4.1 Introduction

Chapter: 4

Sanitation in Calcutta

4. 2 Sanitation in Calcutta

4.2.1 Sewerage and Drainage System,

4.2.2 WaterSupply

4.2.2.1 Filtered Water 4.2.2.2 Unfiltered Water

4.2.3 Roads

4.2.4 Removal of Solid Waste

4.2.4.1 Night Soil 4.2.4.2 Garbage and Refuse 4. 2. 4. 3 Human Dead Bodies.

4. 3 Sanitation in Britain with Special Reference to London.

4. 4 Conclusions

4.1 Introduction

There is an old saying uPrevention is better than cure1 ". Preventive medicine here

refers to the measures taken to protect the individuals from diseases and to keep them

in a state of positive health. Sanitation is one such measure in securing positive

health of the people. In the past, sanitation was centered on the sanitary disposal of

human excreta. Even now, to many people, sanitation still means the construction of

latrines. But operationally, the term sanitation covers the whole field of controlling

the environment with a view to prevent disease and promote health. "Sanitation is a

procedure involving measures to keep the environment clean and free from waste and

decaying matters, animals and human excreta, putrefactive agents, gases, poisons,

smoke, infective and obnoxious materials dangerous to life, insects and other agents

associated with human diseases, and to provide safe and sufficient water" 2•

The detailed historical study of disease and death in the city of Calcutta during the

colonial period clearly shows the prevalence of diseases associated with bad sanitary

conditions. Although there were other infectious diseases such as venereal diseases,

common among the European people in the city, the most prevalent among the

Europeans as well as the Indians were cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, fevers in varied

forms, smallpox and plague. In this chapter an attempt has therefore, been made to

analyze the measures taken to develop the basic civic or sanitary condition of the city

so as to prevent the occurrence and prevalence of these diseases which are associated

with bad environmental conditions. For this purpose, a brief analysis of the

development of the following sanitary measures has been done for Calcutta:

o Sewerage and Drainage system;

o Water supply;

o Construction and widening of Roads; and,

o Removal of Solid Waste.

1Ratan, Dr. Vidya (1983): Handbook of Preventive and Social Medicine- Hygiene and Public Health; Delhi: Jaypee Brothers; p.l.

2 Seal, S.C. (ed.) (1971): A Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine; Calcutta: Allied Agency.

Ill

4.2 Sanitation in Calcutta

In the initial years of the city's growth, the merchants of the East India Company were

not much interested in providing improved civic amenities. Some of money the

Company collected by imposing taxes, duties and licenses in Calcutta between 1690-

1723 by virtue of the zamindari rights they had acquired over the villages of Sutanuti,

Kolkata and Govindpur in 1698 was put to develop the settlements' civic structure.

The civic services rendered by the Zamindar mainly consisted of: water supply,

drainage, cleansing of streets and, street lighting. The development activities

undertaken by the Zamindar included: cutting down the jungles in the town, bridging

the watercourses, surveying the lands and other such affairs. The provision of 'civic

amenities' in the city was brought under the Municipal Administration in 1727.

4.2.1. Sewerage and Drainage System

Calcutta had its natural drainage through the Khat (creek) that originated from the Salt

Lakes in the east and joined the Hooghly River just below the Princep Ghat, after

meandering through Beliaghata, Sealdah, Creek Row, Dharamtola and Government

Place North. The great cyclone of 1737 rendered this creek useless as a watercourse

for navigation3•

Small surface drains had existed in the city since 1695 when a trench was dug round

the Sutanuti factory. A deeper trench was constructed in 1710 to separate the British

settlement from the indigenous settlement and keep the former dry and wholesome.

The ditch ran from Lal bazaar probably to Babu Ghat. It was protected with

drawbridges and a guardhouse - as it basically served the defense rather than drainage

purposes. In 1742 the Maratha Ditch was constructed initially from Baghbazar to

Park Street and then extended to Alipore. This was mainly for the defense against the

Maratha raids but it served also as the grand drainage outlet for the whole city until

1801 when it was filled up 4•

3 Nair, P. T. (1989): Calcutta Municipal Corporation at a Glance; Calcutta: The Calcutta Municipal Corporation; p. 125.

4 Nair, P. T. (1990): "Civic and Public Services in Old Calcutta"; in Sukanta Chaudhuri (ed.) Calcutta: The Living City; VoL l:The Past; Calcutta: Oxford University Press; p.227.

112

At a meeting of the "Town Improvement Committee" held on 16th June 1803, Lord

Wellesley admitted: "It is a primary duty of the government to provide for health,

safety and convenience of the inhabitants of this great town by establishing a

comprehensive system for the roads, streets, paths, drains and water by fixing

permanent rules for the construction and distribution of the houses and public edifices

and for the regulation of nuisance of every description "5. It was during his regime

that the "Town Reforms Committee" was formed for improvement of the town. Since

the construction of the public drains and watercourses of the Town was extremely

defective, he assigned great importance to the improvements of its drainage 6•

This led to the appointment of a Committee in 1804 to look into the matter. This

Improvement Committee, later called the Lottery Committee, undertook extensive

development work for Calcutta by constructing roads and filling up filthy tanks in the

town and excavating new ones. Beliaghata Canal was the Lottery Committee's

permanent contribution to Calcutta's drainage system.

It is reported that during the early nineteenth century, the drains in the northern part of

the town were unpaved and filthy. Coolies were employed regularly to clean these

drains manually which would overflow on to the streets after a light fall of rain as

these drains had no outlet.

As a result, various proposals came up between 1835-1855 for the construction of a

new drainage system in the 'Town'.

• The Committee opted for an underground drainage system.

• Captain Princepp preferred a surface drainage system to carry off the water

with sinks and ash-pits for every house, to be cleansed by hand-labor. He

strongly opposed any scheme of underground drainage in Calcutta.

• Mr. Blechynden, proposed to drain the northern portion of the town, in which

no large drains had yet been made, either towards the river or to the east by a

large underground tunnel running from the Hughli down Nimtola and

5 Wylie, Macleod (1846): "The Sanitary Condition of Calcutta"; Calcutta Review; Vol. 5; pp. 373-395.

6 1bid.

113

Manicktollah streets to the Circular Canal. The tunnel was to be flushed by

the admission of the Hughli water.

• Captain Thomson provided for an elaborate system of large underground

drains or sewers, which he proposed to flush partly by river water and partly

by means of a reservoir to be formed at the western end of the Entally Canal.

• Captain E. Forbes proposed to construct a large masonry aqueduct from the

river Hooghly at old Chitpur Bridge to the Old Park Street cemetery, and link

it with the Salt Lakes by a wide-open canal nearly parallel with Entally canal.

The canal was to be connected by sluice gates with the river and lake, so that

water might be admitted or excluded from both these sources. On either side ·

of the canal masonry sewer or covered drain was to be constructed and linked

with a system of subsidiary drains discharging into these two main sewers all

the filth and surface drainage of the city.

• William Clark proposed a "water-carriage system" for the town. The original

report was submitted to the Municipal Commissioners in 1855, and adopted in

1857 with some modifications and was sanctioned in 1859. Clark's scheme

was a 'combined sewage-cum drainage system'. It carried off both rainfall

and sewage from the Hughli to the Salt Lakes from where the sewage was to

be pumped out. The total town area covered by Clark's Scheme was 4730

acres.

Clark's scheme comprised of five main sewers with their branches, accessories, and

outfall works. Three of the main sewers stretched from the Hughli to the Circular

Road along the Nimtola Ghat Street, Colootola Stree~ and, Dhurrumtollah Street.

There were two main intercepting sewers:

• One from the north, starting from Hughli at Sova Bazaar Street running

eastward to Circular Road and continuing along Upper Circular Road to a

level at Dharamtola junction. It intercepted the three main sewers already

mentioned. Between this Circular Road sewer and the Circular Road canal, he

provided four storm-water overflows of much larger capacity than the sewers

• The other intercepting sewer started from Tolly's Nullah, near Zeerut Bridge,

and following Lower Circular Road to Dhurrumtollah junction. It discharged

114

together with the sewer from the north and the Dhurrumtollah sewer through a

main outfall to Palmer's Bridge Pumping station in Entally, and thence into

the Beliaghata Canal.

It appears to have taken 16 years to complete the main sewers of Clark's scheme. By

1875 nearly 38 miles of brick and 37 miles of stoneware pipe sewers were

constructed. The pumping plant at Palmer's Bridge comprised two 30 and one 45

P.H.P. vertical centrifugal steam pumps, and two huge silt-pits provided with

penstocks. These penstocks also shut off the flow of the sewers from the channel to

the Beliaghata canal. During the rainy season they were opened so that the sewers

could discharge fully into the canal providing a great relief from storm-water

overflows between Upper Circular Road sewer and the Circular Canal. The drainage

works of the Southern Division were finally completed in 1878 and those of the

Northern Division between 1885-86.

Clark's original scheme was not complete when the Corporation was compelled to

undertake additional works to prevent the discharge of storm-water into the canal.

Calcutta's Canals (Circular, New Cut, Bhangore Khal, Kristopore and Tolly's Nullah)

though excavated principally for navigation, helped in draining the City to a

considerable extent by carrying storm-water until the end of the nineteenth century. In

1880, however, the Government Irrigation authorities objected to the storm-water

being discharged into the canal, although there could be no doubt that the canal had

intercepted the natural surface drainage channels of the city. The Government in

1881-82, stopped the discharge of storm water into the Circular Canal. The city

drainage was thus disoriented and the escapes into the Circular Canal had to be

checked by a long intercepting .sewer, which diverted the drainage to the existing

Town Head Cut.

After a long controversy with the Government the Corporation reluctantly agreed in

1881 to: (i) construct an intercepting sewer to increase the dimension on the outfall

channel (the open cut) to a capacity of about 90,000 cubic feet per minute; (ii) to

construct tide-gates of four openings I 0 feet wide at Makalpotta; and, (iii) to divert

the storm-water of the northern area of the city to the Beliaghata Canal below

115

Dhapa. This intercepting sewer ran parallel with and close to the canal from Halsi

Bagan road to Palmer's bridge, where it joined the outfall channel. But unfortunately

it was constructed, like most of the city sewers, with the smaller sections joining the

larger invert to invert, and the levels at which it was constructed did not allow it to

take the required discharges from the storm overflows without causing the water to

stagnate in the low-lying areas of the city. There were 37 miles of main or brick

sewers and 147 miles of pipe sewers in Calcutta by 1890.

The Added and Fringe Areas, covering 8188 acres, were incorporated in the town of

Calcutta in 1889. The development of these areas was entrusted to a committee,

called the Suburban Improvement Committee. For the purpose of drainage the new

areas fell naturally into 3 blocks:

i) The portion west and south of Tolly's Nullah, including the new docks. This

drained towards the south and southwest;

ii) The area east of Tolly's Nullah, including Ballygunge and Entally. This

drained towards the Bidyadhari; and;

iii) The area lying between the Circular canal, Circular Road, and the Eastern

Bengal State Railway lines, devoid of all drainage except in so far as

the drains of Calcutta provided outlets.

Under the Suburban Sewerage Scheme executed between 1891 and 1906, 12.5 sq.

miles (32 sq. kms.) in the newer southern areas of the city were covered. A new

pumping station was constructed at Ballygunge, and the capacity of the Palmer's

Bridge station augmented. The drainage system could therefore dispose off storm

water from 6mm. or one-fourth of an inch rainfall per hour plus 40 gallons (182 liters)

of sewage per inhabitant per day. This "combined drainage" flow was brought

through the underground sewerage network to Palmer's Bridge and Ballygunge

pumping stations. It was then pumped into high-level sewers meeting at a place

called "Tapsia A". From here, the discharge flowed by gravity directly into Raja

Khal, a creek of the tidal river- Bidyadhari.

Burdened with the outfall of the entire city's drainage system, the Bidyadhari began to

show signs of rapid deterioration. In 1928, the Government declared it to be a dead

11 *'

nver. The city was thence almost trapped in a drainage deadlock. At this juncture,

Dr. Birendranth Dey (1891-1963) came up with a new scheme for both the outfall and

the internal drainage system. The Outfall Scheme comprised of7:

i) Lined dry-weather flow channel from Tapsia point A to the river

Kultigong at Ghusighata, discharging into the river through a sluice at the

outfall.

ii) Storm-water flow channel (the Suburban Head Cut) from Ballygunge

drainage pumping station to the Kultigong at Ghusighata, discharging

through the sluice mentioned under (1 ).

iii) Storm-water flow channel (the Town Head Cut) direct from Palmer's

Bridge Pumping Station, joining the dry weather flow channel mentioned

under (1) at Bantala, where provision was made for two sedimentation

tanks for primary treatment of the dry weather flow.

iv) Storm-water flow channel from the Dhapa lock pumping station, joining

the channel mentioned under (3) at Makalpota.

This scheme was commissioned only in 1943. It has smce undergone maJor

modifications and expansion to meet the rapid. growth of the city's area and

population.

Figures show 4.1 and 4.2 shows the physical expansion of the sewerage lines in

Calcutta since 1875.

With the expansiOn of sewerage lines the amount of sewage pumped out also

increased. According to the Calcutta Municipal Corporation Reports for the period

under study, all the lines were not cleared at the same time. The amount of sewage

pumped daily, hence, does not show much variation.

7 Nair, P. T. (1990): "Drainage, Sewerage and Waste Disposal"; in Sukanta Chaudhury (ed.): Calcutta: The Living City; VoL 2: The Present and Future; Calcutta: Oxford University Press; p. 168.

117

Figure: 4.1

1875

Figure: 4.2

37.00

38.00

1875

1890-91

Total Length of Sewer Lile Constructed in Calcutta

347.15

1917 1920

1--+-- l.englh in Miles I

1926

rmePeriod

1930 1931

Type of Sewerage and Drainage Une in the Town

700.37 714.66

1940 1943-44

273.52 283.38

147.00

~.11 135.46 135.99 184.04

73.73 82.00 85.5

37.00 34.71 34.71

1890 1917 1920 1926 1930 1940 1943-44

rme Pllriod

I-+- Brick Sewer ----- Pipe Sewer -tJr- Surface Drain I

11 8

Figure: 4.3

90 0 ,00 0 Ill 80 0 ,000 .§ 70 0 ,000 iii 60 0 ,000 C) 50 0 ,000 ~ 40 0 ,00 0 5 30 0 ,000 ~ 20 0 ,000

10 0 ,000

Daily Average Sewage Pumped

0 +-~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~----

1889- 190 5 - 1 906 - 1 9 1 8 - 1 919 - 1929- 1 930 - 1939- 19 4 0 -9 0 0 6 0 7 19 20 30 31 40 4 1

Tim e Pe ri od

4.2.2 Water Supply

An adequate supply of pure water, along with an efficient drainage and sewerage

system, is most essential to ensure good health of a population. Although the

consumption of water depends upon climatic conditions, standard of living and habits

of the people, a daily supply of 150 to 200 litres (34-40 gallons) per head is

considered an adequate allowance.

4.2.2.1 Filtered Water in Calcutta

In its early years, Calcutta had its water supply from open tanks, wells and the river

Hooghli. The staunch Hindus used nothing but Ganga waters from the Hooghli River.

Baishnacharan Sheth of Burra Bazaar made a fortune by supplying the holy water to

far offplaces8. Wealthy Hindus got their supplies either from Hooghly Town or from

Khulna for the apparently purer flow there. The water would be filtered through sand

and charcoal, after immersing a red-hot iron rod into it and stored in Pegu jars for as

long as a year. The river water was fit for drinking only from October to March.

From April till the onset of the monsoons, it was saline. The water when turbid was

clarified by alum and strained through cloth. Some people collected rainwater and

8 Bhattacharya, S. K. (1991): "Calcutta' s Water Supply"; in Biplab Das Gupta, et al (ed.) Calcutta's Urban Future: Agonies from the Past and Prospects for the Future; Calcutta: Government of West Bengal; pp. 8-21.

119

used it when the river water became turbid during the rainy season. In the native part

of the city, numerous private wells supplied water to the poorer people, living away

from the river. These privately owned tanks were foul smelling and unsanitary, and

their water too polluted for human consumption. The Europeans often used stored

rainwater. The Great Tank at Dalhousie Square (now B. B. D. Bag), popularly known

as Laldighi, was enlarged and deepened in 1709 to ensure a good supply of sweet

water to the garrison at Old Fort William and for the British in Calcutta. Many

private tanks were also excavated but subsequently decayed due to absolute neglect.

Not much initiative was taken by the European authorities to improve the civic

amenities of the city of Calcutta even after it became the capital of British India in

1 773. It was only in the early nineteenth century when things began to improve.

The Lottery Committee excavated a number of tanks between 1808 and 1837, chiefly

along the arterial road from Lower Circular Road to Shyambazar at Cornwallis

Square, College Square, Wellington Square, Mirzapur, Soorti Bagan, along with

several tanks in Shorts Bazaar. The 'native town' too had a number of private tanks,

sometimes open to the public. By 1847, the total number of tanks within the Maratha

Ditch was 10439• It appears from the Administrative Report of the Calcutta

Municipality for 1877 that there were within the boundaries of the city some 800

tanks covering an area of 146 acres10• In the suburbs, Bhowanipore alone had 823

tanks in 1888.

However, with the growth of population, the existing system was found inadequate,

and by 1820, a small pumping plant was set up at Chandpal Ghat for lifting river

water into open masonry aqueducts, which distributed the water by gravitation over a

small portion of the town comprising Old Court House Street, Dharamtola,

Chowringhee, Park street, part of Chitpore Road, Lal Bazaar, Bow bazaar, etc. The

aqu~ducts were filled with water pumped from the river Hughli by a small pumping

ufrl~ ~t. C~4Wdpal Ghat and settled into a settling tank from which the water flowed

9 Op. cit; footnote 4; p.325. 10 Anonymous (1878): "Calcutta T~s"; Indian Medical Gazette; December2.

120

into the aqueducts by gravity. Water could be taken from the aqueducts by buckets

and the supply was also used for street watering and replenishing the public tanks.

The authorities for the first time recognized the need for pure and wholesome water in

1848 and passed the legislation Act II. The Commissioners subsequently spent large

sums for repairing the public tanks. In 1854, the system of aqueducts was extended to

Wellington Street, Wellesley Place and College Street. The cost was borne by the

Government and the public.

Clark recommended the use of cast-iron pipes laid underground, through which water

could be forced from Chandpal Ghat. The Commissioners, however, on the grounds

of expense and delay in obtaining materials from England, did not favour the

innovation.

Between December 1861 and January 1863 an elaborate analysis of the Hughli water

was carried out by collecting samples from the centre of the stream at 6 feet below the

surface at three stations, namely from opposite Cossipore, Palta Ghat and Chinsura. It

was observed that the Cossipore water was tainted by sewage, and the plan of placing

the intake pipes at this point, which its low cost had recommended, was abandoned.

The analyst reported that water drawn either at Pulta or Chinsura was comparatively

pure, and after settling and filtration would give a pure and wholesome supply.

Clark's original scheme provided for a daily supply of 3 to 4 Y:z million gallons of

water.

In 1865 Clark submitted a full report on the Pulta scheme, which was approved in its

entirety by the Water Supply and Finance Committees of the Corporation, who

recommended that the works should be carried out by contract under the supervision

of the Justices, instead of the supply being placed under the control of a water

company.

The first water works for the supply of filtered water to Calcutta was built at Pulta

(about 30 kms. north of the City centre situated between Barrackpore and Naihati) and

took three years (1867-1870) for its construction. It was designed for supplying 6

121

million gallons (27.28 million litres) of treated water every day to a population of 4

lakhs, thus giving a per capita supply of 15 gallons (68litres) per day.

In order to obtain the full advantage of the waterworks and to avoid the depreciation

which iron pipes were expected to undergo owing to the salinity of the soil, Clark was

in favour of conveying the water from Pulta by a brick aqueduct instead of through

iron pipes, but his views were subsequently modified. Two pumping stations were

built- one at Tallah and the other at Wellington Square along with two underground

reservoirs with capacities of 1 million gallons (4.546 million litres), and a 6.25 million

gallons (28.41 million litres) respectively. The filtered water from Palta to Tallah was

conveyed by gravity through a 42 inches (1067mm) diameter cast-iron main laid at a

gradient of 1 inch. Water used to be pumped from Tallah under pressure partly to the

consumers direct and partly into the underground reservoir at Wellington Square from

where again water used to be pumped to the consumers.

The daily consumption of water was 4.5 million gallons (20.5 million litres) by 1870,

and all the principal streets and lanes (385 in number) were piped, to a total length of

piping aggregating 111.75 miles (179 kms.). Over 500 stand posts were erected in the

streets and made accessible to the public.

It was soon found that the working of the filters was unsatisfactory during the rainy

season. In 1871 the Engineer proposed to increase the number of filters and to make

other extensive works. With the increasing demand for filtered water the problem of

water wastage began to assume great importance. As a measure of economy, the

extension of the unfiltered water supply was extended for street watering, fire

prevention and trade. Gradually, an additional engine was installed at Tallah, the

pumping plant at Chandpal Ghat was strengthened, and unfiltered water supply was

further extended. The supply of filtered water, however, did not exceed 7 million

gallons daily. It soon became evident that the works should be enlarged.

With the inclusion of the southern suburbs within the municipal area in 1888, there

was need to increase the supply of water. During 1888-1891, some extension works

were carried out. These included:

122

o Construction of a new Pumping Station with three 75 H.P. pump sets at a distance

of about half a mile (0.8 km.) from the old station at Pulta.

o Excavation of four large kutcha settling tanks/reservoirs with a total capacity of

82.75 million gallons (376 million litres).

o Construction of twenty-four additional slow-sand filter beds.

o Laying down of a new 48-inch (1219 mm.) diameter cast-iron pipe, 66,000 feet in

length between Pulta and Tallah, to convey the increased supply of water to

Calcutta,.

o Strengthening of the works at Tallah by the addition of two new pumping-engines,

while the reservoir accommodation was increased from 1-3 million gallons.

o Installation of an additional pumping-engine at Wellington Square Station, and

construction of a new pumping station at Halliday streets, with four beam-engines

and an underground reservoir of 4 million gallons (18.18 million litres) capacity.

o Construction of a new pumping station at Bhowanipore for the supply of the

southern suburbs newly incorporated in the Municipality. This pumping station

was fitted with two triple-expansion Worthington engines and provided with an

underground reservoir of nearly 3,000,000 gallons capacity (13.64 million litres).

The new works were completed in 1891. Subsequent minor alterations included the

installation of a new Worthington pumping-engine at Tallah, capable of raising

900,000 gallons per hour (1894), and two triple-expansion Worthington engines

(1898) engines. (•

During 1891-1900 considerable extensions of filtered water mains were carried out.

Attention was drawn in 1901 to the need of a continuous system of water supply

through elevated reservoir. It was proposed to abandon the three pumping stations at

Wellington Square, Halliday Street (Md. Ali park), and Bhowanipore and to substitute

them with a system of gravitation by using the pumps at Tallah to raise the water into

an elevated steel tank or reservoir. It was also proposed to construct two such

reservoirs, one for the north and east, and the other for the south of the town.

123

The Government agreed to the proposal with some modifications and executed the

plan by 1902. A new Worthington engine with a pumping capacity of 22 million

gallons (100 million litres) a day was installed at Pulta in 1900 and in 1902 steps was

taken to construct an additional reservoir of 5 million gallons (22. 73 million litres)

capacity at Tallah. By 1903 the supply per day was 22 million gallons (100 million

litres).

A fresh scheme was submitted in 1903. The principal features of which were - the

laying of a new 48-inch main from Pulta to Tallah to deliver an additional supply of

12 million gallons of water, and substitution of gravitation for pumping as a method

of distribution.

There was a serious demand for increasing supply even after it was increased from

20.5 million gallons (93.2 million litres) to 26.5 million gallons (120.5 million litres)

a day by 1905. To meet this increasing demand, the Corporation sanctioned another

scheme in 1907 and the Government in 1908. The works were duly executed by

1911, increasing the supply from 26.5 million gallons to 32 million gallons (145.5

million litres) a day. After the completion of these schemes, the practice of storing

and boosting filtered water supply from the underground reservoirs and pumping

stations was abolished. The total supply again rose to over 36 million gallons (163.7

million litres) in 1913-1914, and in 1921 it was a little over 38 million gallon (172.7

million litres).

The number of house connections in 1920 was 37,023 that included 2684-metered

connections. For the purpose of waste prevention, the whole city was divided into

238 water meter districts. The total length of filtered water mains rose to 385 miles

(616 Krns.). Howev.er, ~he objectiv~ pf continuous high-pressure supply throughout

the q~y c?uldn't be achieved because of excessive wastage. Moreover, there was an

acute shortage of water especially during the hot weather in the soutlwm parts of the

city. In order to maintain a continuous supply at a minimum terminal pressure a new

scheme was submitted and was approved by the Corporation in 1921. This estimate

124

was, however, subsequently revised for supplying water to the areas newly added to

Calcutta in 192411.

With the help of the existing and the newly constructed mains as mentioned above,

arrangements were made for delivering water from the Tallah pumping station to

different parts of the city through the various zone mains12• All the above-mentioned

works were started in 1922 and completed in 1936.

11 The scheme included the following major components: • Construction of a wrought steel intake jetty to arrest weeds and floating bodies; • Provision of three new wider steel suction mains over and above the existing cast iron mains. o Modification of the intake pumping station at Paltit with removal of three old engines and

pumps. o Alteration of four old Kutcha settling tanks to serve as pre-settling tanks and construction of a

new settling tank to the existing ones provided with a baffle wall. • Addition of 18 new slow-sand-filter-beds at Palta. • Provision of 3 Parsons Turbines coupled to Mather and Platt centrifugal pumps at the Palta

Pressure Station. • Extension and maintenances of the existing CI mains between Palta and the new storage

reservoir at Tallah. • Construction of a new masonry reservoir of 10 million gallons (45.46 million litres) capacity

at Tallah with its lowest water level at 7 feet (2.13 m.) above the ground along with ancillary pipe works and valves.

• Construction of a new pump house at Tallah with four turbine-driven centrifugal pumps. • Laying of2 new mains for delivery of water from Tallah to the Town. • Construction of a new screw pile bridge over the Circular Canal to carry pipes and another

pipe bridge over Tolly's Nullah. 12 The main zones and their alignments were:

• Zone- I Main: 30-inch (762-mm.) diameter cast iron main along Cornwallis Street (now Bidhan Sarani) and College Street.

• Zone- II Main: 54-inch (1372-mm.) diameter steel pipe from Tallah across Chitpur Yard and Circular Canal and along Galiff Street and Raja Dinendra Street to the junction of Maniktala Road, 48-inch (1219-mm.) diameter steel main along Maniktola Main Road and Maniktola Spur up to Cornwallis Street, 42 inch (1067 mm.) diameter steel main along Maniktola Spur, Chittaranjan Avenue, Chitpur Spur to Chitpur Road.

• Zone- III Main : 45 inch (1143 mm.) diameter steel main from Tallah running parallel to Zone- II main up to Maniktola Road and continuing along Raja Dinendra Street, Ram Mohan Roy Road, Upper Circular Road (now A.P.C. Road) to the junction ofDharamtala Street for connection with the existing 60 inch (1524 mm.) main along Dharamtola Street.

• Zone- IV Main: The existing 72 inch (1829 mm.) and 60 inch (1524 mm.) main from Tallah to the junction of Circular Road and Dharamtola Street, and then, a new main laid along Lower Circular Road (now A.J.C.Bose Road) upto its junction with Elgin Road and then a 52 inch (1321 mm.) diameter steel main laid along Sambhunath Pandit Street, Bhawanipore Road, across Tolly's Nullah, Belvedere Road to the junction of Alipur Road where, one 42 inch (1067 mm.) diameter pipe branched off for Garden Reach, and a 33 inch (838 mm.) main continued straight across the Zoo Gardens, the Meteorological Office up to Diamond Harbor Road, the 42 inch (1067 mm.) main went along Alipur Road, Sterndale Road, Diamond Harbor Road, Remount Road, across the Port Commissioners' land, the Taratola Diversion Road to the junction of Circular Garden Reach Road and Garden Reach Road, at the Elgin Road junction with Lansdowne Road, a 39 inch (991 mm.) diameter steel main went along Lansdowne Road up to Hazra Road and then a 33 inch (838 mm.) diameter main along Hazra Road upto Russa Road.

125

4.2.2.2 Unfiltered Water

The supply of 'Unfiltered Water' in the city of Calcutta dates back to 1820. When

the filtered water supply was found inadequate to meet the demands of the town,

Clark proposed to economize its use by an extension of the unfiltered supply in 1871.

The unfiltered water supply was mainly used for the purposes of watering roads and

flushing of sewers and privies. The old pumping machinery at Chandpal Ghat was

utilized for this purpose.

The transfer of the Chandpal Ghat Pumping Station site to the Port Commissioners

followed the extension of the unfiltered water pipes from 1871. The Port

Commissioners handed over to the Corporation a new site at Mullick's Ghat on

Strand Road, south of Howrah Bridge approach. New pumpin& machinery was

installed at this site in 1885, but, it made way in 1897 for the existing plant, which

consisted of four 300 H.P. vertical triple expansion Worthington engines, each

capable of pumping ~ a million gallons (2.273 million litres) per hour against a head

of 120 feet (36.6 m.). Each engine was provided with a separate suction pipe laid in

tunnel under the Port Commissioners' railways up to the retaining wall at the

riverbank. This pumping station supplied all the unfiltered water required for the

town area. The tunnels and the jetty were the property of the Corporation.

In 1897 another pumping station for unfiltered water supply was constructed at

Watgunge, on the river Hughli near the mouth of Tolly's Nullah. Two horizontal

pumping engines, each capable of pumping 300,000 gallons (1.36 million litres) per

hour against a head of 120 feet (36.6 m), which were earlier installed at the Mullick's

Ghat Pumping Station, were shifted and installed here. The two pumps drew their

water from ~ common suction pipe laid in a tunnel from the station to a screw pile

jetty that supported the pipe up to the water in the river. The Watgunge Pumping

Station supplied water to District IV and the Maidan area. The supply of unfiltered

water grew from a little over a million gallons (4.546 million litres) per day at

Chandpal Ghat to 33 million gallons (150 million litres) per day from Mallick Ghat

and Watgunge Pumping Station in 1921.

126

\

No further development works relating to water supply were taken up between 1936

and 1945 chiefly due to resource constraints and political upheavals.

The nature of expansion of water supply system in Calcutta is illustrated in Figures

4.4, 4.5, and 4.6 and indicates the number of houses connected to the different sources

ofwater and amount of supply to them between 1870 and 1946-47.

Figure: 4.4

0 .... ~

Figure: 4.5

120,000,000

.. 100,000,000 c: E ~ 80,000,000

-a 60,000,000 Q. :::1

"' 40,000,000

j "' 20,000,000

li

!

Physical Layout of water Pipe Une in Calcutta

;; ~ s i q ~

.... ~ ... t: ~ lEI ~

i ~ i i ~ ~ ..,

li * ... ~ ~ ~ ~ ... !! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Yew

Altered 'Water • Ul..filtered 'Water j

Average Daily Water Supply In Calcutta

N ~ 0 ~

... ., 9

,. ,. ... 0 .. ... N .., ~ ~ ~

0 ~ ~

llMEPERIOO

Filtered Watllr - UIH=iltered Watar - Li..ar (Filtered Watar) - LiMar {Un-Filtered water) I

127

Figure: 4.6

Houses Connected to Water Supply in Calcutta

1871 1881 189G-91 1892-93 1917 1920 1926 1931 1940-<41 194l-44 1946-47

Year

I [) Filtered Water • lkl-filtered Water I

Though there was an increase in the water pipelines for both filtered and unfiltered

water in the city from 1870, the amount of filtered water supplied over the years

increased at a comparatively low rate. The unfiltered water supply in the City

increased rapidly during the first half of the twentieth century with the increase in the

demand for water in Calcutta. Similarly, the numbers of house connections to

different types of water supply in the city also show an increase over time.

4.2.3 Roads

The construction of roads and their maintenance is another important indicator of

urban planning. It also indirectly affects the sanitation in a city. There were

practically no roads in the villages that grew into Calcutta, as they were sparsely

inhabited. The only pathway was the pilgrim path that led to the Kali temple. The

English East India Company as well as the British Government, who took over the

administration of the city of Calcutta in 1857, had constructed roads for their easy

movement. Construction of roads in Calcutta falls under three periods13, viz.-

(1) Days of the Zamindar (1700 - 1793);

(2) Days of Justices of the Peace (1794- 1876); and,

(3) Municipal Corporation (since 1876).

128

The East India Company initiated conscious efforts for building roads after their

acquisition of the Zamindari rights of Calcutta. The survey of the three villages in

1707 showed that no more than 4 cottahs of land was devoted to roads in Sutanuti

while, the other two villages, viz. Kolkata (khalkata) and Govindapur, were without

roads. This resulted in the whole settlement being punctuated by cesspools. Calcutta

had two streets in 170614:-

1. Clive Street, (the highway that connected Old Fort with Jorabagan through

Bara Bazaar), and,

2. Chitpore Road, (which connected Halisahar in the Barrackpore subdivision of

North 24 Parganas district with Kalighatl Pilgrim Road).

Table 4.1 gives the progress of construction of roads during the days of the Zamindar:

Table: 4.1 Roads in Calcutta During Eighteenth Century

Year Streets Lanes Bye-lanes 1706 2 0 0 1726 4 8 0 1742 16 46 74 1756 27 52 74 1794 163 520 517

Source: A. K. Ray: "Short History of Calcutta"; Census Report of India, 1901; Vol. VII, Calcutta; 'Town and Suburbs'; Part I, Calcutta.

The authorities constructed new roads from Fort William to Govindpur in 1721 for

making the place healthier "by the wind's free passage into the town"15• The

construction of roads in Calcutta during the days of the Zamindar was primarily

carried out by taking contributions from the merchants and local residents. The

English Company encouraged voluntary contributions in labor and money for

development works of the town. The Company was not authorized by the British

Parliament to levy tax on inhabitants of Calcutta for effecting town improvements till

179416. The Circular Road (now called Acharya Prafulla Chandra and Acharya

Jagadish Bose Roads) was the result of the voluntary efforts of the people of Calcutta.

13 Op. cit; footnote 3; p. 246. 14 Op. cit; footnote 3; p. 247. 15 Op. cit; footnote 3; p. 248. · 16 Wilson, C. R. (1906): Old Fort William in Bengal; Vol: I; London, p 156.

129

By 1742, Calcutta had 16 Streets and 46lanes17• Few ofthe roads marked in Orme's

Plan of Calcutta 1742, lying within the Maratha Ditch, had received their present-day

names - the 'Avenue leading to the eastward' (Bowbazar Street or Bipin Behari

Ganguli Street); 'Road to Dum Dum', 'Causeway' (Manicktola Road, subsequently

renamed as Sookea Street, Baranasi Ghose Street etc.); and 'Road to Kalighat'.

Captain William Holcombe's report of 1742, contained references to18 a 'Road

towards Pennings' - (Chitpur Road up to Baghbazar), and, an avenue towards the

Water Side'- (Nimtalaghat street).

A number of roads were also repaired by the Zamindars in 174919•

With the recapture of Calcutta from Siraj-ud Dowlah, in 1757, new roads were laid

out in the Maidan in the early part of the nineteenth century. Englishmen, who were

confined to their settlement at Tank Square, moved out to Chowringhee and the

suburbs after 1760. The acquisition of the zamindari rights of the 24-Parganas in

1757 helped the Company to expand the limits of Calcutta from time to time.

The peace and prosperity following the Battle of Plassey induced people from the

surrounding areas to settle in Calcutta. Kutcha roads in the new localities inhabited

17 Ray, A.K. (1902): "A Short History of Calcutta"; Census of India, 1901, Calcutta: Town and Suburbs, Part I; p.58.

18 Op. cit; footnote 3; p. 249. 19 The roads included:

1. "The Road from the Dock Head to the Stable and down to the side of the Park" (Hare Street and road along Dalhousie Square to Vansittart Row);

2. "The Street from the side and back of Mr. Roopers House and down to Messrs. Noke's and Lascelles's House"= Mangoe Lane.

3. "The Road from Captain Lloyd's house to the New Bazar, Chandpal Bazar''= Esplanade Row west.

4. "The Road from New B~r to Barthola Bazar" = Chitpore Road; 5. "The Road from the Fort Gate to Mansingh's Chowki, being 800 feet"= Lalbazar- Bowbazar

Street; 6. "The Road from Chowrighee's Chowki and Gusthulla Bazaar, 6000 feet".= Bentinck Street­

Chowringhee Road up to Park Street; 7. "The Street from Margass's house down to the Powder House, about 5000 feef' =Council

House Street; 8. "The Street from Purana Gunge to Govindput Chowki about 6.00 feet";= a road now merged

in the Maidan; 9. "The Street to the side of the Goal down to Mr. Frankland's Garden"= a road from Tiretta

Bazaar to Middleton Row, and; lO."The street from Omichund's house to Mir Bahar Chowki", = China Bazaar- Mir Bahar Ghat Street.

130

by the natives were full of cesspools. Wealthier natives constructed roads leading to

their houses in the town or suburbs20. Most of the highways from Calcutta to the

suburbs were constructed during the days of the Zamindar1• Steps were also taken to

construct bridges over Dullendaw, Manickchurn, Gopalnagar, Dum Dum, Barasat and

Balliaghata Roads in 1766.

The Justices of the Peace for Calcutta relieved the Zamindar of his municipal duties in

1 794 and were authorized to levy a 5 per cent surcharge on property tax for

appointing scavengers, cleansing, repairing and watching the streets. They also took

steps to metal the Circular Road in 1799. The limited resources placed at the disposal

of the Justices did not permit them to take up large-scale development works like

construction of new roads, bridges, etc., in the town.

The East India Company was always unwilling to part with their revenues for

municipal improvements. Funds had to be raised from the public for development

works. Lotteries came to the aid of the community from 1784 in the creation of

public assets. It was the appointment of Wellesley's Improvement Committee, later

known as the Lottery Committee (1804) that took up the initiative to improve the

public thoroughfares of the city. Calcutta owes some of its best roads to the labours

ofthe Lottery Committee (1825- 1836)22•

A group of streets that commemorated the various titles of Lord Hastings and his

wife, were also the work of the Lottery Committee, and were designed to afford

access to the Panchkhotee, or five mansions23• Thus credit goes to the Lottery

Committee for reconstructing chaotic Calcutta into some orderly shape of a modem

town. Circular Garden Reach Road, which was called "Strand New Road to Garden

Reach", was constructed in 1828, with contributions from 58 persons. As public

20 Nair, P.T.Nair (1987): A History of Calcutta's Streeli Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. 21Following roads existed by 1766 : Shyambazar Road; Dullendaw Road (*Bhowanipur Road);

Manickchurn Road = Manicktola street; Gopalnagar Road; Chitpur Road; DumDum Road = Belgachia Road; Barasat Road, and, Balliaghata Road. Refer Nair, P. T. (1989): op cit; footnote13; p. 250.

22 Op cit; footnote 3; p.252. The roads include Wood Street, Wellesley Street, Wellington Street, College Street and Cornwallis Street; Strand Road from Princep Ghat to Hatkhola; Amherst Street; Hare Street; Waterloo Street; Elliot Road; Short Street; and, Colotolla-Mirzapur Street.

23 Op. cit; footnote 3; p. 253.

131

opinion m England condemned the method of ratsmg funds by lotteries for

improvement of the town of Calcutta, the Directors of the East India Company in

1836 ordered their closure.

Lord Auckland (1836-1842) appointed the Fever Hospital Committee to carry on the

work of the Lottery Committee. But the new committee was more concerned with

community health than with roads. The Committee reported that the streets in the

native part of the town were narrow and haphazard without any free circulation of air.

They were always covered with filth, dust, mud or offal that were rarely cleaned by

the scavengers leading to pestiferous air24•

Busteei5 were cleared by the Justices of Peace between 1854 and 1876 for the

construction of Halliday Street, Free School Street, extension from Corporation Street

to Dharamtola Street, Clive Row extension, Beadon Street, Beadon Square, Grey

Street, Allen Square, Outram Street, Grant Street and Victoria Terrace.

Construction of new roads and maintenance of the existing ones were within the

exclusive jurisdiction of the Municipal Corporation of Calcutta from 1876 to 1911.

The Corporation mostly cleared or improved the bustees to build roads in the town26•

The Calcutta Improvement Act of 1911, created a board of trustees charged with the

duty of "opening up congested areas, laying out or altering streets, providing open

spaces for ventilation or recreation'm. The Calcutta Improvement Trust opened up a

north south and an east-west corridor (Central Avenue and Rashbehari Avenue) and

many other roads in Calcutta28•

The completion of the underground drainage and water supply schemes resulted in the

construction of the Suburban High Level Sewer Road and the conversion of many

open drains or ditches into narrow lanes. The implementation of the Canal Area

(between Circular Canal and Upper Circular Road) Drainage Scheme in 1907 resulted

24 Chowdhury, Kesab (1973): Calcutta: Story of its Government; Calcutta: Orient Longman Ltd; p.43. 25 Op.cit; footnote 3; p. 254. 26 Op. cit; footnote 3; pp. 256-258. 27 Preamble to the Bengal Act, V. of 1911. (The Calcutta Improvement Act) published in the Calcutta

Gazette; 20th September, 1911. 28 Op. cit; footnote 3; pp.258-259.

132

in the construction of 11,596 feet of roads, 60 feet in width, and 13,970 feet of new

roads, 40 feet in width, in addition to the widening of the existing ones.

4.2.4 Removal of Solid Waste

Littering of garbage and refuse is the greatest source of pollution in an urban areas

leading to rapid spread of various infectious diseases mostly fatal in nature. Not a

single visitor to Calcutta in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuri~s has said a good

word about the conservancy system in the city.

It is stated that by 1780, "Calcutta was little better than an undrained swamp in the

immediate vicinity of a malarious jungle, the ditch surrounding it was, as it had been

for 30 years previously, an open cloaca, and its river banks were scattered with the

dead bodies of men and animals"29•

The account of Grandpre in 1789, described the canals and cesspools of the city as

completely filled with dead and decaying animal matter, the streets as awful and

infested with swamp of flies, and the crowd and flocks of animals and birds acting as

scavengers30• William Mackintosh, writing from Calcutta in 1799, stated: "The very

small portion of cleanliness which Calcutta enjoys is owing to the familiar intercourse

of hungry jackals by night, and ravenous vultures, kites and crows by day"31•

The sanitary condition of Bhowanipore in 1868 was described as follows: "The

general sanitary condition of Bhowanipore is not good; there are many places which

are not passable on account of the stink of dung, urine, and human filth. The roads

are not clean. The drains are deep; the refuse water of the house is emptied into them

and stands there without the least notice being taken by the road overseers. Many

small lanes become inaccessible in the morning on account of the excrement being

found strew(!¢ on them. The situation worsens in rainy season. Most of the roads are

29 Ray, A. K. (1982): A Short History of Calcutta: Towns and Suburbs; Calcutta: RIDDHI; p.l52. 30 Ibid; p.l52. 31 Op. cit; footnote 4; p.224.

133

in very bad repair; dead dogs, cats, rats and the bodies of other decomposed animals

are always found on the sides of the streets "32.

The condition of the thickly settled area around the famous shrine of Kali was also

awful. Hundreds of goats and buffaloes were sacrificed daily, and the blood remained

for hours and then decomposed. The place was rarely washed and the refuse water

was drained into a pond that is called a 'Koondoo', which made it dirty and filthy.

The entrails of the sacrificed animals were thrown indiscriminately about the place;

some were pitched into the river, and others into the surrounding drains and ponds33•

Some kind of an informal arrangement for removing garbage/refuge from the city

existed from the day Calcutta was founded. An entry in the Company Accounts for

October 1703 shows that sweepers had been engaged to clean the White Town. As

early as 1704, fines were levied upon the 'black inhabitants' for misconduct, and the

amount was spent in filling up the foul pits and ditches that abounded the settlement.

A scavenger was appointed for Calcutta in 1782 and elaborate regulations were made

for the removal of garbage in 1785 by dividing the town into 31 Police Stations.

4.2.4.1 Night Soil

Initially, all large houses, European and Indian, possessed private privies and were

provided with a receptacle from which night soil was collected manually early in the

morning, and taken to large public depots situated throughout the town. At night the

contents were removed by bullock cart to the edge of the town and thrown into the

river. The stenche from these carts, as they passed through the city, was sickening

. and were widely regarded as a hazard to health. But, the night soil system served a

small minority of Calcutta's population. The majority, consisting of the poorer

classes who lived in huts, had to resort to communal privies, which were shared by

the inhabitants of several huts. These 'mehtar fatties' or public necessities were built

and managed by private enterprise, instead of the Municipality.

32 Jaggi, 0. P. (1979): Western Medicine in India: Public Health and Its Administration; Vol. XIV; Delhi: Atma Ram and Sons; p.lO.

33 Op.cit; footnote 32; p.ll.

134

The night soil was collected from private privies by mehtar (scavengers), who were

paid fees by the occupiers of the premises, and conveyed by 'tollah mehtars' to

depots at convenient places. It was then removed to the night-soil ghat on the

riverbank near the Mint and subsequently carried down-stream in boats hired by

Municipality and fmally thrown into the river. The evidence taken by the Fever

Hospital Committee shows that the 'mehtar fatties' were usually a grave nuisance, the

excreta was sometimes thrown into any neighbouring tank or pool, or placed in a

narrow trench or even 'scattered over the adjoining spot and left to remain there for

ever to be dried by the sun'. The public drains of this time were rarely built of

masonry and had no proper flow. In 1864 some experiments in dry conservancy, i.e.

burying the night soil in trenches were made at Dhapa. The embankments of the Salt

Lakes were, however, levelled by the great cyclone of that year, and the ground

became inundated and impregnated with saline matter and lost its deodorizing

property.

The municipality provided a small number of public latrines, but they seem to have

been unpopular with the majority of Indians. The Commission also maintained a

conservancy establishment for street sweeping and the removal of trade refuse, the

latter being charged directly to the proprietors.

4.2.4.2 Garbage and Other Refuse

In the early days of Calcutta it had been easy to find convenient dumping grounds for

the town refuse. Bullock-carts were used to carry the garbage. Commonly, the ditch

to the east of the old Fort, where the bodies of the victims of the Black Hole had been

thrown, provided the ideal place to dump the refuse of the town. But this ditch was

filled up in 1766. Later, the Mahratta Ditch provided the dumping ground for the city

until 1780. Often, the road sirkars and overseers dumped the refuse in tanks or

depressions on private lands in the city. The Strand Bank had its formation in the

same process. The growth of population of Calcutta after 1757 and the expansion of

the "city of palaces" after 1794 necessitated finding out places for dumping garbage

outside the town.

135

As the volume of refuse increased and the limits of the town extended, the scavengers

were sent further into the countryside to the new localities selected for the final

deposit of refuse. Some part of the refuse was thrown into the river from the northern

part of the town limits, while the refuse from the southern quarter was removed to

Ballygunge. In 1859 the Commissioners, in their report complained that 'these

localities were already beyond convenient distances from the town, especially during

the rains, when, owing to the nature of the ground, carts sink right up to the axle-tree

in the mud'.

The Corporation acquired in 1864, a square mile of land at Dhapa in the Salt Lake

area for garbage disposal and constructed a railway line from Theatre Road to Dhapa.

The construction of the railway was taken up in stages from 1867 to 1911. The

bullock-carts used to empty the garbage into railway wagons at certain platforms.

The Refuse Railway was divided into 2 main sections, the one running from Theatre

Road to Bagh Bazaar Street along Circular Road; and the other running the line of the

main outfall and high-level sewers to convey the refuse to the square Mile, the

dumping ground situated in the Salt Lakes.

Cranes were originally used for lifting the refuse from carts into the wagons but

proved unsatisfactory, and were replaced by the platform system in 1868, which is

still in use. Six large loading platforms were constructed along Circular Road. The

railway was originally 8 miles in length. Its length increased to 12 miles in 1877 and

in 191 0 - 1911 another 3 miles of line was constructed i.e. the total mileage increased

to 15 miles.

In 190(r()7 the site of one of the platforms was absorbed in the extension of the

Campbell Hospital. This closed down two other southern platforms and led to the

construction of a new platform with adequate accommodation near Karya, a little east

of Circular Road. The railway removed on an average over 1000 tons of refuse daily

from the Circular Road platforms to the dumping-ground at Square Mile. The

carrying capacity of a wagon may be placed at 1 0 tons, and a single bullock cart

carried half a ton of refuse and a double bullock carried two tons of refuse34• The

34 Administrative Reports of Calcutta Corporation.

136

following figures, gives an idea of the steady increase in the quantity of refuse

removed in Calcutta.

Incinerators: It is generally agreed that the most clean and sanitary method of

disposing city refuse is an efficient system of incineration. The adoption of this

method for the refuse of an eastern town is beset by special difficulties owing to the

low calorific value of the materials of which it is composed, which include large

quantities of silt from the sewers and much moist vegetable matter. Dr. Simpson,

trained in England in 1890-91, was a strong advocate of incineration in Calcutta, but

the means adopted to burn the evil-smelling unconsumed gases from the furnaces

were not successful and even Dr. Simpson finally ceased to recommend incineration

in any crowded or important locality.

Table: 4.2 Quantity of Town Refuse Removed (In Tons)

Town Year Refuse Year Town Refuse 1877 73430 1901-02 343360 1878 72840 1906-07 918077 1879 79810 1910-11 139374 1880 91550 1881 111970 1918-19 452600 1882-83 169480 1919-20 482895 1883-84 134330 1921-22 414640

1890-91 218990 1929-30 515580 1891-92 61568 1930-31 485068 1896-97 303470 1931-32 556501

1940-41 739629 Source: Extracted and Compiled from the Reports of CorporatiOn of Calcutta for the periods

concerned. Note: For many years the street sweepings were largely used for filling tanks until it was condemned as insanitary in 1889.

In 1863 an attempt was made to incinerate refuse in a kiln, built 3 miles from the heart

of the town, on a plan that had worked successfully at Karachi. The process however

was both costly and slow. In 1864 a cremator designed by the Health Officer, Dr.

Fabre Tonnerre, was erected at Dhappa to bum carcasses and offal removed from the

streets of Calcutta. The experiment appears to have met with some measure of

success; 6 to 8 cartloads of animal refuse were destroyed daily at a trifling cost. In

137

1888, Mr. B. R. Harrington, Chief Engineer, offered to construct 3 incinerators, which

would destroy the entire refuse of the town.

Under arrangements made in the following year, Mr. Harrington erected an 8-cell

incinerator on a site immediately south of the Campbell Hospital in Circular Road.

This commenced in May 1890. It was successful in destroying all the refuse put into

it, but was considered a serious nuisance because of the smoke emitted from it.

Another cremator was constructed, but this was also unsuccessful. This plant was

sold in 1892 after experiments for burning night soil in it had also failed. A second

incinerator was erected in 1892 in Goragatcha. It was opened in August 1892, and

daily destroyed 11 truckloads of about 110 tons of refuse. In 1913-14 over 41,000

tons of refuse were destroyed.

No further progress was made with refuse incineration during the next decade but in

May 1902, after a prolonged discussion with the Government, who pressed for the

removal of the refuse platform No.4 from the neighborhood of the Campbell Hospital,

the Corporation entered into a private contract for the construction of an incinerator

which was intended to serve as a substitute for the objectionable platform, and which

was erected on the site previously occupied by Mr. Harrington's plant. This was a 9··

cell incinerator of the Baker type, capable of incinerating without nuisance 135 tons

of wet refuse in 24 hours of continuous working. It was taken over by the

Corporation in 1905. It however, consumed a large quantity of coal and its cells

could not be cleaned separately. It was closed in October 1908, as upon the

conclusion of a new agreement for the square mile, under which the refuse wagons

were unloaded free of charge.

Table 4.3 shows the amount of refuse destroyed in different incinerators or dumped in

the City during the early thirties of twentieth century.

138

Table: 4.3 Nature of Disposal of Refuse in the City of Calcutta (In Tons)

1929- 1930-Incinerators 1890-91 1906-07 1919-20 30 31 Kiln in Dhapa 3620 Entally Incinerator 77644 Goragatcha Inc. 72082 115 44895 31906 Dumping Grounds Dhapa 218990 618626 1163 408106 363450 Mudiali 45 5792 30640 Cossipur-Chitpur 28185 29685 Manicktolla 19345 19350 Garden Reach 9257 10037 .. . . ..

Source: Compiled from Calcutta Mumctpal Report and Report on the Mumctpal Admmtstration Of Calcutta.

As the agencies for disposing of refuse became more satisfactory the feasibility of

regulating the disposal ?f refuse from private premises into public streets assumed

importance35•

It was suggested in 183 7 that refuse carters should be provided with bells, on hearing

' which the inhabitants should 'bring out' their refuse to deposit in the carts. Act XIV of

1856 authorized the Commissioners to prohibit the deposit of refuse in the streets

except at certain hours, but at the same time required them to provide convenient

places for its deposit. ·Commissioners could impose penalty on any person-depositing

stable refuse in any other place than that prescribed. The authorities arranged for the

removal of the refuse of extensive stables at the cost of the owners. Act IV of 1876,

re-affirmed the Commissioners' right of prohibition.

The Army Sanitary Commission, in reviewing the Municipal Report for 1877,

recommended the use of dustbins, but the measure in the northern part of the town

had its drawbacks. The cost of a sufficient number of dustbins was high and there

was a possibility that their use would merely effect a concentration of the nuisance. It

was also difficult to find suitable sites in the crowded quarters in the city. In the

35 Goode, S. W.(1916):Municipal Corporation: Its Institutions in Their Origin and Growth; Edinburgh: T. & A. Constable, Printers to His Majesty; p.l65

139

southern division these difficulties were not insurmountable, and in 1883 fixed hours

of depositing refuse (midnight to 7 a.m.) were prescribed.

The special Conservancy Committee appointed in 1883 recommended that fixed

hours, viz. midnight to 8 a.m. and midday to 2 p.m. should also be introduced for the

northern division. The adoption of this proposal marked a real advance in the

connection of civic duty. From 1882 the provision of refuse bins on private premises

was encouraged in the European quarter of the town, although it was not prescribed

by law in the more densely populated Indian quarter because here few premises could

furnish the necessary space. It was also difficult to find an unobjectionable site for

public dustbins in the narrow streets of northern Calcutta.

4.2.4.3 Human Dead Bodies

Another repugnant practice in old Calcutta, as in India, was the consignment of dead­

bodies to the Ganga I Hooghly. Owners of riverside villas had to employ 'Doms' to

keep the bodies away from their ghats; the Government also employed boats to float

corpses that got stuck or entangled. The establishment of municipal and other burning

ghats for the Hindus, burial ground and cemeteries for the Muslims and Christians

came as an untold boon. The Nimtala burning ghat dates back to the 1820s. The

Sahanagar (Keoratala) ghat, originally leased by an individual, was handed over to the

municipality in 1872. Privately run Kashi Mitra burning ghat dates back to 1774. A

large number of cemeteries and burial grounds were closed in 1901 because they

posed a danger to public health36•

The Corporation approved for the acquisition of a large land for a city cemetery in

1902. 10 Bighas of land was purchased for the extension of the existing city cemetery

on Lower Circular Road. Another new site of 200 bighas was chosen near Jadavpur

Police Station. During the same year the Corporation provided 2 new burial grounds

for Muslims in the north and the south of the City. An area of 22 bighas was also

acquired at Bagmari and 29 bighas at Gobra.

36 Administrative Report- Corporation of Calcutta- 1901-1902. South Park Street Cemetery;North Park Street and Mission Cemetary;Tiretta Cemetery;Portuguese Church Cemetary;Boytakkhana Church Cemetary;Greek Church Cemetary at Amratollah Street; and;Mosque Burial ground at 86 Nimtola Ghat Street.

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4.3 Sanitation in Britain with Special Reference to London

It would be interesting to compare the developments in Calcutta with those m

London, as they were the two largest cities of the British Empire. The sanitary

reforms in Britain developed alongside the growth and expansion of towns during the

first half of the nineteenth century. The towns had multiplied in number and grown

several times as the factories expanded. Hundreds of new hands were required by

these factories, this resulted in waves of in- migration to these cities. The labour was

accommodated in one room back-to-back tenements with very poor and deteriorating

sanitary conditions. The inefficient water supply and the breakdown of existing

sanitary arrangements led to outbreaks of Cholera and a rise in mortality rates which

peaked in 1831-32, 1848-49, 1854, and in 1867.

London was honeycombed with cesspools some of them were like 'lakes'. In 183 8

the Poor Law Commissioners under the inspiration of Chadwick had ordered an

investigation into London sanitary conditions and the results stirred Parliament to a

spate of legislation, including Acts for town improvement, waterworks, cemeteries,

and town police. The most important were the "Public Health Act" and the "Nuisances

Removal and Disease Prevention Act", of 1848, but the former, astonishingly, did not

apply to the area of the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers. Only after 1848 could

owners be compelled to connect house drainage to sewers. In 1855 the "Metropolis

Management Act" was introduced in London.

The first important task to be accomplished was the building of a grand system of

sewage disposal. This consisted of 82 miles of main intercepting sewers, four great

pumping stations, and outfall works north and south of the river. Two large reservoirs

were also constructed. The system was capable of disposing of 400 million gallons of

sewage a day that was then thought to be sufficient for the future needs of London. It

was completed in 1865. But still, until 1864, the sewage of London was emptied

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directly into the Thames and its tributaries and ditches. To get rid of the foul mud

banks of the river, embankments were built and much land reclaimed37•

There was no system of refuse collection or disposal in London. The sanitary

conditions disclosed in the Report of the Royal Commission on the Health of Towns

and Populous Places, issued in 1844-45, and those of the Select Committee and the

Poor Law Commissioners were too terrible and menacing to be neglected. It was

shown that houses, courts and alleys were without privies or covered drains, but the

fluids lay stagnant in open surface gutters. Houses were dirty beyond description and

extremely overcrowded. A large proportion of the working population was housed in

"dark, damp, confined, ill-ventilated and dirty" cellars, whilst "heaps of rubbish and

refuse, vegetable and animal remains, lay at the bottom of close courts and in

comers". Two attempts at legislation failed before the Nuisance Removal and

Diseases Prevention Act was passed in 1846.

In the following year the Towns Improvement and the Police Clauses Acts

consolidated certain provisions generally required in local Acts for various public

purposes. In 1848 the first Public Health Act, was passed which created "the

groundwork of our sanitary legislation", and set up a General Board of Health with

power to create local sanitary districts with local boards of health either on petition by

the rate payers or compulsorily when the death-rate reached 23 per 1,00038• The dead

were buried in over crowded grounds surrounded by houses.

Between 1856 and 1889 (when the London County Council was created) the Board

made 22 housing improvement schemes and 7 400 insanitary dwellings were

demolished. Some 260 blocks of dwellings (for 27500 persons) were constructed to

meet the requirements by companies and trusts to whom the board sold its land. In

addition 60 blocks of dwellings (for 10,000 persons) were put up for the displaced by

street improvements. In 1888 there were 2600 acres of open spaces under the Board's

control.

37 Daley, A. and B. Benjamin(1964): "London as a Case Study"; Population Studies; Vol. 17; pp. 249-262.

38 Acheson, Roy M. and Spencer Hagard (1966): Health, Society and Medicine; Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publication; p. 268.

142

Generally, the water supply to the majority of the larger towns during the first half of

the eighteenth century was pumped from wells; but in some cases, and especially in

London, it was drawn from a river near at hand. The amount of water, which could be

pumped up from underground sources, was, in most areas only sufficient to supply a

limited number of people. The need for additional sources of water was, therefore,

strongly influenced by the rapid rise of population during the whole of the nineteenth

century. London's problem was particularly acute. Within recent times underground

water was never sufficient for the needs of more than a fraction of the population of

the Metropolis, and it had been customary during most of London's long history to

draw water from the Thames. A large number of water companies, which in some

areas were in active competition were involved in supplying water to London. There

was, of course, no supervision of the quality of the water. Mention may be made of

the Lambeth Company and the Southwark and Vauxhall Company who supplied

water from different parts of the river leading to severe cholera outbreak in London in

1854-55. The supply of water by profit oriented private companies was customary

throughout England well until the middle of the eighteenth century. The General

Board of Health in a report issued in 1850 advocated the principle of public

ownership of the means of water supply and distribution. The report alleged that the

existing supplies were of inferior quality, and the water was so hard that it was unfit

for domestic purpose39. It generally contained an excess of organic matter and was

polluted by the sewage of the Metropolis. Apart from the quality of the water, the

Board criticized the intermittent method by which supplies were distributed.

Adequate provision either for extinguishing fires or for the surface cleansing of

houses and public ways was also not made.

Nevertheless, in spite of the criticism, the water companies continued to supply the

London areas for another 50 years, and the London County Council found this one of

their most difficult problems when they took over the burden of office in 1889.

Several Bills that were presented to Parliament by the Council failed to make

prog~e;is, and it became evident that public opinion was in favor of an ad hoc water

39 Chadwick, Edwin (1842): Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain; 'On Demand Edition'; Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; pp.l43-144.

143

authority for the Metropolitan area. The Royal Commission under the chairmanship

of Lord Llandaff recommended in 1900 that a water board should be set up for

London and that the supply should be taken from the Thames. Delays of various

kinds still occurred, and it was not until 1902 that the Metropolitan Water Board was

founded.

4.4 Conclusions

The analysis in this chapter indicates that:

a The East India Company had no interest in its initial years, to provide

improved civic amenities. They only imposed taxes, levied duties and issued

licenses. The developmental activities included clearing of jungles, bridging

watercourses and surveying lands and other such affairs. By 1703 the

Europeans had engaged some sweepers to clean the White Town. In the

'native town' no such measures were taken. The Calcutta Police was set up to

check the misconduct of the local inhabitants and levy fines on them. They

were later also entrusted to maintain law and order.

a Various travelers who visited the city during this period made comments on

the then existing unhygienic condition of the city. With the growth of the

population and unhygienic habits of the native population, the streets and

roads had become filthy with overflowing cesspools, decomposing animal

matter, and scattered dead bodies. Contemporary London was no better.

Provision of civic amenities became the responsibility of the Municipal

Administration in 1727 and the first scavenger in Calcutta was appointed in

1782. In 1785 the Commissioner of Police issued a notice and divided the

town into 31 divisions or thanas and bullock carts were commissioned to

remove garbage.

Lord Wellesley initiated major steps to improve the sanitary conditions in the

city in 1803. It was under his initiation, that an Improvement Committee was

set up in 1804 to make sanitary improvement in the city. This committee was

later known as the 'Lottery Committee'.

144

a Until the late eighteenth century, the common people of Calcutta applied very

rudimentary methods for disposing off dirty water, garbage, refuse and dead

bodies of both human beings and animals. The most important aspect of

health, i.e. drinking water also depended upon its natural supply i.e. on the

river, rain and the tanks. Night soil from all European and rich 'native' houses

was collected manually and moved in carts and baskets early in the morning

and deposited in depots located in various parts of the city. It was dumped into

the river Hooghly at night. Most of the native population in the city used

common privies that flowed into the open drains causing nuisance on the

streets. Various plans were made to drain the northern and central part of the

city with 'underground drainage system'. The 'Water Carriage System' for

the city of Calcutta was finally sanctioned in 1859. This scheme covered a

total area of 4 730 acres and it took 16 years to complete the main sewers. By

1875 only 38 miles of brick and 37 miles of stoneware pipe sewers were

constructed with pumping station at Palmer's Bridge in the eastern part of the

city. The main drainage works of the southern division were completed by

1878. By 1881-82, the numerous canals of the city were legally banned to be

used as a part of the drainage system causing difficulties in the flow of the

sewerage from the city towards the Salt Lake area. The main sewer lines ran

from the Hooghly River to the circular road.

a The 'added' and fringe areas of the city were incorporated in the main town in

1889 and the improvement of these areas was entrusted to the Suburban

Improvement Committee. Between 1891 and 1906 some of the new areas

developed and the drainage was pumped to the Salt Lake area through new

pumping stations at Ballygunge and Topsia. The drainage of the new areas

was divided into 3 blocks.

D A number of wells and tanks were constructed by the Improvement

Committee in the towh mainly along the arterial road of College Street/

Wellington Street/Wellesley Street. It was only in 1820 that a small pumping

plant was set up at Chandpal Ghat for lifting river water into open masonry

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aqueducts. It was distributed by gravitation over a small portion of the 'white

town'. The first water works for the supply of filtered water to Calcutta was

built at Pulta with pumping stations at Pulta, Tallah, and Wellington Square

between 1867 and 1870. All the principal streets and lanes were piped and

supplied with filtered water. Even with the growing consumption of filtered

water, the supply did not increase till 1872. Considerable extensions of

filtered water mains were carried out between 1891 and 1900. The supply of

filtered water increased manifold as pipelines were extended to supply filtered

water to different parts of the city between 1922 and 1936. The supply of

'unfiltered water' in the city began in 1820. This water was mainly used for

watering roads and flushing of sewers and privies.

a Garbage of the city was dumped near the Writer's Building before 1766 and

the Maratha Ditch before 1780. It was also dumped in many tanks and ditches

in the city. In 1864, the Corporation acquired a square mile of land at Dhapa

in the Salt Lake area for garbage disposal and constructed a railway line from

Theatre Road to Dhapa between 1868 and 1911. Incinerators were also

constructed to destroy the refuse and garbage near Dhapa.

a Municipal burning ghats, burial grounds and cemeteries came into existence in

the city in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century.

a The contemporary scene in England was no better. The British Government

gave little attention towards better sanitation and water supply system in

England as they were engaged in expanding their markets. Development of

piped water supply system in London was initiated only during the mid

nineteenth century. The sanitary condition of London was extremely bad till

the nineteenth century. The city was honey combed with cesspools, some of

them like lakes. The sewage of London was emptied directly into the River

Thames until 1864. It was only in 1847 that Legislation was passed on

Adoptive Acts for town improvement, water works, cemeteries, town police

and other issues. In 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works was set up in

London and by 1865, 82 miles of main intercepting sewers were constructed

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and four pumping stations and outfall works were constructed at the northern

and southern parts of the river.

• It was only in the second report of the Royal Sanitary Commission in 1871

that supply of wholesome and sufficient water for drinking and washing,

provision of sewerage and the utilization of sewage, removal of refuse,

provision of burial for the dead Without injury to the living and regulation of

markets were given due attention. The River Pollution Acts were passed in

1876. The Housing Act of 1890 raised the housing standard and gave local

authorities the power to recondition the existing houses and to clear the slums.

• Water supply in majority of the cities in Britain during the first half of the

eighteenth century was obtained from wells or from nearby rivers. London

faced an acute water problem during the eighteenth and nineteenth century.

Underground water was never sufficient to meet the need of the growing

population in the city. Water was therefore drawn from River Thames. But

the supply was made to limited households that had pipelines. Private and

competing water companies supplied water in the city. Quality of water was

never tested and this led to the cholera outbreak in the city in 1854-1855. No

steps were taken to meet the acute water problem in the city. The

Metropolitan Water Board was formed only in 1902 to carry out further

developments in water supply in the city.

• These improvements in London were almost as inadequate as those carried out

in Calcutta. As far as the sanitary conditions were concerned, the Imperial

metropolis and the colonial capital city were no different from each other.

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