, p. 276. 72 Amfn,l)ui)a 'I-Isläm, vol. 1II, p. 221; see also pp. 2261f. 73 Ibid, p. 244. 74 Fajr al-Isläm, p. 274, footnote I. Also l)ulJa 'I-Isliim, vol. 111, p. 247.

199

75 Sayyid MuJ:!.ammad ~ädiq a~-~adr's introduction to An-na~~ wa 'l-ijtihiid (above, note 40) pp. 6-44.

76 A summary of Käshif al-Ghi!ä 's biography can be found in his A~I ash-Shi'ah wa ~üluha (above, note 14) p. 20.

77 'Abd al-l:Iusayn AJ:!.mad al-Amlrii an-Najafi, AI-ghadir,fi'I kitäb wa's-sunnah wa'l adab (Beirut, 1967). For AmlnI's biography and views see Sayyid Ja'far ShahIdf and MuJ:!.ammad RiQä l:IakImI, Yädniimih-i Amini (Tehran, 1352), and MuJ:!.ammad RiQä l:Iaklrrii (ed.), Jfamasih-i glwdir (Tehran, 1396).

78 MaghnIyah is a prolific writer, and it is difficult to identify any one of his works as the definitive source for his ideas on the Shl'Is' dilferences with the SunnIs. However, some examples of these can be found in his Min hunä wa hunäk (Beirut, 1388/1968) pp. 95-8, 158, 160, 163, 188-9,229-36,244-59.

79 Some of Mu!ahharI's and SharI'atTs views will be discllSSed in Chapters 4 and 5.

80 MllJ:!.ammad TaqI Shaö'ati, Khilä/at va valäyat az na?llr-i Qur'iin va sunnat (Tehran, 1351/1972) pp. 111-14.

81 MaJ:!.mu ShihäbI, AI-Isläm wa'sh-Shi'ah (al-imiimiyyah) fi asäsiha 'uiirikhi wa kiyiinihä 'l-i 'tiqädl (Tehran, 2536/1978) pp. 400-2.

82 MllJ:!.ammad a~-~ädiqI, 'Afiwa'I-lJäkimun (Beirut. 1389/1969). 83 Shaykh RäQ1 AI Yäsln, SullJ al-Jfasan (Kä~imiyyah, 1384/1965). 84 See Chapter 5, the section 'Martyrdom '. 85 S. Husain M. Jalfri, Origins and Early Development 0/ Shi'i Islam, pp. 259-83. 86 Käshif al-Ghitä, A~I ash-Shi'ah, p. 59; KhunayzI, Ad-dll'wat' al-Isliimiyyah,

pp. 15 ff. 87 See the present author's 'Islam and Socialism in Egypt' , Middle Eastern

Studies, IV 2 (1968) pp. 1561f. 88 Among the examples of this 'historical revisionism' one should mention

Tahä l:Iusayn's AI-fitnat'al-kubrä (Cairo, 2 vols, 1956, 1959), Ash-Shaykhiin (Cairo, 1960), Al-wa'd al-lJaqq (Cairo, 1960); for other examples, see notes 57, 61. 62 and 65 to Chapter 5.

89 On modem Sunnf criticisms of the Prophet's Companions see Shaykh Mabmud Abu Rayyah, At/,wä' 'alii's-sunnat' al-MulJammad~"yah (Cairo, 1958).

90 Majallat' al-Azhar, xxx 8 (1959) supplement. 91 Two Historical Documents, Dar al-Taqreeb (Cairo, 1383) pp. 8-9. See also

Mul;1ammad Taqf al-QummI, Qi:j:jat'at-taqrlh (Cairo, 1960) pp. 6, 9, 11. 92 Midd/e East Journal, XIV (Winter 1960) pp. 452-3, entered llnder 'August T. 93 See, for instance. the collection of statements by the 'Ulamä' of various

schools in support of the PLO: Kibär 'ulama' al-Isläm yu{älibün al-musli m'in bi da'm mujiihidllJarakah 'Fa*' (Dar AbI Dharr, 1396,1976).

94 Aigar, Shl'lsm, p. 298. 95 See YaJ:!.yä Häshim l:Iasan Farghal, Nash'at'al-ärä' wa'l madhiihib wa'lfiraq

al-kalämiyyah (Cairo, 1972) where he argues that Shi'f ideas inevitably lead to belief in Divine incarnation, and merge \\-ith the theses of the Extremists (Ghulät) (pp. 138 If.); MllJ:!.ammad Abu Zahrah, AI-nllulhiihib al-Islämiyyah (Cairo, n.d.) especially pp. 54-7; and iss lies of Liwä' al-Isliim, particularly XI 5 (1957) pp. 321-9; XIII 6 (1959) pp. 339-40; XVII 3 (1963) pp. 187-201.

200 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

96 See the account of a symposium on ijtihäd in Liwii' al-Islam, xv 2 (March 1961) pp. 98-100, also xv 4, pp. 228-30 and xv 5, pp. 293-5, where Zakariyya al-Barn argues against the individual ijtihiid, but recommends its collective form.

97 A dear example of this line of thought is Amrni's Al-ghadir (above, note 77), but see also Sayyid Mul;1ammad I:Iusayn Tabätabä '1, Shi'ah dar Isliim, op. cit., pp. 7-10.

98 S. Kh. (Salmän al-Khäqänr?), Ash-shi'ah wa's-sunnah fi'l mlzän (Beirut, 1397/1977); Mul;1ammad 'AIr az-Za'br, Lä sunnah wa lii shi'ah (Beirut, 1961).

Chapter 2

Halil Inalcik, 'The Rise of the Ottoman Empire' in The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. I (London, 1970) pp. 320-2.

2 T. W. Arnold, The Caliphate, with a conduding chapter by Sylvia Haim (London, 1965) (hereafter cited as Arnold, Caliphate) pp. 164-5.

3 Haim, 'The Abolition of the Caliphate and Hs Aftermath' (hereafter cited as Haim, 'Abolition') in Amold, Caliphate, p. 209.

4 Arnold, Caliphate, p. 180 5 Quoted in A. Nallino's 'La Fine dei Cosi Detto Califfato Ottomano' (hereafter

cited as Nallino, 'Califfato Ottomano ') in Oriento Moderno, vol. IV (1924) pp. 141-2.

6 Bemard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1961), pp. 257-8. 7 W. C. Smith, Islam in India (London, 1946) (hereafter cited as Smith, Islam in

India) p. 206. 8 Nallino, 'Califfato Ottomano', pp. 139-41. 9 Haim, 'Abolition', pp. 210-18.

10 'Califat et souverainete nationale', Revue de Monde Musulmane, LIX (1925) especially pp. 3, 10, 18,50,53,64,67, and 73.

11 'Abd ar-Ral;1män al-Kawäkibi, 'Umm al-qurä' in Mul;1ammad 'Amärah (ed.), Al a'miil al-kiimilah (Beimt, 1975) pp. 356-8. See also George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938) pp. 97-8; Hazem Zaki Nuseibeh, Ideas of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1956) p. 48; Ziene N. Zeine, Arab-Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism (Beirut, 1958) p. 70.

12 Umm al-Qurii, p. 365. 13 'Dokumente zum Kampf der Araber um ihre Unabhangigkeit', Die Welt des

Islams, VIII (1923-6) p. 99. 14 laläl ad-Dln as-SuyütI, lfusn al-muhiif!,arah min akhbiir mi~r wa'l qiihirah (1327)

vol. 11, p. 24. 15 A's Suyuti, History of the Caliphs, translated by H. S. larrel (Amsterdam,

1970) p. 500-1. 16 Aziz Ahmad, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment (Oxford,

1964) (hereafter cited as Ahmad, Islamic Culture) pp. 62-3. 17 Smith, Islam in India, p. 198. The Khilafatist movement was, in fact, more

radical and more militant than the Congress (p. 2(0). 18 Smith, Islam in India, p. 204. 19 Lini S. May, The Evolution of Indo-Muslim Thought after 1857 (Lahore, 1970)

p.206. 20 Ahmad, Islamic Culture, pp. 66-8. See also Ashfaque Husain, The Quintessence

of Islam, 2nd ed. (London, 1960) p. 16.

REFERENCES 201

21 Mul).ammad Iqbäl, The Reconstruction of Muslim Thought (London, 1934) p.150.

22 Ibid. p. 149. 23 Ibid. pp. 150-1. 24 'Qarär al-hay'at' al-'ilmiyyat' al-diniyyah bi'd-diyär a1-mi~riyyah fi sha'n

al-khiläfah', in Nür al-Isläm (Sha'bän, 1350/1931) pp. 590-4. 25 For different interpretations of 'Abd ar-Räziq's ideas see C. C. Adams, Islam

and Modernism in Egypt (London, 1933) pp. 259-69; G. Kampffmeyer, 'Egypt and Western Asia', in Whither Islam? (London, 1932) p. 142; Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (hereafter cited as Hourani, Arabic Thought) (Oxford, 1962), pp. 183-8; also note 37 below. Here we have concentrated on those elements of 'Abd ar-Räziq's thought, which, despite his unconventional remarks, could have brought him nearer to religionists.

26 'All 'Abd ar-Räziq, Al-Islam Wa u~ül al-lJukm, with introduction and comments by Mamdül). I:IaqqI (hereafter cited as ar-Räziq, Islam) (Beirut, 1966) p. 40.

27 Ibid. p. 46. 28 See, for instance, his book AI-ijma'ji'sh-shari 'at' al-Islamiyyah (Cairo, 1947). 29 ar-Räziq, Islam, p. 79, also p. 74. 30 Ibid. p. 118. 31 Ibid. pp. 143 ff. 32 Ibid. pp. 167-77, also pp. 191 ff. 33 Ibid. pp. 13-17, 199. 34 Ibid. p. 20 I. 35 Ibid. p. 82. 36 ljukm haya'ah kibar al- 'ulama'fi kitab al-Islam wa u~ül al-lJukm (Cairo, 1925)

pp. 29-30. 37 Shaykh Mul).ammad Bakhlt, ljaqlqat' al-Isläm wa u:fül al-lJukm (Cairo, 1926)

p.446. 38 See, for instance, the postscript by the Iranian Muslim scholar, Mul).ammad

Ri4ä I:IakiIlÜ to this author's book Andlshih-yi siyasl-yi 'Arab ['Arab Political Thought'] (Tehran, 2536/1977) pp. 279-87.

39 E. I. J. Rosenthai, Islam in the Modern National State (Cambridge, 1965) p. 89. 40 Ibid. p. 86.

Chapter 3

Al).mad Tarabayn, AI-walJdat' al- 'Arabiyyah bayn 1945-66, p. 133. Also A. L. Tibawi, Anglo-Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine (London, 1977) pp. 152-6.

2 For a study of RashId Ri4ä's idea of the Caliphate in the context of his modernism see Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform (Berkeley, 1966) (hereafter cited as Kerr, Reform) pp. 153-208; and Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought pp. 222-44. Here, our emphasis is on the connection between Ri4ä 's theses on the Caliphate and his notion of the Islamic state.

3 Ri4ä's broad-mindedness, however, broke down when he came to deal with the Shi'i polemists; see above, Chapter I, section 2.

4 In his excellent introduction to the French translation of Ri4ä's Al-khilafah, Henry Laoust has mainly discussed the first two stages of the argument analysed here; see his Le eali/at dans la doctrine de Rashld Rüjii (Beirut, 1938) p. 2.

5 Mul).ammad Rashld Ri4ä, AI-khilafah aw' al-imamat' al-U'?mä (Cairo, n.d.)

202 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

(hereafter cited as RiQä, Al-khiläfah) comprising the author's articles on the subject published in al-Manär, vols XXIII and XXIV, year 1341/1922, p. 37.

6 Ibid. p. 41. 7 Ibid. p. 40. 8 Ibid. pp. 11-13,57-61. 9 Ibid. p. 18; see also Mäwardl, AI-alJkäm as-sul{äniyyah, p. 15.

10 MuJ.1ammad 'Abduh, Risälat' at-tawlJld, pp. 25-6. 11 RiQä, Al-khiläjllh, pp. 60, 65. 12 Ibid. pp. 6, 38. 13 See above, Chapter 2. 14 RiQä, Al-khilalah, p. 10. 15 Ibid. pp. 30-3. 16 Ibid. p. 35. 17 Ibid.pp.67-71. 18 Ibid. pp. 66. 19 Ibid. p. 77. 20 Ibid. p. 78. 21 Ibid. p. 79. 22 Ibid. pp. 76-106. 23 Ibid. p. 79. 24 Ibid. pp. 77, 78,96. 25 Ibid. pp. 78, 106, 112. 26 Ibid. pp. 94, 142; also pp. 30-3. 27 Ibid. pp. 57-60. 28 Ibid. pp. 90-1 : Hourani, Arabie Thought, p. 152. 29 E. I. J. Rosenthai, Islam in the Modem National State (Cambridge, 1965)

(hereafter cited as Rosenthai, Islam) p. 72. 30 For I:Iusayn's own interpretation of the criticism against his work see his

Fi'l adab al-jähill (Cairo, 1926) pp. 7-67. On the antecedents of his work see the article by AJ.1mad Kamäl ZaklY in Tahä ijusayn kamä ya'rifuhu kuttäb 'a$rih (Cairo, n.d.) p. 182; also G. E. von Grunebaum, Islam: Essays in the Nature and Growth ofa Cultural Tradition (London, 1955) p. 209.

31 RiQä, Al-khiläfah, p. 90. 32 Louis Maillot, L 'Introduetion cl l'Etude du Droit Musulman (Paris, 1953) p. 180;

Y. Linant de Bellefonds, Traite de Droit Musulman (The Hague, 1965) p. 43. 33 See Chapter 5, section I. 34 RiQä, Al-khiläfah, pp. 91-4. 35 Ibid. p. 91. 36 Ibid. pp. 94-5. 37 Ibid. pp. 13-15. 38 Ibid. pp. 61-2. 39 See, for instance, al-Manär, vol. XII, pp. 390-6; vol. XVI, pp. 774-6; vol. XXV,

p. 761, etc. 40 Hourani, Arabie Thought, p. 231. 41 Kerr, Islamie Reform, p. 176. 42 Hourani, Arabie Thought, p. 234. 43 RiQä, Al-khiläfah, pp. 124-5. 44 E. 1. J. RosenthaI, 'Some Reflections on the Separation of Religion and Politics

in Modern Islam (hereafter cited as RosenthaL . Reflections ) IS!{lmic Sludies, III (\964), p. 264.

REFERENCES 203

45 Richard P. MitchelI, Tlte Society ofMuslim Brothers (London, 1969) (hereafter cited as MitchelI, Brothers) p. 4. See also Ra'üf ShalabI, Ash-Shaykh ljasan al-Bannii' wa madrasatuh 'AI-Ikhwc7n al-Muslimun' (Cairo, 1978) pp. 133-9.

46 Zakariyyä Sulaymän BayyümI, Al-ikhwän al-muslimün (Cairo, 1979) (hereafter cited as BayyümI, Al-ikhwiin) p. 90.

47 Ibid. p. 90, footnote 2; also MitchelI, Brothers, p. 14. 48 BayyümI, Al-ikhwiin, p. 91. 49 Ibid. p. 118. 50 MitchelI, Brothers, pp. 89, 99; also Anwar el-Sadat, In Seareh of Identity

(London, 1978) pp. 22-4; for Sadafs less inhibited accolmts of the Free Officers' relations with the Brothers, see his Revolt on the Nile (London, 1957) pp. 26 ff., 30, 43 ff., 61 ff.; also Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Moslem Brethren (Beirut, 1956) p. 118.

51 MitchelI, Brothers, pp. 151-62. 52 Editorials of the Majallat' al-Azhar, issues of February and October, vol. XL

(1968). 53 Ibid., especially the October issue, articles entitled 'The Jewish Attitude

towards Islam and the Muslims in the "Initial Era" [al- 'a~ al-awwal]', 'The Jewish Role in the Hostility against the Foundation of Islam " and 'Jsrä 'iliyyät in Qur'änic Commentaries and the ljadith·.

54 Nadav Safran, Egypt in Seareh of Politieal Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961) p. 234.

55 Mul,1ammad GhazzäIT, Min hunä na'lam (Cairo, 1948) (hereafter cited as Ghazzäli, Min hunii) p. 49 (English translation by Isma'il el-Faruqi entitled Dur Beginning in Wisdom (New York, 1975) p. 21).

56 MitchelI, Brothers, pp. 234-5. 57 Rarat as-Sa'id,ljasan al-Bannä (Cairo, 1977) pp. 83 ff. 58 Ghazzäli, KifälJ din, 3rd ed. (Cairo, 1965) pp. 133-9. 59 Ghazzäli, Min hunä, p. 25. 60 Ibid. pp. 22-3. 61 Ibid. p. 55. 62 Ibid. p. 21. 63 Ibid. p. 30-1. 64 Hourani, Arabie Thought, pp. 164-7. 65 Rasmd RiQä, Nida' ila 'l-jins al-la(if; 2nd ed. (Cairo, 1947); see also ~aläl,1 ad-Din

(ed.), Fatawa al-Imam MulJammad Rashül Rifjii (Beirut, 1970); see especially his fatwäs on the abuses of polygamy (vol. I, pp. 118-27), teaching literacy to women (pp. 66-7), equality between men and women in an matters except 'private and public guardianships' (al-wilayät al- 'ammah wa'l-khä:j:jah) (vol. III, pp. 933-4), the unveiling of women's faces (vol. H, pp. 679-83) and women's praying in mosques (vol. H, pp. 436-7).

66 GhazzäIT, Min hunä, pp. 182-4. 67 Ibid. pp. 199-205. 68 Ibid. p. 179. 69 Ibid. pp. 176-7. 70 Ibid. p. 207. 71 For a sympathetic account of their activities and programmes, see Ri<;lä

Gul-surkhi, 'Fidä'iyän-i Isläm, äghäz-gar-i junbish-i mu~allal,1änih dar Irän', l!tila'at, no. 15843, Urdibihisht 10, 1358 (30 April 1979) (hereafter cited as Gul-surkhI, 'Fida'iyän-i Isläm '), where there is also a reference to a book by

204 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

Navväb ~afavi himself, entitled Barnämih-i Iy,ukümat-i jidä7yan-i Isläm (Tehran, 1329); also Mu/;lammad Ri<;lä Hak'imI, Tafs'ir-i ii/täh (Tehran, 1357/1977) (hereafter cited as 1;Iak'imI, Ta/sir-i ii/tiib) pp. 231 ff.

72 Gul-surkhI, 'Fidä'Iyän-i Isläm', p. 4. 73 1;Iak'imI, Ta/sir-i ii/tiib, p. 234. 74 Fa<;ll Ibn 1;Iasan TabarsI, Majma' al-Bayiin (Cairo, 1354/1935, vol. III,

pp. 187-8. 75 Mu/;lammad 1;Iusayn Tabälabäl, Al-mizan fi ta/sir al-Qur'an (Beirut, 1390/

1970) (hereafter cited as Tabälabäl, Al-miziin) vo! v, pp. 328 ff. 76 Mu/;lammad Rashld Ri<;lä, Ta/sir al-Maniir (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as

Ri<;lä, Ta/sir) vol. VI, pp. 365-6. Ri<;lä explains that the term 'fighting against God' (Iy,arb Alliih) has been used four times in the Qur'än: only in one ofthese it means usury, and in the rest the normal meaning of 'resorting to arms and highway robbery' (ishhiir a~-siliil} wa qat' as-sabil) is intended (ibid. p. 356).

77 P.1. Vatikiotis, The Modem History 0/ Egypt (London, 1969) pp. 194-5. 78 Ri<;lä, Ta/sir, vol. VI, p. 355. 79 Tabätabä'I, Al-miziin, vol. v, p. 326. 80 Ri<;lä, Ta/sir, p. 366. 81 The Holy Quran with English Translation and Commentary (published 'under

the auspices of Hazrat Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmud Ahmad') (Qadian, India, 1947) vol. I, pp. 622-3.

82 For personal appreciations ofMaudüdI's life and ideas see Islamic Perspeetives: Studies in Honour 0/ Sayyid Abul A 'la Mawdudi, edited by Khurshid Ahmad, Zafar Ishaq Ansari (Jeddah, 1979) especially pp. 265-89. For a critical review of the Jama'at's activities see Kalim Bahaduri, 'The Jama'at-i-Islami of Pakistan: Ideology and Political Action' (hereafter cited as Bahaduri, 'Jama'at-i-IslämI'), International Studies, XIV (New Delhi, 1975) pp. 69-84, where a comprehensive bibliography is also given.

83 Manzooruddin Ahmad, 'Sovereignty ofGod in the Constitution ofPakistan', Islamie Studies, IV (1965) pp. 201-33. Richard S. Wheeler, The PolWes 0/ Pakistan (lthaca, N.Y., 1970) pp. 151 ff. Leonard Binder, Religion and PolWes in Pakistan (Berkeley, 1961) (hereafter cited as Binder, Pakistan) pp. 315-44. Rosenthai, Islam, pp. 203 ff.

84 G. W. Choudhury, 'New Pakistan's Constitution', The Middle East Journal, XXVIII (Winter 1974) p. 12.

85 Ibid. p. 11. 86 Binder, Pakistan, p. 75. 87 Abu'! A'lä MaudüdI, Majähim Islämiyyah Iy,awl ad-dln wa' d-dawlah (Kuwait,

1394/1974) pp. 146-9. For Maudüdfs differences with the traditionalist 'Ulamä' see Binder, Pakistan, pp. 73 ff.

88 L. S. May, The Evolution o/Indo-Muslim Thought (Lahore, 1970) (hereafter cited as May, Indo-Muslim Thought) p. 324.

89 K. K. Aziz, The Making 0/ Pakistan (London, !967) pp. 105-6. 90 May, Indo-Muslim Thought, pp. 324, 336-7. 91 Maudüdi, The Proeess o/Islamic Revolution (Lahore, 1955) (hereafter cited as

MaudüdI, Islamie Revolution) pp. 25-6. 92 Ibid. p. 4. 93 Ibid. p. 34. 94 Ibid. p. 4. 95 Ibid. pp. 37-55.

96 Ibid. p. 62. 97 Ibid. p. 35. 98 Ibid. p. 5. 99 Ibid. p. 22.

100 Ibid. pp. 8-10. 101 Ibid. pp. 7-8.

REFERENCES 205

102 See his Islamic Law, edited by Khursid Ahmad (Karachi, 1955) p. 57; also Islamic Law and Constitution (Karachi, 1955); Political Theory 0/ Islam (Lahore, address delivered in 1939) (hereafter cited as Maudüdf, Political Theory 0/ Islam); Rosenthai, Islam, pp. l37-53.

103 May, Indo-Muslim Thought, pp. 336-7. 104 Maudüdf, Mä hiya'l-Qädiyäniyyah (Kuwait, 1967) p. 178. 105 Maudüdf, Al-Isläm fi muwäjahat 'at-tal;!adiyyat' al-mu 'a$irah (Kuwait, l391/

1971) pp. 229-40. 106 Ibid. p. 238. 107 Ibid. p. 240. 108 Maudüdf, Al-Isläm al-yawm (Kuwait, 1973) p. 62, also pp. 49-52. See also his

Mas'alah milkiyyat'al-ar4/i'l Isläm (Kuwait, 1389/1969) where he argues that it is illegal to take lands out of private hands in order to collectivise them (pp. 91-2).

109 Maudüdf, Al-Isläm fi muwäjahah, p. 234; see also his Islamic Way 0/ Life (Lahore, 1955) p. 44.

110 Maudüdf, Political Theory 0/ Islam, p. 62. 111 Ibid. p. 111. 112 Ibid. pp. 220-1. 113 Herbert Feldman, From Crisis to Crisis (Oxford, 1972) p. 73. See also Lawrence

Ziring, The Ayyub Khan Era (Syracuse, 1971) pp. 46-7; and Bahaduri, 'Jamä'at-i-Isläml', p. 74, where there is also a reference to an article in Tarjumän al-Qur'än defending Maudvdf"s decision on canonical grounds.

114 See Mui)ammad Asad's The Principles 0/ State and Government in Islam (Berkeley, 1961) especially pp. 30 ff. The crucial feature of Asad's scheme ofthe Islamic state is that in identifying its principles, he relies solelyon the 'clear textual ordinances' (nu~ii~) ofthe Qur'än and the Tradition as constituting 'the real, eternal sharl'ah of Islam'. He thus excludes /igh or jurisprudence, holding that "the far larger area of things and activities which the Law-Giver has left unspecified-neither enjoining nor forbidding them in na$~ [textually defined] terms-must be regarded as allowable (mubäl;!) from the shar7 point ofview" (ibid. p. l3). This obviously allows considerable scope for a libertarian inter­pretation of Islam.

Chapter 4

Rifä'ah Räfi' at-TahtäwI, Manähij al-albäb al-'a$riyyah fi mabähij al-ädäb al'a$riyyah (Cairo, 1912) p. 99. See also Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 99.

2 ÜI} 'Abd Alläh Nadfm's concept of watan, see Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de I'Egypte Moderne (Cairo, 1937) p. 318.

3 Shaykh I:Iusayn Mar~afi, Al-kalim ath-thamän (Cairo, 1298/1880-1) pp. 2-15. 4 Sylvia Haim, 'Islam and the Theory of Arab Nationalism', Die Welt des

Islams (New Series), IV (1956) pp. l32-3. 5 Hisham Sharabi, Arab Intellectuals and the West (London, 1970) p. 119.

206 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

6 'Abd ar-Ral,lmän al-Bazzäz, Min wahY al- 'urübah (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Bazzäz, Min walJy al- 'urübah) p. 199.

7 Ibid. p. 200. 8 Ibid. p. 200-1. 9 Ibid. p. 206, see also Bazzäz's other book, Hädhih qawmiyyatunä (Cairo, 1964)

p.62. 10 Mul,lammad Darwazah, AI-walJdat' al- 'Arabiyyah (Beirut, 1957) pp. 60 Ir., also

Nash'at' al-lJarakat' al-'Arabiyyat' al-lJadithah (Beirut, 1949) pp. 10-14. Säti' al-I;Iusri, Mä hiya' al-qawmiyyah, 2nd ed. (1963) pp. 251-7. Bazzäz, Hädhih qawmiyyatunä, pp. 238-9, where similar views by such Christian writers as QustantIn Zurayq are quoted.

11 For fundamentalist denunciations of nationalism, see Mul,lammad Al,lmad Bäshnul, Al-qawmiyyah fi na?ar al-Isläm (Beirut, 1960).

12 Abdu'l 'Aiiz ad-Dawri, 'AI-juziir at-tärikhiyyah li'l-qawrniyyaf al-'Arabiyyah' in Diräsät' al-qawmiyyah (Beirut, 1960) p. 13. For Rashid Ri<;lä's attacks on the Umayyads see his Al-khiläfah aw' al-imämat' al-u:;mä, pp. 44-5,130.

13 On the relationship between Arab nationalist and lslamic tendencies, see Al,lmad Tarabayn, AI-walJdat' al- 'Arabiyyah fi tärikh mashriq al-mu'ä!jir, 1800-1958 (?Beirut, n.d.) pp. 326-42.

14 Marcel Colombe, L'Evolution de I'Egypte (Paris, 1951) pp. 171-2. 15 Majallat' al-Azhar, XXIV (1952) pp. 137-40. 16 Ibid. XXVII (1956) pp. 937-41, XXVIII (1956) pp. 337-44. 17 For a critical study of the ideology of Iranian nationalism in the nineteenth

century see Firaydün Ädamiyyat, Andishi-hä-yi Mirzä Äqä Khän Kirmäni (Tehran, 1346/1967) pp. 248-68, Andishi-hä-yi Mirzä FatlJ 'Ali Äkhünd Zädih (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 109-36, Andishi-yi taraqqi va lJukümat dar 'a!jr-i Sipahsälär (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 160-2.

18 Shaykh ar-Ra'Is Qäjär, IttÜJäd-i Isläm (Bombay, 1894) pp. 74-5. 19 Murta<;lä Mutahhari and S. H. Nasr, 'The Religious Sciences', in The Cam­

bridge History ofIran (Cambridge, 1975) vol. IV, pp. 464-5. 20 Murta<;lä MutahharI, Khidamät-i mutaqäbil-i Irän va Isläm (Tehran, 1348)

pp. 40-8. 21 Ibid. p. 77. 22 Ibid. pp. 83, 122. 23 Ibid. pp. 114-16. 24 On Firdawsl's nationalism see Mujtabä Minuvi, Firdawsi va shi'r-i ü (Tehran,

1346) pp. 29-64. 25 Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York, 1963) (hereafter cited as Arendt,

Revolution) p. 23. 26 [Khäjah] Na~ir T~I, Akhläq-i Nä!jiri (Lahore, 1952) p. 232. 27 Arendt, Revolution, p. 39. 28 Aquinas, Selected Political Writings, edited by A. P. D'Entreves (Oxford, 1948)

p.113. 29 H. Kabir, Science, Democracy and Islam (London, 1955) pp. 7-10. 30 Ibid. p. 11. 31 Ibid. p. 15. 32 Ibid. p. 18. 33 Al,lmad ShawqI al-Fanjari, AI-lJurriyyat' as-siyäsiyyahji'IIsläm (Kuwait, 1973)

p.31. 34 Ibid. p. 34.

35 Ibid. pp. 47-48. 36 Ibid. p. 49. 37 Ibid.pp.51-2. 38 Ibid. pp. 42-3, 124-62. 39 Ibid. pp. 69-80. 40 Ibid. pp. 50, 63, 73. 41 Ibid. p. 51. 42 Ibid. pp. 81-2.

REFERENCES 207

43 Nadav Safran, Egypt in Seareh 0/ Politieal Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961) p. 217.

44 Ibid. pp. 220-1. 45 Ibid. p. 217. 46 Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shl'Jsm and Constitutionalism in Iran (Leiden, 1977) p. 220.

The author makes similarly critical remarks on Nä'infs ideas on equality (p. 234) and separation of powers (p. 220).

47 Steven Lukes, Essays in Sodal History (London, 1977) p. 34. 48 Ibid. p. 41. 49 See Mu\.1ammad 'Abduh, AI-a'mäl äl-kämilah, edited by Mu\.1ammad 'Amärah

(Beirut, 1972), vol. IIl, p. 485. Also Sayyid Jamäl ad-Din al-Afghäni and Mul}.ammad 'Abduh, Al-'Urwat' al-wuthqä (Cairo, 1957) pp. 128-34.

50 Mul}.ammad l;:Iusayn Tabätabä'i, Raväbi(-i ijtimä7 dar Isläm, collected and translated from his Ta/sir al-mT::än by Mul}.ammad Javäd l;:Iujjati Kirmäni (Tehran, 1348) pp. 21-42.

51 Ibid. pp. 65-7. 52 Ibid. p. 68. 53 Ibid. pp. 100-2. 54 Ibid. pp. 69, 74. 55 'Abd al-Aziz al-Badrl, lfukm al-Isläm fi'l-ishtiräkiyyah (Medina, 1966)

pp. 122-5. 56 Ibid. pp. 142-4. 57 For studies on the crisis of liberalism in these countries see P. J. Vatikiotis,

Modem History 0/ Egypt, 2nd ed. (London, 1978) pp. 317-42; R. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, 1964) pp. 33-50; C. H. Dodd, PolWes and Government in Turkey (Manchester, 1969) pp. 107-80. For Pakistan see the notes to Chapter 3.

58 See M. H. Kerr, 'Emergence of a Socialist Ideology in Egypt', Middle East Journal, XVI (Spring 1962) pp. 127-45; S. Serafy, 'Economic Development by Revolution', ibid. XVII (Summer 1963) pp. 215-31; Fayez Sayegh, 'The Theoretical Structure ofNasser's Arab Socialism', St Antony's Papers, Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (1965) (hereafter cited as Sayegh, 'Nasser's Socialism ') pp. 9-56.

59 Sayegh, 'Nasser's Socialism', pp. 27, 35, 39-41. 60 On Nä~ir's attitude towards Islam as a political force, see this author's 'The

Impact of the West on Arab Nationalism' (Ph.D. diss., London University, 1962) pp. 276 ff.

61 Gamal 'Abdul Nä~ir, The Philosophy 0/ Revolution (Washington, 1955) pp. 88 ff.

62 For references, see this author's 'Islam and Socialism in Egypt', Middle Eastem Studies, IV (1967-8) pp. 141-72.

63 'I~mat Sayf ad-Dawlah, Usus ishtiräkiyyat' al-Isläm (Cairo, 1965) p. 5.

208

64 Ibid. p. 9. 65 Ibid. p. 412.

MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

66 Kamäl Rafat, 'Kha~ä'i~ al-ishtiräkiyyat' al-'Arabiyyah', in al-Akhbär (March 18, 1962).

67 Saläh Mukhaymir and 'Abduh Mikhä'il Rizq, Fi'l ishtiräkiyyat' al- 'Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1964) pp. 11 0-11.

68 Some examples of this critical approach will be given in Chapter 5, under 'Martyrdom'.

69 Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Muslim Brethren (Beirut, 1956) p. 78. 70 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria (London, 1965) p. 180. 71 Mu~tafä as-Sibä'l, Ishtiräkiyyat' al-Isläm (Damascus, 1958) (hereafter cited as

as-Sibä'l, Ishtiräkiyyah) pp. 13, 115 ff., 59 ff. 72 Ibid. p. 17. 73 Ibid. pp. 17-18. 74 Ibid. pp. 33-4. 75 I:Iamcfi HäfJ+, Al-ishtiräkiyyah wa't-ta{biq al-ishtiräkl fi'l-jumhuriyyat 'al­

'Arabiyyah (Cairo, n.d.) p. 291 (quoting a speech by Na~1r). See also Nazih Mul;1ammad a~-Sädiq aI-Mahdi, Al-milkiyyah fi'n-ni?äm al-ishtiräkl (thesis, Cairo, n.d.) p. 39; Ma'rüf ad-Dawälibl, Na?arät Islämlyyah fi'l ishträkiyyat al-thawriyyah (Beirut, 1955); Al;1mad Shalabi, Al-ishtirakiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 74-83; Mul;1ammad Mukhtär Amm Makram, /fawl al-ishtiräkiyyat' al- 'Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 35 ff.

76 Sibä 'I, Ishtiräkiyyah, pp. 38, 89-100. 77 Ibid. pp. 43-65. 78 Ibid. pp. 69-85. 79 Al-mu'tamar al-awwal li-majma' al-bulJuth al-Isläml [Report of the First

Congress ofthe Association for Islamic Research] (al-Azhar, 1964) p. 331. 80 Ibid. pp. 135-251. 81 Ibid. p. 394. 82 The Resolutions and Recommendations of the Second Congress of the Association

for Islamic Research (Cairo, 1965). 83 W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History, p. 157. 84 Qutb's two important works in this respect are: Al- 'adälat' al-ijtimä'iyyah

fi'l-Isläm, 6th ed. (Cairo, 1964) (hereafter cited as Qutb, Al- 'adälat) and Ma'älim fi'{-{arlq (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Qutb, Ma'älim). On the point at issue see his Al- 'adälah, p. 97.

85 Qutb, Ma'älim, especially pp. 52 ff., 213. 86 Qutb, Al'adälah, p. 292. The same theme has been developed in Mul;1ammad

Qutb's Jähiliyyat' al-qarn al- 'ishrln (Cairo, 1964). 87 Qtb, Ma'älim, pp. 120-41. 88 Ibid. pp. I, 147 ff. 89 Ibid. pp. 154, 160; Qutb, Al-'adälah. pp. 36 ff. 90 Qutb, Ma'älim, pp. 145-6, 185-6, 192-4, 197. 91 Qutb, Al- 'adälah, p. 18. 92 Tafslr-i siirah-i Anfäl, Commentary on the verse 1 of the Sürah 'Spoils of War'

in the Qur'än, c1andestine publication, mimeographed (Tehran?, n.d.) p. 19, also pp. 6 and 15. This, of course, has been selected as an example from many others.

93 Ibid. p. 19. 94 Mazheruddin Siddiqqi, 'General Characteristics of Muslim Modernism',

REFERENCES 209

Islamic Studies, IX (1970) pp. 33-68. See also J. M. S. Baljon, Modem Muslim Koran Interpretation (Leiden, 1966), pp. 16 ff.

95 'Ali Sharl'ati, Dars-hä-yi Isläm-shinäsi, duplicated by the Islamic Students. Association of Europe, the United States and Canada (n.d.) pp. 48-50 (see also On the Sociology 0/ Islam, lectures by 'Ali Shari'ati, translated by Hamid Aigar (Berkeley, 1979) pp. 82 ff.

96 Ibid. p. 77. 97 Ibid. p. 78. 98 Ibid. p. 89. For SharI'ati's criticism of Marxism from a religious standpoint,

see, inter alia, his Insän, Isläm va mak tab-hä-yi maghrih zamin (Thema, n.d.). 99 Sharl'ati, Dars-hä-yi Isläm-shinäsi, p. 95.

100 Ibid. p. 87. 101 Shari'ati has replied to some of his traditionalist critics in Miz gird,

päsukh bi su'älät va intiqädät, published by l;Iusayniyyah-i Irshäd (Tehran, 1354/1975).

ChapterS

1 On modem Shl'iviews on ijtihiid see Mul).ammad Jawad Maghriiyah, At-ta/sir al-käshiJ (Beirut, 1968) (hereafter cited as Maghnlyah, At-ta/sir) vol. I,

pp. 259-60; Mul).ammad Jawäd Maghnlyah, Min hunä wa hunäk, pp. 261 ff. While earlier Sunrii writings in this century expressed reservations on ijtihäd (Nür al-Isläm, 11 3 (1931) pp. 170-3; III 4 (1932) pp. 280-8; Liwä' al-Isläm, xv (1961) pp. 220-8, 293-6), later publications supported it (Al-mu'tamar al-awwal li-majma' al-bul)üth al-Islämi [proceedings of the First Congress of the Association for Islamic Research] cited in note 79 to Chapter 4.

2 'Ali Dawänl, WalJid Bihbihäni (Qum, 1338/1959); MurtaQä Mu!ahhari, 'Ijtihäd dar Isläm " in M arja 'iyyat va rulJäniyyat (Tehran, 1341/1962) (hereafter cited as Mu!ahhari, 'Ijtihäd') pp. 35-68.

3 Mu!ahhar'i, 'Ijtihäd', p. 182. 4 Mal).müd Täliqänl, 'Tamarkuz va 'adam-i tamarkuz dar marja'ayyiat va

fatvä', in Marja'iyyat va rul)äniyyat, pp. 201-13. 5 For a daring criticism of the attitudes of the Iranian Shl'i 'Ulamä' in the

modem period by an 'insider' see Na~lr ud-Dm Amlr Sädiql, RulJäniyyat dar Shi'ah (Tehran, 1349/1970) and the second volume ofthe same book, entitled Hayähü (I~fahan, 1349/1970).

6 On the foundations of the 'Ulamä's' power in the nineteenth century see Hamid Algar, Religion and State in Iran (Berkeley, 1969) (hereafter cited as Algar, Iran) pp. 1-25. For a theoretical discussion on the sources of their authority in general see Joseph Eliash, 'Misconceptions Regarding the Judicial Status ofthe Iranian Ulama', International Journal oithe Middle East, x (1979) pp. 9-25; and the present author's artic1e on the 'Ulamä' 's ideological contribution to the Constitutional Revolution in Yäd-nämih-i Ustiid Mutahhari (Tehran, forthcoming). .

7 See, for instance, Al).mad Kasravl, Din va siyäsat (Tehran, 1348), p. 11. 8 Algar, Iran, p. 22. 9 Firaydün Ädamiyyat, ldeologie-yi nadhrjat-i mashrü(ih (Tehran, 2535/1977)

p.228. 10 Ädamiyyat, Andishih-i taraqqiva lJukümat, p. 159. 11 Ädamiyyat, Amir Kabir va Irän, 3rd ed. (Tehran, 1348/1959) pp. 417-28.

210 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

12 Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal, 1964) pp. 367 ff.

13 A1;mad KasravI, Tärikh-i mashrü{ih-i Irän, 6th ed. (Tehran, 1344/1965) (here-after cited as KasravI, Tär7kh) pp. 315-16.

14 Mu1;ammad Bäqir KhunsärI, RGlwjät' al-jannät (Tehran, 1306/1888) pp. 35-6. 15 MutahharI, 'Ijtihäd', p. 45. 16 N. J. Coulson, A History 0/ Islamic Law (Edinburgh, 1964) pp. 107-8. 17 A1;mad KasravI, Bi-khänand va dävari kunand, 3rd ed. (Tehran, 1336/1957)

p.105. 18 Abu'l l:Iasan Mu1;ammadI, MahänT-i iSlinhä{-i ~1Uqüq-i lslämi (Tehran,

2535jl977) (hereafter cited as Mu1;ammadI, Mabänl) p. 154. 19 Mu1;ammad I:Iusayn Na'InI, Tanblh al-ummah wa tanzih al-millah, with

introduction and footnotes by Sayyid Ma1;müd TäliqänI, 5th ed. (Tehran, 1358/1979) (hereafter cited as Na'InI, Tanbih) pp. 74-5.

20 Mu1;ammadI, Mabäni, pp. 164-70. 21 KasravI, Tärikh, pp. 371-2. 22 Shams Käshmarl, Kalimah Jämi'ah (Tehran, n.d.) pp. 22-3; Mu1;ammad

Gulbun, 'Asnaru dar barih-i-mashrütih-i-Iran', Barrisi-hä-yi tärikhi, v 3 (1349/1960) p. 159; Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran, p.213.

23 KulaynI, Käfivol. I, pp. 87-8. 24 See, for instance, I:Iajj MIrza Mu1;ammad I:Iasan ÄshtIyänI, Kitäb al-qarjä

(Tehran, 1327/1948) p. 7. 25 Rubulläh MusavI KhumaynI, }jämih i az Imäm Käshif al-Ghitä' (Tehran,

1356/1977) pp. 116-18. 26 Na'inI, Tanbih, pp. 80-5. 27 See note 11 to the lntroduction. 28 Kalimät' al-mul)aqqiqin, a collection of thirty treatises on land-tax, of which

five are known as Kharäjiyyät (Tehran, 1315/1897) pp. 95-7. 29 Mubaqqiq Sabzavan, Rawrjat al-anwär-i 'Abbäsi (Caro Minasian Collection,

no. 47, Wadham College Library, Oxford) p. 9. 30 Nä'inI, Tanbih, p. 13. 31 Ibid. pp. 46, 57-8. 32 For c1assical ShI'I treatment of taqiyyah see FayeJ KäshänI, Kitäb al-wäfi

(Tehran, 1357/1938) vol. I, part 3, pp. 121-4; [Mu1;ammad Ibn al-I:Iasan] al-I:Iurr al-'Amili, Wasä'j/ ash-shl'ah (Cairo, 1377/1957) vol. I, p. 108. E. Kohlberg, 'Some ImämI-ShI'i Views on Taqiyya " Journal 0/ American Oriental Sodety, xcv (1975) pp. 395-402. See also notes 39 and 42 below.

33 H. Corbin, En Islam Iranien (Paris, 1971) vol. I, pp. 6,30 ff., 117. 34 'AliTehränI, Taqiyyah dar Isläm (Tehran, 1352/1973) pp. 6-7,45,54-6,80. 35 Ibid. pp. 26-8. 36 Ibid. p. 34. 37 Ibid. p. 30. See also Ibn IdrIs, Kitäb as-sarä'ir (Tehran, 1390/1970) p. 203. 38 TehränI, Taqiyyah, pp. 54-79; Magnlyah, At-ta/SIr, vol. 11, pp. 41-5, vol. IV,

p. 556; 'Abd ar-Razzäq al-I:IasanI, Ta'rif ash-Shi'ah (Sidon, 1352/1933) pp. 53-4.

39 Ibn IJrIs, Kitäb as-sarä 'ir, pp. 160-1. 40 Sayyid A1;mad TayyibI ShabistarI, Taqiyyah, amr bi ma'rüfwa nahy a:: munkar

(Tehran, 1350/1971) pp. 79 ff., 170. 41 Ibid. pp. 100-134, 164-170.

REFERENCES 211

42 lbid. p. 101. See also Shaykh Mul)ammad l;lasan an-Najafi, Jawähir al-Kaläm (Tehran, 1392-8/1972-8) vol. XXI, pp. 352-410.

43 MurtaQä Mutahhari, Dah guftär (Tehran, ?1356/1977) pp. 65-6. 44 Mul)ammad Mukri, Shähnämih-i I}aqiqat, quoted in Shährukh Misküb's

Süg-i Sryävush (Tehran, 1351/1972) pp. 87-9. Also consult SImIn Dänishvar's novel Sauwishün (Tehran, 1348/1969), where, at the end, the mourning for l;lusayn merges with that for Siyäwush, pp. 275, 300.

45 R. Strothmann, 'ta'zIya' in Encyclopedia of Islam, 1st ed., p. 712. 46 A. 1. Wensinck, A Handbook ofEarly Muhammedan Tradition (Leiden, 1960)

p.250. 47 ['Abü Ja'far Mul)ammad Ihn 'Mi] Ibn Bäbüyih, 'Uyün akhhä,. ar-ricjä, ed.

S. M. Läjevardi (Qum, 1377/1957) pp. 299-300. 48 Mullä Mul)ammad Mahdi Naräqi, Mul}riq al-qulub (Tehran, 1247/19 .. )

(hereafter cited as Naräqi, MU~lriq) p. 4. For NaräqTs life and work, see Sayyid Jaläl AshtIyänI's introduction to Qurrat' al- 'uyiin (Tehran, 1357) pp. 51-6.

49 Sadr ad-DIn Vä'~ QazvinI, RTyäq al-quds, 2nd ed. (Tehran, 1377) vol. 11,

pp. 113-14. 50 ['Abü Ja'far Mul)ammad Ibn l;lasan Ibn 'Ali] at-TüsI, al-AmälT(Najaf, 1384)

vol. I, p. 6. 51 NaräqI, Mul}riq, p. 4 (a). 52 Jean Calmard, 'Le mecenat des representations de ta'zieye', in Le Monde

Iranien et nslam (1974) pp. 76, 119. 53 Abü Bakr Ibn al-'Arabi, Al'awä~im min al-qawä~im (Cairo, 1387/1967)

pp. 231, 233) (hereafter cited as 'Awä~im). 54 Ibn Khaldün, The Muqaddima, translated by F. Rosenthai (New York, 1958)

vol. I, p. 443. 55 See Khatlb 's footnotes, for instance, on pp. 32-401' 'A wä~ün. 56 ar-Risiilah, IV 146 (1355/1936) pp. 613-15. There might have been other writers

before Mäzini who discussed 1:1 usayn 's drama from a modernistic stand point. In 1932, for instance, an issue of the periodical al-Muqta{af (v 80, p. 627) carries a brief review of a book by 'All Jaläl al-1:IusaynI Bey, entitled AI-lfusayn 'alayhi' s-saläm published by the Salafiyyah Press, praising it as an im partial study, but the present author was unable to see this book.

57 'Abbäs Mal)müd al-'Aqqäd, '1:Iusayn abu'sh-shuhadä" in Isliimiyyät (Cairo, 1959) pp. 41-9, also pp. 10-11.

58 lbid. p. 52. 59 Ibid. p. 79, also p. 71. 60 Ibid. pp. 80-1. 61 'Abd ar-Ral)män ash-Sharqäwi, al-ljusayn thü'iran, al-ljusayn shahTdan

(Cairo, 1969): on 1:Iusayn's modest political aims see vol. I, p. 60: on the upsurge ofpopular feelings in his movement, see vol. I, p. 211; for his soliloquy, see pp. 66 ff.

62 Al)mad 'Abbäs Sälil), 'A~-~irä' bayn al-yamin wa'l-yasär fi'l-Isläm' in al-Kätib, IV (1965) pp. 49, 50, 52.

63 al-Liwä' al-Islam, x 6 (1956) pp. 364 ~8. 64 Ibid. XIX 10 (September 1965) pp. 645-58. 65 Khälid Mul)ammad Khälid, Ahnä' ar~rasülfi Karbalä' (Cairo, 1968) p. 35. 66 Ibid. p. 34. 67 Ibid. pp. 196-200.

212 MODERN ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT

68 E. W. Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians (London, 1871) vol. H, pp. 148-54. The author describes how the anniversary ofI:Iusayn's martyrdom gives rise to joyous festivals in Cairo.

69 Ni'matulläh Sälilfi Najaf-äbädi, Shahld-ijävid (Tehran, 1349/1970) (hereafter cited as Najaf-äbädi. Shahid-ijävid) pp. 12,89,91,93.

70 Ibid. p. 8. 71 Ibid. pp. 95-108. 72 Ibid. pp. 120-36. 73 Ibid. p. 108. 74 Ibid. p. 109. 75 Cf. Shaykh Sadüq, Uyün akhbär ar-Riejä, p. 226; Kulayni, kaJi, vol. I, pp. 322 ff. 76 Najaf-äbädl, Shahid-ijävid, pp. 246-339. 77 KhumaynI, l'fämih i az Imäm Käshif al-Ghitä', pp. 181 ff. 78 See, inter alia, 'Abd a~-Säl:J.ib Sayyid Mu/;lammad Mahdi Murtac;lavi, Javäb-i

ü az kitäb-i Ü, ya päsukh-i shubahät-i shahid-i jävm (Qum, 1350/1970); Sayyid I:Iasan I:Iujjat, Valäyat va 'ilm-i Imäm (Tehran, 2535/1977); Mu/;lammad Mullmi. Valäyat az didgäh-i marja'iyyat-i Shi'ah (Tehran, 2535/1977).

Index

Only the text has been indexed. In a few cases, entries stand for general concepts rather than for exact literal equivalents; e.g., 'ideology' refers not only to this word, but also to discussions on the intellectual efforts justifying political systems. Brief definitions have been given for most terms, but not for those indicating sects, schools and trends, which have sometimes been defined in the text. Contrary to the system adopted in the text, capital letters have been used mainly for proper nouns.

'Abbas (Ibn 'Abd al-Mulallib) (Prophefs unde),4

'Abbasids, 9,11,39,52,57,120,179 'abd(lit. slave, but also Man versus God), 138 'Abd al-Jabbar, Qa<;ll Abu'l-l;:Iasan Ibn

Mul).ammad [Hamadanf], 36~7 'Abd ar-Raziq, (Shaykh) 'All, and dassical

Sunrutheory, 14; views on the Caliphate, 62~8; comparison with Rashid Rida, 76,78,89,94, 115

'Abd Shamsld, 186, 189; see also Banü 'Abd Shams

'Abduh, Mul).ammad, co-founder of Sunnl modernism, 28; plea for Muslim unity, 41, 42; views on ijtihiid, 47,52,56; against 'imitation', 56; weakening legacy, 61; and interpretation of law, 67, 69; on the corruption ofthe 'Ulama', 72, 77; jatwiis, 78; and M usJim Brothers, 83, 90; and novel terminology, 135; and revision of Muslim history, 185

'Abdul 'Azlz (Sullan), 58 Abdulhamid, Sullan, 122 'Abdullah Khan (Uzbak), 39 Abdulmecid, Sullan, 53 'Abdulmu'min Khan, 39 Abel, 156~8, 181 'abode of Islam' (diir al-Islam), I Abu Bakr (the first Caliph). 6. 13, 32, 46,

48, 66, 82 Abu Dawüd (traditionist), 146 Abu Dharr al-Ghifäri, 16,33,180 Abü l;:Ianlfah (Imam), 15, 148 Abu'l-l;:Iasan Mirza, see Shaykh ar-Ra'ls Abü Zahrah, Mul).ammad, 189 Adam, 28 Adamiyyat, Firaydün, 165 'adl Uustice), 128, 131 adultery, prohibition 0[, 106, 107 Afghanl, al-, see Asad-abädi Afghanistan, 112 Afghans, 41, 54, 121 Africa, 54; East, 7; North, 119

Afsharid state, 39 Agha Khan, 43, 53 'ahd covenant (between Caliph and his

electors), 6 ahl al-bayt ('people ofthe house'), see

Prophet's family ahl ~all wa'l- 'aqd ('people who loose and

bind', electors, the 'elite '),6,16,63; Rashld Ri<;la on, 72~3; see also 'people who loose and bind'

Ahl-i ~aqq, 181 Al).mad [Ibn l;:Ianbal, Imam], 146 A 'ishah, 6, 34, 92, 93 akhbiiris (traditionists), 161 ~9 Akhündzadih, Fatl). 'All, 165 AI Al).mad, Jalal, 92 a'lam ('the most learned'), epithet ofthe

highest living Shi'i authority, 6, 162 'Ala'ud-Dawlah SimnanI, 38 Aigar, Hamid, 40,51, 165 Algeria,7, 152 'All, Mul).ammad, 58 'AlI, Shawkat, 58 'AlIIbnAblTalib (Imam), 4~6, 16,26,31,33,

34,36,37,38,45,46,98,129,154,180,181, 183,188, 189, 193

'iilim (learned, religious scholar, pI. 'Ulama'), 5, 101, 163, 178

Allah (God), 128, 154; sunnat' allah (tradition or path ofGod), 128, 154; see also God

'Allamah l;:IillI, see HillI alms (~adaqiit), 107 alms-tax (zakiit), 2, 1 J3 AlüSl, Mal).müd, 43, 45 amiili (disco urs es), 19, 183 amiinah (trust, trusteeship), 27 Ameer (Amir, ruler, prince), 109 'American way oflife', 91,128 'Amill, Abu'l-l;:Iasan I;Iurr, 49 AmIn, Al).mad, 31, 43~5 AmIn, Qasim, 90~ 1 Amlnl (Abdu'I-I;Iusayn), 31,45

214

amlr al-J;iijj (pilgrimage leader), 40 AmIr 'AlI, Sayyid, 34, 54 AmIr KabIr, see MIrzä TaqI Khän 'Ammär Ibn Yäsir, 175 amr bi'l-ma 'riif wa nahy an al-munkar

(' enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil '), as a principle of political action, 2; as the opposite of taqiyyah, 179

'Amr Ibn al-'Ä~, 119, 186 Amritsar (massacre at), 58 anarchy, safeguard against, 16,73; see also

fitnah Anas Ibn an-Na<;ir, 189 Anatolia,7 andarz-nämih (-nämah) ('book ofadvice'), 13 an~är (the Prophet's 'helpers' in Medina), 7 An~ärI, Shaykh Murta<;iä, 162, 167 antan (most stinking), description of

incommunicative 'älims, 179 anti-Americanism,91 anti-British campaign (India), 58 anti-Imperialism, 42, 93 anti-Semitism, 129-30 anti-Westernism,152 anti-Zionism, 116 'Aqqäd, 'Abbäs Ma\.lmud al-, 92, 133, 134,

135, 186-7, 189 al-Aq~ä, mosque, 87 Aquinas, St. TilOmas, 129 Arabia, 41, 59,103, 187 Arabian Peninsula, 74, 75, 90, 117, 119 Arabic culture, 112-14 Arabism, 112, 113, 119, 120, 125, 141 Arab-Israeli conflict, 84, 86-7, 93, 150 Arab nationalism, 50; attitude to the

Caliphate, 56-8; and Islam, 113-20 Arab nationalists, 70, 102, 124 Arab Revolt (1916),57,85 Arab socialism, 139-43 Arab-Turkish relationship, 57 Arab-Zionist conflict, 84, 85; see also

Arab-Israeli conflict Arnold, T. W., 52 'a~abiyyah (group solidarity), 70 Asad, l;Iäfi?;, 144 Asad, Mu\.lammad, 110 Asad-äbädI (al-AfghänI), Sayyid Jamäl

ad-DIn, advocate ofMuslim unity, 39, 40, 41,52; of ijtihäd, 47-53; against 'imitation', 56; and Muslim Brothers, 83; against popular pre-destinarianism, 135; and revision ofMuslim history, 185

ÄshtlyänI, Sayyid Jaläl [ud-DIn], 15 'Äshiirä' (the tenth day of Mu\.larram),

33, 194

INDEX

Asia, 119 Association for Islamic Research (Egypt),

149-50 Atatiirk, see Mustapha Kemal awbäsh (riff-raft), 185 awliyä (friends of God), 39 awqäf(endowments), 169; see also waqf Awzä'I,36 AyyübIds, 49 Ayyüb Khän, 101, 110 Äzäd, Abu'l-Kaläm, 58, 59 Azhar, al- (University-Mosque of), 57, 61,

62,65,66,69,87,94; attitude to nationalism, 116-20; on Socialism, 149-50; rivalry with, 186-70

'Azüri (Azoury), NajIb (Negib), 57

Babylonia, 124 Badawi, 'Abd ar-Ra\.lmän, 15 Badr (battle of), 33, 189 BadrI, 'Abd al-'Azlz, 15, 137-8 Baghdad, 10,53,54, 57, 138 Bagley, F., 28, 29 BahI, Mu\.lammad l;Iasan al-, 144 BakhIt, Shaykh Mu\.lammad, 66 balägh (communication), 64 Bangladesh (war), 101, 116 Bannä', l;Iasan al-, 84, 94, 115 Bannä', Mu\.lammad Kämil al-, 188-9 Banque des Prets (Iran), 161 Banii 'Abd Shams, 189; see also 'Abd

Shamsld Banii Isrii71 (Qur'än), 105 Banii Taghlib, 113 BaijillänI, Qä<;iI Abü Bakr al-, 60, 61 bast (sanctuary), 166 bärin (inner meaning or nature, opposed to

?ähir),22 Bärin/s, 31 bay'ah (oath or contract of allegiance to

Caliphs), 6, 16; source of the right to elect rulers, 132; critique of, 133-5

bay'at ar-rüjwän, 33 Bay<;iäwI,62 bazaar, as a base of fundamentalism, 95;

and nationalism, 116 Bazzäz, 'Abd ar-Ra\.lmän al-, 112-14 benevolence (lutJ), 4, 37 BihbihänI, Sayyid 'Abdulläh, 164 Binder, Leonard, 101 birth control, 107, 150 'blood ofSlyävush', 181 Bolshevism, 65 bourgeoisie, and nationalism, 116;

and the 'Ulamä', 161, 166

INDEX

Brecht, B., 143 Brechtian, 187 Brethren of Purity, 22, 24; see also

al-Ikhwän a~-Safä' Britain, 's influence, 42, 58, 63, 70, 74, 97;

British imperialism, 84, 85, 120, 122, 153 Buddhism, 113, 124 Buiyds, 10, 12, 15,39,53 Bukhäri, 15 Buriijirdi, l;fusayn, 162-3

Caesar,63 'Caesars and Khusraws', 114 Cain, 156-8 Cairenes, 190 Cairo, 10, 48, 57, 59, 186, 187 Caliph, 16,20,31,36-44,52,81 Caliphate, 6, 9,10,11,12,14,23; abolition of

the üttoman, 52-5; in Rashid Rigä's doctrine, 69-83, Ill, 181, 190

capitalism, 140, 143, 151, 154, 157, 188 capital punishment, 107 Cartesian (approach), 48 Carthagian, 124 Caspian Sea, 18 Catholic Church, 44 Catholics, 54 chahärdah ma'$üm (the 'fourteen

impeccables'),27 China, 124, 139 Choudhury, G. W., 100 Christ, 63, 183 Christian Arabs, 56,78, 114 Christi an Democratic Party (ltaly), 89 Christianity, 44, 54, 113, 124 Christians, 31, 82, 96, 97 CIA,153 citizen[ship), concept of, 127 'civiI rule' (Qukümah madaniyyah), 79 dass struggle, 108, 140-1 College of Islamic Theology (Lahore), 102 collectivism,99, 139; in Sunnism, 21, 68 Communism, 65, 118, 128, 145, 151 companions (~aQäbah), the Prophet's, 34, 63 consensus (ijmä'), definition of, 21 ;

in Sunni-Shi'i dispute, 48; as a sanction of the Caliphate 62, 63; and apostasy, 82

Conservative Party (Britain), 89 Constantinople, 54 constitutionalism (Iran), 164-75 Constitutional Revolution (Iran), 55, 77,

121,134,164-6 consultation, see shiirä Cook, Michel, xi Copts,97

Corbin, Henri, 11, 18, 22, 155, 172 Cordova, 10, 54 Coulson, N. J., 169 Crimea,52 Crimean war, 58 Crusades, 88, 89 Crusaders, 120 cult of personality, 151 cultural alienation, 78-9, 91-2 cultural nationalism, 122 cultural self-consciousness, 125 culture, Islamic, 155; dichotomy in, 191

Damascenes, 40, 188 Damascus, 40, 144

215

där al-Isläm (the 'abode ofIslam'), 115; see also 'abode ofIslam'

där at-taqrib (dar at-taqreeb) (organisation for the bringing together of Sunni-Shi'i schools) (Egypt), 49

Darmsteter, J., 18 dawlah (state or govemment), 186 dawlat' al-Islämiyyah (Islamic state or

govemment), 77; see Islamic State 'dayof Arabism' (yawm al- 'uriibah = Friday),

114 democracy, and Shi'ism, 44, 169-75;

in Rashid Rigä's doctrine, 77; theoretical relation with Islam, 125-30; Kabir on, 130; Fanjari on, 131-3; Tabätabä'i on, 135-7; al-Badri on, 138; see also bay'ah, freedom, rebellion, shürä, sovereignty

Democrat Party (Turkey), 138 de-Stalinisation, 143, 152 'Devotees ofIslam' (jidä7yän-i Isläm) (Iran),

93-9 dialectical materialism, 136, 156 azn (religion), 79 Dinawari, 192 Dinshäwi affair (Egypt), 97 cfiyäfah (hospitality), 148 DonaIdson, D., 28 Dozy, R., 43 Dutch colonialism, 120 duty (jar4), political significance of, 179

eclectic (iltiqä(i) trends, in modem Islam, 158 egalitarianism, 108, 158; see also equality Egypt, 7,15,50,55,58,60,61,62,69,74,83,

84-6,91-2,93,97,99,100,112-16,138, 139-52,153, 161, 162, 164; see also 'Abduh, al-Azhar, Arab nationalism, Nä~ir, Nä~irism, Egyptian socialism, Arab socialism

Egyptian University, 62

216

electorate, 105; see also ahl al-/Jall wa '1- 'aqd and 'people who loose and bind'

emotionalism, 28, 29, 30 England, 130, 159 entertainment, political significance of, 91-2 equality, 108, 127-8, 131 esoterism, 22ff, 176 Europe, 3, 130; see also individual

countries, and Westernisation Europeans, 124

Fadak affair, 32 Fakhr ud-Din ar-Räzi, 21 Fälüjah, battle of, 86 Fanjari, Al;1mad Shawqi, 131-3 faq7h(jurisconsuIt)(pLfuqaha),76, 167, 194;

see also 'iilimfuqahii' jurist and mujatihd Farabi,15 farii'UJ (statutory shares in the law of

inheritance), I 14 farr}, see duty farrih-i"izadi (divine grace), 18 Fätimah, 16,27,32,48,92 Fatimid,48 fatwii (legal opinion, responsum), 48,51,

110,177 Fay~al, son of Sharif 1;1 usayn, 63 Fertile Crescent, 113 feuda1ism, 140, 156, 157 fidii Iyiin-i Islam, see Devotees of Islam 'fighting God and His Apostle', controversy

over definition of, 96-8 fiqh (jurisprudence), 175; see also Law and

Shari'ah Firdawsi, 125, 181 fitnah (civii strife), 16 fitrah (innate nature), 157 France, 130, 159 Free Officers (Egypt), 86 passim, 118, 144 free will (ikhtiyiir), 24, 135 freedom, absence of, in Islamic histr>ry, 2;

and Iranian nationalism, 121; eqUlvalent of, in Islam, 131; 'never recognised in Islam', 138

French coloniaIism, 57,120 French Revolution, 102 Füdah, 'Abd ar-Ral;1im, 189 fundamentalism, varieties of. 69; in Rashid

Ri<;lä's teachings, 81; and urbanisation, 116; in Egypt, 83-93; in Iran, 93-9; in Pakistan, 99 -11 0; and socialism, 150-2

fuqahii' (jurisconsults) (plural offaqih), 22, 113

furü'[iit] (secondary malters of religion), 36,40,79

INDEX

Germany, 130 Ghadir (ditch or pool), ofKhumm, 4, 6, 38,

181 Ghali, Butrus Pasha, 97 ghaybah (occultation or disappearance of

the Shl'i Imäm), see under imiim Ghazäli, Imäm Abü l;Iämid Mul;1ammad,

10, 11, 13, 14,21,71 Ghaznavid (dynasty), 10 Ghazzäli, Mul;1ammad, views on the Islamic

state, 87-93, 95, 102, ll5, 189 ghuliit ([Shl'i] extremists), 35 Ghunaymi, Shaykh Mul;1ammad, 117 Gibb, H. A. R., 14, 43 God,2, 4, 6, 7, 12,27,29,31,36,37,44,62,

63,64,85,89,95,98, 103, 109, 119, 128, 129, 13l, 132, 136, 137, 151, 154, 173, 175, 182, 192

government, the term for, 77 Great 'ld (74 al-a4IJä) (the feast of

immolation), 190 Greek demes, 135 Greek philosophy, 28, 119 Greeks, 127 Gurevitch, 143 Gurney, John, xi

IJadith (prophetie saying), 15, 27, 56, 71, 98, 106, 132, 172, 182

/Jali; (guardian), 64 Hairi, Abdul-Hadi, 134 /Jajj (pilgrimage), 2, 32 l;Iakim-lIähi, Mirzä Ja'far, 165 Hamadäni, 'Ali, 38 Haman, 174 l;Ianafi (school), 50, 52, 74, 184 l;Ianbali (school), 12, 19,31,50 IJaqiqat (truth), 22 IJaqq (right) (pI. IJuqüq), 131 l;Iasan Ibn 'Ali (Imäm) 26,36,46,188,189 Häshimids, 24, 186; see also Banu Hashim l;Iassän Ibn Thäbit, 29 hay'at musaddidah (adjusting or regulatory

body),174 Hegelianism, 139 HeIIenistic (influence), 15 IJijiib (veiling), 11 0 hijrah (the Prophefs migration), 4 l;Iijäz, 57, 70, 74, 75 l;IiIli, l;Iasan Ibn Yüsuf Ibn Mutahhar,

known as 'Alliimah, 31, 35 IJimii (reserving a piece of land), 147 Hinduism, 44, 126 Hindu-Muslim relations, 58,100,101, 105

INDEX

~isbah ('censorship, surveillance of public morals), 148

historicism, 23-4, 25, 30 homo (Man), 127 Hourani, Albert, xi Hm;laybi, l;lasan Ismä'n, 85 ~udüd (Iimitations on rights, legal

punishments), 138 ~ukm (judgement, rule), 7 ~ukümät' al-Islämiyyah, al- (Islamic

government), 77; see Islamic state Hulagu,38 l;lurqü~ Ibn Zuhayr ~urr (free), 138 Huss, John, 159 I;Iusayn, Tähä, 48,78 I;Iusayn Ibn 'AlT, 16,20,26,27,31,33,36,

46,51, 124, 154, 158, 180; his martyrdom, 181-93

Ifusayniyyah-i Irshäd (Iran), 123

'ibädät (ritual acts or duties), 79 lOO<;\i (Khäriji sect), 81 lblis (satan), 28 Ibn 'Abbäs, 38, 185 Ibn 'Abd al-Barr, Abü 'Umar Yusüflbn

'Abd Alläh, 192 Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhäb, Mul;1ammad, 109 Ibn al-'Arabi, Qä<;\i Abü Bakr, 185, 190 Ibn 'Asäkir, Abu'l-Qäsim 'Ali Ibn l;lasan,

191-2 Ibn A'tham, Abü Mul;1ammad Al;1mad,

191, 192 Ibn al-Athir, 'Izz ad-Din Abu' 1-I;Iasan 'All.

191,192 Ibn Bäjjah, 15 Ibn Bäbüyah, see Shaykh I>adüq Ibn I;Ianbal, see Al;1mad Ibn I;Ianbal Ibn Himäm, Kamäl, 56 Ibn Idris, Abü 'Abd Alläh Mul;1ammad,

12,173,179 Ibn Jamä'ah, Badr ad-Din, 10, 11 Ibn al-Jawzi, 'Abd ar-Ral;1män Ibn 'Ali, 37 Ibn Kathir, 'Imad ad-Din Ismä'n Ibn 'Umar,

191 Ibn Khaldün, 24, 60, 65, 70,103,185,187,190 Ibn Mas'üd, 'Abd Alläh, 33 Ibn Qayyim Jawziyyah, 78 Ibn Qülüyah, Ja'far, 192 Ibn Shädhän, Fa<;\I-Nays[h]äbüri, 20 Ibn Sinä (Avicenna), 15 Ibn Täwüs, 'Ali Ibn Müsä al-'Alawi

al-K~imi, 191, 192 Ibn Taymiyyah, 12,31,35-7,39,44,53

Ibn 'Umar, 'Abd Alläh, 185 Ibn Ziyäd, 193 idealism, 16, 26, 36

217

ideology, 13,73,104,108, 110ff, 139-40, 155 idhä'ah (propagation, disclosure, opposite of

taqiyyah), 176, 178, 179 i~tiyä! (precaution), 168 Iji, 'AQud ad-Din 'Abd ar-Ral;1män, al-, 71 ijmä' (consensus), 6, 10, 16,71, 129, 133,

135, 169 ijtihäd (independent legal judgement, effort

or ability to deduce rules from sourees), Sunni-Shi'i disagreement over, 30,47,49; Shaltüt on,49; still condemned in Sunnism, 50,70,74; Rashid RiQä on, 70, 74, 75, 76; as an imperative attribute oflegal thinking, 81; as a means of reviving the religious thought, 82-101,105; never abandoned in Sunnism, 160; as an ingredient in Shi'i thought, 167, 169

ikhtiliif(lit. difference in [legal] opinions; "equally authoritative variants oflaw"), 14,46, 169

ikhtiyär (selection), 78 ikhtiyär (will or freedom ofwill; choice),

8,138 Ikhwän al-Muslimun, al-, see Muslim

Brothers Ikhwän a$-fiafä', al- (Brethren ofPurity),

9, 10,23,95 Ilähiyän, Shaykh 'Ali Akbar, 94 Ilkhanid, 38 'ilm (knowledge), 5, 76, 168 'ilm-i Imäm (the Imäm's special knowledge

or prescience), 191 ff imäm, in the general sense, 6, 62, 81 ; see also

caliph; in the Shi'i sense, 12,39,21, 23, 24, 27,28,29,30,44,80,83, 167, 172-3, 179, 181; disappearance or occultation (ghaybah) of, 169; recent analysis of functions of, 190-4

imämah (imamate), in the general sense, 66; in the Shi'i sense, 4, 6, 11,34,39,44

imämjum'ah (leader ofthe Friday congregational prayerl, 166

Imäm Yal;1yä (ofthe Yemen), 74 imärah (amirate, rulership), 12 imitation (taqfid), 56 'imläq (giant), 119 impeccability 5; see 'iifmah Imperial Bank ofPersia, 161 imperialism, 154; cultural, 113; see also

under Britain, France, Dutch, etc, India, 42,58,60,61, 105, 130 Indian Muslims, 155

218

Indian, nationalism, effect on Pakistani fundamentalism, 100

infallibility, see 'i$mah infallible (ma'$Üm), 6 Indonesia, 83, 120 intellectuals, see culture and Westernisation inti?är (anticipation of the re-appearance of

the Imäm), in Shi'ism, 25 Iqbäl, Mul;!ammad, 47, 59-61 iqfimiyyah (ethnic or geographie

particularism), 117 Iran, 15, 18,21,26,27,33,45,50,54,67,84,

93,94,95, 100, 114, 115, 116, 120-5, 131, 135, 138, 139, 152-9, 181ff; see also Constitutional Revolution, Islamic Revolution, Khumayni, Shari'ati, Shi'ism, Zoroastrianism

Iraj,181 Iraq, 42, 43, 49, 63, 70, 75, 124, 141, 160 Iraqi National Cdvenant. 113 islrlirä' (legislation). 79 Islam, and politics, 1-3,64-6,76; and

nationalism, 112-3, 120-5; and Arabism, 113,118-20; and democracy, 125-39; and socialism, 139-59; and Marxism, 152-9; leftism in early, 188

'Islamic homeland' (al-waran al-Islam!), 85, 115

Islamic order (an-ni?äm al-Isläm!), difference with Islamic state, 88; definition of, 105-7

Islamic Research Institu.te (Lahore), 102 Islamic revolution, theory of, 102ff Islamic Revolution (Iran), 82, 83, 93, 94, 158 'i$mah (in Shi'ism, the infallibility and

impeccability of the Imäms), 5, 34, 36, 44 Ismä'ili, 21, 22, 31, 35, 43,54 isonomy, 127 I~fahän, 40, 53, 191 Israel, 50, 87 passim, 126; see also

Arab-Israeli conflict, Jews, Judaism, Zionism

Israelites, 24 Instanbul, 54, 75 istikbär (insoience, haughtiness, opposite of

istül'äf), 29 istil;sän (li I. 'to consider good', the legist's

adoption of a course which he considers better than the one suggested by the analogy of the fixed, legal provisions), 60, 78, 148

istirjäl (women's imitation ofmen), 107 isti$läl; (lit. 'to deern expedient', the legist's

adoption of a course which he considers to be in the general interest of the community), 60, 78, 148

INDEX

Italy, 89; colonialism of, 120 lthnä 'ashari[te] (Twelver school of Shi'ism),

5, 169 ittiqä' al-fitnah (safeguard against civil

strife), 16

jabr (predestination, predestinarianism), 8,135

jadafi (dialectic), 156 Ja'fari school (Twelver Shi'ism), 40 Jafr!, S. H., 19 jahän-bini (weltanschauung, ideology), 155 Jähiliyyah (' period of ignorance', the

pre-Islamic period of Arab history, 151 Jamä'at-i-Islämi (Pakistan), 99ff Jamshid, 181 Jerusalem, 43, 87 Jews, 78,82, 87-8, 96,130 jidäliyyah (dialectic), 156 Jihäd ('holy war'), 2, 50, 64, 89, 170, 193 Jinnal;!, Fätimah, 110 Jizäwi, Abu'I-Fa,,1 al-, 61, 117 jizyah (poil-tax), 113 Jordan, 70, 87, 120 Judaism, 44, 87, 126 Judiciary, 109 Jurisprudence, 175; see also Law and

Shartah jurists, 71-3; see alsofuqahä', 'Ulamä' Justice, 5,128,131; social, 145-59

Ka'b Ibn Mälik, 29 Ka'bah, 40, 114 Kabir, Humäyün, 130-1 kajä'ah (equality of status, in marriage), 113 Kämil, M u~tafä, 141 Karbalä', 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 190,

192, 194 Kärün river and (concession), 161 Käshäni, Sayyid Abu'I-Qäsim, 94, 122 Käshif al-Ghitä, Shaykh Mul;!ammad ~usayn,23,31,45,49

Käshifi, Mullä ~usayn, 191, 192 Kasravi, Al;!mad, 164-5, 170, 174 Kawäkibi, 'Abd ar-Ral;!män al-, 56 Keddie. Nikki, xi Kemal AtatUrk, see Mustapha Kemal Kemalism.84.117.118 Kh[w]ajah Na~ir Tüsi, 13, 127 Khälid, Khälid Mul;!ammad, 94,189-90 Khälid Ibn Walid, 32 kha/ifah, 6, 58; see also caliph, caliphate Khäli~i, M ul;!ammad, 49 Khalkhäli, Shaykh Sädiq, 95

INDEX

Khärifi (pI. Khawärij), 32, 188; see also Khawärij

Kha!ib, Mupibb ad-Din al-, 119, 185, 191 KhatlälÜ, Ispaq, 38 Khawärij, 6, 7,8,10,45,98 Khaybar,32 khiläfah (lit. successorship; Caliphate), 38 Khiläfat Committee, 58 Khiläfatist movement, 58 khojah (ultra-fanatic), 54 Khudä Bandih, [Sul~än Mupammad], 38 khulafo räshidiin, 6; see alse Rightly-

Guided Caliphs Khumayni, RuPulläh Miisavi, 51-2, 91, 94,

109, 191, 194 Khunayzi, Abu'I-1;Iasan al-, 31 Khuräsän, 39 Khurasäni, Äkhiind Mullä Mupammad K~im, 164, 167

khu/bah (sermon), 58 kibrit-i aIJmar (philosopher's stone), 174 Kirman; 26 Korah (Qäriin), 176 Kubrawiyyah,37-9 Kuchan,52 Kuchuk Kainarja, 52 Kiifah,20,21, 187, 189, 192, 194 kufr (unbelief), 72 KulaylÜ, 46, 167, 193 Kumayl Ibn Ziyäd, 19 Kurds,75

lä tlarar wa lä tlirär ([one should cause] no harm or loss to oneself or others), 80

Lahore,102 Law, place of - in the Islamic state, 67; as the

basis of the Caliphate, 71; permissibility ofman-made, 77; and in Shi'ism, 170-9; positive, (qänün), 81,147; indivisibility of, in Islam, 89-90; penal, 93-9; answering criticism of Islamic penal, 109

Lebanon,42,160 Lefebvre, Henri, 153 leftism, in early Islam, 188; in modern

Islam, 152-9 legislation, licence for, 78-80, 105; sources

of, for socialism, 148-9 Lewis, Bernard, 54 Liberal Constitutional Party (Egypt), 84 liberals, comfort for, 90; in Pakistan, 102;

in Iran, 153; failure of, 138 Libya,67 Liwä' al-Isläm (Review), 188 Lockian philosophy, 168

219

'Lord of the Martyrs' (sayyid ash-Shuhadä'), 182; see also 1;Iusayn Ibn 'Ali (Imam)

Lukes, Stephen, 134 'lumpen' proletariat, 117 luif(benevolence), 44, 37 Luther, Martin, 159

ma'ädi (other-worldly), 171 ma'äshi(worldly),171 Madelung, W., xi Madkiir,Ibrähim,15 mafsadah (corruption, inexpediency)

(opposite ofmaslahah), 149 Maghniyah, Mupammad Jawad, 45 Mahdi (the "Guided One"; 'messiah'),

24,42,44,46,154 Mahdism, 44-6, 154 Maj/is (parliament) (Iran), 171 Majlisi, Mupammad Bäqir, 191-3 majority, attitudes towards, 19-20, 172 Makdisi, George, 19 mala' (notables, plutocracy), 158; see also

mutraf Malaysia, 83 malik (king, sovereign), 15 Mälik Ibn Nuwayrah, 32 Mäliki (school), 50 Malkam Khan, 165 Mamliik (Mameluk), 11, 58 Ma'miin,13 Manär, al- (Review), 70 maqäm (ritual place), 40 Maqrizi, Taqi ad-Din Mupammad, 24 MaräghI, Mupammad Mustapha al-, 61 marja '-i taqlid (lit. the source of imitation;

the highest mujtahid in Shi'isrn whose words and deeds serve as a guide for those unable to exert 'independent judgement') (ijtihad), changing position of, 162

Mar~afi, Shaykh 1;Iusayn, 112 marthiyah (elegy), 29 martyrdom (shahädah), of1;Iusayn Ibn 'Ali,

181-94 Marx, Karl, 143 passim, 157 Marxism, effect of, on intellectuals, 13;

Marxist terms, 103; and socialism, 139; and Arab socialism, 142; reconciliation of, and Islam, 152-9

Mary,93 Mashhad,39 ma'~iyah, 72 ma~laIJah (expediency, weal), Ghazälfs

definition of, 149; Sunni-Shi'i difference over, 170

220

Massignon, Louis, 18 Ma'$um (infallible and impeccable), 21 Maudüdi (Mawdüdi), Abu'I-A'lä, 94; views

on Islamic state, 101-10, 115, 133 Mäwardi, 10, 14, 15,71 mawlä (master), 6 Mäzini, 'Abd al-Qädir, 186, 192, 193 ma?lum (oppressed), 183 Mecca, 6,32,40, 51,56, 70, 74,180,192,193 Medina, 6, 57, 183, 192 Medinan period (ofProphefs

messengership), 106 Me$rutiyet (constitutionalism) (Ottoman

Turkey), 166 messengership (risälah), function of, 68;

see also nubuwwat mil;nah (Iit. severe trial; 'inquisition'), 13 Mill, J. S., 134 Mirzä 'Abd al-I;Iusayn (Nädir's chief

mullä),40 Mirzä I;Iusayn Khän Mushir ud-Dawlah,

165 Mirzä-yi Qumi (Abu'I-Qäsim Ibn I;Iasan

al-Jilani al-Qummi), 167 MitchelI, Richard, 88 mizän (lit. scales; equity and justice), 128 M,zän, al (commentary on the Qur'än by

Mul,1ammad I;Iusayn Tabätabä'i, 135 modernism, 8,16-17,19,41,47-8,51,52,59,

60; failure ofits first phase, 68, 99,123, 134, 135; in the sense of radicalism, 152-9; Shl'i, 160-94

modernisation, cultural implication of, 91-2; and fundamentalism, 116; elfect on the community of Shl'! Ulama in Iran, 174

Mole, M., 37 monarchy, Egyptian, 118; Sh!'i views on,

172-4 Mongoi invasion, 9, 12, 57 Mongois, 11, 15,37,120 Morocco,59 Moses, 176 Mosul (Maw$il), 75 mu'ämalät (mundane transactions) (versus

'ibädät), 79 Mu'äwiyah, 6, 33, 34, 63, 114, 186, 189 mufti (one who givesfatwa or legal advice or

'responsum'), 43, 76 Mughirat Ibn Shu'bah, 186 mughta$ibun (usurpers), 43 muhäjirun (those who migrated with the

Prophet),7 Mul,1ammad Bäqir (lmäm), 178 Mul,1ammad Ibn 'Abd Alläh, see Prophet

Mul,1ammad

INDEX

Mul,1ammad Ibn 'Ali (lmäm), 36 Mul,1ammad Ibn I;Ianafiyyah, 185 Mul,1aqqiq [-i) Karaki, Shaykh 'AU, 180 Mul,1aqqiq [-i) Sabzaväri, 173 mul;ärabah bä khudä va rasul ('fighting

God and his ApostIe'), 95 mul;ärib (' one w ho fights God and His

ApostIe'),97 Mul,1arram ceremony (celebrating Imäm

I;Iusayn's martyrdom), 33, 183 mul;tasib (inspector of public morals), 148 Mu'izz, al- (Caliph), 48 mujtahid (the one who exercises his

independent legal judgement; religious doctor), 5, 23, 24,72,101,133,169,172

mulk (dominion, kingdom), 64; (rule), 114 multi-party system, 109 mundus imaginalis ('älam al-mithäl, the

intermediary world between the purely intellectual, and the material worlds.), 22

Munt~iri, I;Iusayn 'Ali, 191 muqallid (imitator), 168 Mu~addiq, Mul,1ammad, 122, 153, 163 Müsä al-Käfim (Imäm), 38; see also next

entry Müsä Ibn Ja'far (lmäm), 36 mutraf('living in ease', used in conjunction

with mala, i.e. notables, in the sense of plutocracy), 158

muwä!in (citizen), 127

Nadim, 'Abd Alläh, 112 Nädir Shäh, 3-41 Nahj al- baläghah ('The Way of Eloquence',

collection of aphorisms ascribed to Imäm 'AII),38

Nä'ini, Mul,1ammad I;Iusayn, 134, 164, 167, 172,174

Najaf-äbädi, Shaykh Ni 'matulläh Sälil,1i, views on l;:Iusayn's martyrdom, 190-4

Najafi, Mul,1ammad l;:Iasan, 180 Najd,74 Najjär, 'Abd al-Wahhäb, 191 Najm ud-Din Kubrä, 37 Nallino, C. A., 54, 62 Naräqi, Mullä Mul,1ammad Mahdi,

182, 183 näs (people), 158 na$$ (divine ordinance), 34, 35 na$il;at' al-muluk ('counsel for kings'),

genre of political literature, 13 Nä~ir (Nasser), Jamäl 'Abd an-, 50, 86, 91,

118, 120, 139 Nä~irism, 86 passim; and Islam, 141, 152 Nä~ir ud-Din Shäh Qäjär (Iran), 184

INDEX

National Front (Iran), 138 National Union (al-iltilJäd al-qawmT)

(Egypt), 140 nationalisation, see ta 'mim nationalism, 50, 55, 58, 105, 111-39, 152 Navväb Safavl, Sayyid Mujtabä, 94, 95 Nazism, 102 neo-Platonie, 22 New Left, 143, 153 Ni?äm ul-Mulk, 13 nomoeraey, 129 nomos, 127 nubuwwat (propheey), 22 Nüri, see Shakh Fac,ilulläh Nürbakhsh, Mul;1ammad, 38

Oman, 7 original sin, 27 Ottoman Caliphate, 12, 34, 40, 52, 54-6,

70,100,115 Ottoman Empire, 79,161,162, 164, 166 Owen, Roger, ix ownership, 16; Maudüd! on, 108; Sibä'i on,

146, 147 Oxford,62

Pakistan, 67, 83, 84, 94, 99-110, 116, 117, 126, 138, 155

Palestinian erisis, elfeet on Muslim thought, 69,84,86,93

Pan-Iranists, 125 Pan-Islamism, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55, 115, 122 papaey, 59, 76 patriotism (wa!aniyyah), 112 peasant revolt, rarity of, in Islamie history ,

16; Sarbidärirevolt, 26, 95; in European history, 159

penallaw, see under 1aw 'People of the Book' (ahl al-kitäb)

(Christians, lews, ete.), 96, 128, 129 'people who loose and bind' (ahl al-l;1all

wa'1-'aqd), 21,74, 110 Petrushevskii, I. P., 18 Pharaoh, 25, 124 philosophers, 15, 28 Phoenieians, 124 pilgrimage (lJajj), 40, 51 Plato, 137 Platonie, 22 Poland, 130 polis (city-state), 127 Pope, 44, 154 Portugese colonialism, 120 power, 11,36

221

predestinarianism (jabr), 8, 135 'prince ofthe faithful' (amlr al-mu'minln), 20 Prophet Mul;1ammad, 2, 4, 5, 6,7, 13, 14, 15,

16,21,23,24,26,27,28,31,32,34,35,44, 46, 47, 51, 62, 63, 64, 68, 76, 96, 98, 103, 112,114,119,121,123,124,130,132,136, 137, 167, 176, 178, 182, 184, 185, 190, 192

Prophet's family (ahl-al-bayt), 5, 27, 121, 124, 182, 184, 192

publie opinion, 135

Qadhäfi, Mu'ammar (Libya), 91 Qäc,ii Sa'id Qumi (Qumml), 25-6 QädlyänIs (Pakistan), 42,98, 102, 105 Qäjär, 164-5, 169, 174-84 qänün (positive law), 81, 147 QarashIyat (the eondition of belonging to

the Quraysh), 60 Qärün, see Korah Qäsim, 'Abd al-KarIm (Iraq), 141 Qasimi, Shaykh 'Abd Alläh Ibn 'All, al-, 31 Qatlfi, Shaykh Ibrähim, 173 QazvInI, 'Abd al-lalil Ibn Abi'-Il;Iusayn Ibn

Abi'I-Fac,il, 37 QazvinI, Sadr ud-DIn Vä'i?, 182 qi~ä~ (retribution), 89 qis! (justice), 128 qzyäs (analogy), 105, 148 Qum, 191 Qumi:, Qäc,ii: Sa'id, see Qäc,ii: Sa'id QummI, M ul;1ammad Taqi, 50 Qur'än, ehallenges Muslims, 2; souree of

politieal ideas, 3; against injustiee, 5, 14; on the Prophefs migration, 6; invoked by the Khawärij, 7; departure from, 15; restriction on private ownership, 16, 147; warnings against the majority, 20; on Man's trusteeship, 27; on Man's nature, 28; and Iranians, 33; and independent judgement, 34; on paradise, 35; rejeets deseent, 44; and Sunni-ShI'I dispute, 48; and the Caliphate, 62; neeessitates government, 63-4; and the individual responsibility, 68; understanding, 81; and apostasy, 82; revealing an indivisible law, 89; and sec1usion ofwomen, 90; the term "fighting God and his Apostle" in, 95; interpretation of, 99, 102, 167; provisions for the Islamie order, 106; and politieal rights, 131-3; and political terminology, 138; as a souree ofradicalism, 149, 154; and taqiyyah, 175-6; recitation of, 182; verses onjihäd in, 193

222

Quraysh, 7, 39, 57, 60, 62, 74, 89 qurrä' ([Qur'an's] reciters),38 Qurrah, 'Abd ar-Ral.unän, 117

racia1 prejudice, 70 radica1ism, 108, 152-9; see also 1eftism,

New Left and Arab socia1ism raf4 (repudiation of the 1egitimacy of the

first three Caliphs), 33, 40, 41 rähib (priest, priesthood), 158 rabmah (mercy, compassion), 131 raj'ah, doctrine of (in ShI'lsm) (the return

ofthe Imäm), 24; see also return Rasä'il (Episties, of al-Ikhwän a~-Safä),

9,10,22 Rashld Ri<;lä, MU\:lammad, ideas for Muslim

unity, 31,42,43,45,57; contested by 'Abd ar-Räziq, 62; views on the Caliphate, 69-83;. on Shj'js, 74, 77, 80, 164; on legal dynamIsm, 79-80; and Muslim Brothers 83, 88, 89, 90, 97, 109, 114, 133 '

rationalism, 30, 42, 168 raw4ah-kh[w]äni(passion-play, recitation of

the sufferings and martyrdom of Imäm l;Iusayn), 181

Rayy,53 Rayyan Ibn ShabTh, 182 realism, 15, 36 realpolitik, 53 reason ('aq/), 48, 167 rebellion, the right to, 16, 66 reformism, see modernism republican government, 60 repudiation (raf<!) (of the legitimacy of the

first three Caliphs), 33, 40, 41, 46 'repugnancy dause' (Pakistan), 101 return (raj'ah), of the hidden Imam (in

Shl'Ism), 24, 35, 44, 83 Reuter (concession), 161 revelation (wabY), 154 ribä (usury), 78 R!<;Iä, 'All Ibn Musä ar-(Imäm), 33, 98,182 Rl<;la Shäh, 115 Rightly-Guided Caliphs (khulafä' räshidün),

7, 13, 15, 16,24,52,65,66,71,73,81, 115, 122, 129, 130, 131

Rosenthai, E. 1. J., 66, 68 Rousseau, J. J., 134 Russia, 58, 124 Russian imperialism, 121, 161, 174 RusselI, Bertrand, 113

sabb (vilification of the first three Caliphs), 33,40,41,46

INDEX

sadd dhari'ah (Iit. 'blocking the means'; _ d~terrence) as a device in penallaw, 97

~adlq, Ja'far a~- (Imäm), 27, 33, 46, 172, 178 ~adr, Müsä, 45 Sa'd ud-Dln l;Iamüyah, 37 Safran, Nadav, 87, 133 sahmi-i Imäm (the 'Imam's share'), 162 Sa'Id, Raf'at, 88 Salafiyyah (the movement aimed at reviving

the practices and thoughts of the early gener~tions ofpious Muslims; from salaf, meanmg the predecessors), contribution to Islamic unity, 42; definition of 69' evolution of, 83; and M uslim Bro~her~ 85

Salim I, Sultan, 52 ' Saljüq (dynasty), 10, 11,53 Santillana, D., 62 Saqlfah, assembly of, 4; controversy about

6,32 ' Sarbidärld (Sarbidariyyah), 26, 95 Sartre, J. P., 143, 145 Sassanians, 33, 44, 123, 124, 125 Satan, 9, 105 Saudi Arabia, 42,67,69,87, 138 Sayyid al-Murta<;lä, 20 Sayyid Qu!b, 92, 94, 95, 101, 102, 108, 115,

138; views on socialism, 150-2 Sayy!d ash-Shuhadä' ('Lord ofthe Martyrs';

epnhet oflmäm l;Iusayn Ibn 'AI\), see Husayn Ibn 'All

Säzmän-i Mujäbimn-i Khalq (Organisation of the Fighters of the People) (Iran), 153

scholastic [trend in ShI'Ism],45 Schumpeter, 134 science, and Islam, 130 secu1arists, 57, 68 sensationalism, 168 Seveners (sab'iyyah) (Ismä'TIls), 35 Shäfi'1(school), 15,31,50,184 Shah Ismä'lTI, 13 Shah (oflran) (Mu\:lammad Rida Pahlavi)

153 ' Shäh-äfarld, 124 Shähnämih (-nämah) ('Book ofKings'), 181 Shahrbänü, 124 Shäh-rukh,38 Shahid [-11 Thäni ('All Ibn Ahmad 'Ämi1f'

180 . y,

shahrvand (citizen), 127 Shaltüt, Shaykh Ma\:lmud,fatwä on the

teaching of Shl'Ifiqh, 49-50 sha'n nuzul (historicalor incidental context

darifying the meaning of a Qur'änic verse), 133

Shams-äbädI, 191

INDEX

shar' (Iaw, religion), 71, 79; see also law and Shartah

Shartah (religious law), place of, in classical political theory, 3,10; and critics ofthe Caliphate, 56; im portance of, in the Islamic state, 67; as framework for political ideas, 72; and legal dynamism, 80, 81, 82 passim; all-pervasiveness of, 89, 90; one-sided interpretation of, with regard to women, 92; not a rigid code of laws, 99; severity ofpunishments provided by, 109; and the rights ofnon-Muslims, 128; derivation of man-made law from, 129; and chan ging circumstances, 148; and the U.)'ülimovement, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173

Shaö'at:1, 'All, 45; his ideas, 53-9 Shaöf l;Iusayn (of Mecca), 63, 70, 74 Sharqäwl, 'Abd ar-Rai).män ash-, 187-8 shawkah (power), 36 Shawkat 'All, 58 Shaykh Fa<;!lulläh Nüö, 164, 167, 172, 174 Shaykh Mufid, 11, 192 Shaykh Sadüq (Ibn Bäbüyah), Abü Ja'far

Mui).ammad Ibn 'AII, 167, 176, 182,.193 Shaykh Tüsl, Abü Ja'far Mui).ammad Ibn

l;Iasan, 12, 19,20,167,173,179,183 Shaykh ar-Ra'ls, Abu'I-l;Iasan Mlrzä Qäjär,

122 Shl'lsm, genesis of, 4-5, 10, 11, 12;

philosophers and, 15; salient features of, 19-30; polemics with Sunnls, 32-7; Rashld Ridä's views on, 74, 77, 80, 82; inter-actio~ with Sunnlsm, 95; Shl'i commentaries, 97 -8; and nationalism, 121-5; and radicalism, 153-9; modemism, 47, 160ff; characteristics of Shl'i culture, 176

Shiräzl, l;Iäjj Mui).ammad l;Iasan, 162 Shlräzi, Sadr ud-DIn, 15 shirk (polytheism), 156 shuhüdi(intuitive) (school oftheosophy), 130 shürä (consultation), 16, 56, 63, 74, 77, 129 Shurayi).,27 Shu'übiyyah, 123 Sibä'i, Mu~taffi as, 94, 95, 108; his ideas on

socialism, 144-9 Siffin (battle 01), 190 Sipahsälär, see Mlrzä l;Iusayn Khän Mushir

ud-Dawlah Six Day War, 86, 150, 152; see also

Arab-Israeli conftict. siyäsat' ad-dunyä (temporal politics), 76 Smith, W, C., 54 social contract, 135 social determinism, 140, 161

223

socialism, 16; see also Islam, Arab socialism, leftism and radicalism

SourdeI, Dominique, 11 sovereignty, Rashid Ri<;!ä on popular, 77 Soviet union, 139, 152 Spain, 10, 130 Stalin, J . V., 152, 153 Sublime Porte (Ottoman Empire), 59 Suez Crisis, 152 Süfism, 9, 29, 37ff; see also Sarbidärid,

shuhüdi and wujüdi Sufyän Ibn Waki', 193 Suhrawardi, Shihäb ad-DIn, 15 suhülat'al-lJijäb (ease of access to rulers), 132 Sukamo,91 sulfän (ruler, king), 15 Sultänate, 53-6 sulfat' ad-diniyyah (religious domination), 81 sunnah (tradition), 5, 128, 148; see Tradition sunnat' allah (tradition of God), 128, 158 Sunnl-Shl'i differences, 30-7, 43-5, 169 Sunnism, emergence of, 5-6; no single

political theory in, 14; realism now discreditedin, 16; tuming-point in political theory of, 52ff; debate over the Caliphate in, 62ff; differences with Shj'ism, 30-7, 43-5,169; modem ideas in, 111-52

Suyüp, Jaläl ad-DIn, 57 symbolism, as a vehicle of political

expression, 10 Syria,43, 75,83,94,99,112,120,140,144,152 Syrian emign!s, 70 Syrian National Congress, 70

Tabari, Mui).ammad Ibn Jarir, 191, 192 Tabari, Mui).ammad Ibn Jaör (Shi'i), 193 Tabarsl, al-Fa<;!1 Ibn l;Iasan, 49, 96, 192 Tabätabä'i, l;Iusayn Mudarresi (Sayyid), xi Tabätabä'i, Sayyid Mui).ammad, 164 Tabätabä'l, Sayyid Mui).ammad l;Iusayn,

97-8, 135-7 täfsir (interpretation, contrasted with ta 'wfl),

22 Taftäzäni, Sa'd ad-DIn at-, 56, 71 {äghüt (satan; illegitimate ruler), 9, 172 Tahtäwi, Riffi'ah Räfi', 112 takäful al-ijtimä7, at- (mutual

responsibility), 146, 147 takhnannuth (men 's imitation of women), 107 talfiq (synthesis of the rulings of different

schools of law), 78 Tali).ah,34 Tälibov, 165 ta 'mim (nationalisation), its foundations in

Islamic jurisprudence, 147-51

224

Tan;imiit (Ottoman reforms), 166 taqiyyah ('expedient dissimulation '),

definition of, 21, 22, 175; Sunni criticisms of, 37, 44; modern Shi'i ideas on, 177-81

Tantäwl, 191 taq/id (imitation of authorities in canonical

matters),56, 101; modernist criticisms of, 56,76, 101

taqwii (piety), 112, 128, 175 tara/:lUm (mutual kindness), as an element in

Islamic democracy, 131 Tarjumiin al-Qur'än [Maudüdi's] exegesis of

the Qur'än), 102 tawlfid (doctrine of unity of God), 8, 9;

as a political concept, 155-6 ta'wIl (allegorical interpretation,

hermeneutics), 22 tawthiq (verifying the reliability of sources),

194 ta 'yin-i mUijü' (lit. determining the subject

matter; applying law to specific cases), 171 ta';;iyah ('passion play' ofImam Husayn's

martyrdom),29, 181, 184 Tehran,187 Tehran University, 123 Tha'älibi, 123 Third World, 134, 152 'Thursday Calamity' (raziyyah yawm

al-khamis) (controversy over the Prophefs succession), 32

Tihämah,74 Tobacco crisis, see Tobacco rebellion Tobacco rebellion (Iran), 77, 121 totalitarian regime, 104 Tradition (sunnah), 2, 25, 34, 35, 48, 62, 81.

89, 128, 129, 131, 132, 147, 148, 167 Traditionists, see Akhbiiris Transoxiana, 39 Tunisia, 124 Turanian hegemony, 58 Turkey, 52, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 65, 68, 69, 70,

73,74,75,84, 116, 117, 138; see also Grand National Assembly, Ottoman Caliphate, Ottoman Empire, Me~rütiyet, Mustapha Kemal

Tüsi, see under Kh[wliah Na~ir and Shaykh Tüsi

Twelver Shi'ism, see ithnii 'asharite and Shi'ism

tyranny, justified, 12, 13; as a variety of Caliphate, 71, 73, 131

Ul;lUd (battle 01), 189 'Ulamä', meaning ofthe term, 5; venality of,

13; consensus of, 16,40,42; governments' pressure on, 47; relation with Westernised

INDEX

intellectuals, 55; criticised by Iq bai, 60; and 'Abd ar-Räziq, 62, 63; doubts on the Caliphate, 69; the same as ahl al-hall wa'I-'aqd, 72; double role, 74, 77; in Pakistan, 101, 102, 110; ofal-Azhar, 117; and nationalists, 118, 119; response to the demotion of Islam in official ideology, 140, 143; and the right of ownership, 151; Shl'i, 80, 94, 160ff

Uljaytu, 38 ulu'l-amr (holders of authority), 62 'Umar Ibn 'Abd al-'Azlz, 71 'Umar Ibn l;Ian?alah, 171 'Umar Ibn Khagäb (second Caliph), 6, 13,

16,32,33,46,48,97, 113, 147 'Umar-kushiin ([Iranian Shl'is'] celebration

of the anniversary of 'Umar's assassination), 33

Umayyads, 13,24,71,82, 114, 179, 184, 189, 190

Umayyaf Ibn Abi'~-~alt, 29 ummah (community), 80, 127 United Arab Republic, 140, 145 United Nations, 85 United States of America, 153 'ura/ii' (theosophists), 22 'urJ(non-religious matters; customary law),

171,172 'urübah (Arabism, Arabdom), see Arabism 'usr wa lJaraj ([protection against] distress

and constriction), as a legal device, 80 u$ül-i fiqh, ('roots' or principles of

jurisprudence; jurisprudentia1 theory), 35, 167

U$ü/i school (in Shl'ism), differences with akhbiiris, 161, 169; political implications of doctrine, 167-8

'Uthmän (third Caliph), 6, 32, 33 utopia, 26 utopianism, 77, 110 Uzbek,39

Val;1id Bihbihäni, Mul;1ammad Bäqir, 167 Vahideddin, sultan, 53 vatandas (citizen) (Turkish), 127 voting, as a criterion of democracy, 134

Wafd,84,138 Wafdism, 117 Wahhabism, 41,67,69 walJy (revelation), 154 waHl (agent), 64 waliiyah (friendship of God), 38,46 Walid Ibn 'Abd al-Malik, 124 waqf(endowrnent), 147

INDEX

Watt, W. Monlgomery, 19 Wellhausen, l., 43 Wensinek, A. l., 182 Westernisation of, intellectuals, 3, 8, 55" 60,

77,118,122,129; oflaws, 78; ofeullure, 91-2

Western, c/iche.~, 13; domination, 42; and Iqbal, 59; aggressivity, 69; demoeraeies, 92; eriticisms ofIslam, 109; challenges to Islam, Illff; Muslims' independeneefrom, domination, 125; applying, eriteria of demoeraey to Islam, 134; adventures in Iran, 161; notions of demoeraey in Iran, 165-6; infiuenee, and decline of 'Ulamas power, 174

wiläyah, (eustodianship), 4, 6; (guardianship), 46,194

wiräthah (heirdom, inheritorship), 38 women, 47, 78, 82, 90-3, 110, 132 World War (One), 42,53,57,62,70, 112, 117;

(Two), 58, 84, 91, 93, 117, 125, 162 wujiidi( existential) (school oftheosophy), 130 Wyclif, lohn, 159

Ya'qubi,l92 Yäsir, 175 Yazdigird (iii), 124

225

Yazid Ibn Mu'äwiyah, 63,185,186,192,193 Yemen, 43, 74,87 Young Ottomans, 166

Za 'far the linnee, 182 Zahäwi, Shaykh Amjad az-, 138 zakät (alms-tax), 2, 89, 147, 150 ;älimin, a;- (evil-doers), 5 Zamakhshari, 62, 123 Zand (dynasty), 167 zanjTr-zani (self-flagellation), 181 ;ann (conjeeture), 168; ('probable rules of

law'), 169 Zaydi seet, 18, 50, 74, 81 Zaynab ('AIl's daughter), 92 Zaynab Bint Isl;1äq, 186 Zionism, 100, 118, 150 Ziyäd Ibn Abih, 186 Zoroastrianism, 33, 44, 126 Zubayr, az-, 34