recovery of wastewater resources across scale · recovery of wastewater resources across scale...
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Recovery of Wastewater Resources Across Scale
Craig Criddle Civil and Environmental Engineering Woods Institute for the Environment
Stanford University
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Why U.S. Wastewater Treatment Systems Need to Be Rebuilt
It has reached its design life
Energy increasingly expensive
Increased need for nitrogen removal and for removal and recovery of phosphorus
Water scarcity, drought, and need for security
Increasing urban populations and need to sustain valuable ecosystems
Valuable resources are currently wasted
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Water (99.9%) Biodegradable Organics
Nutrients (N and P)
Pathogens Salt
Refractory Organics
Resources
Impurities
Components of Domestic Wastewater
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Resource Per m3 US $
per m3 Organic Soil Conditioner (kg) 0.10 0.03 Methane (m3) 0.14 0.07 Nitrogen (kg) 0.05 0.07 Phosphorus (kg) 0.01 0.01 Water (1 m3) 1.00 0.33
The Value of the Resource
Source: Willy Verstraete (2008)
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Wastewater Treatment Plants Can Become Resource Recovery Centers for Local Markets
Water Household Business Agriculture
Organics Energy Materials Animal Feed
Nutrients Fertilizer Animal Feed
Clean Water Wastewater
Treatment
Waste Carbon
Treatment
Carbon Products (CH4, compost, biochar,
bioplastic, syngas…)
Waste Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Treatment
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Products
(NH3, struvite…)
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At What Scale Should These Resources Be Recovered?
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Scale
Building: A set of rooms with shared drainage; includes
Hotels Dorms Houses
Stanford Living Innovation Center
(Green Dorm)
Cluster: A collection of buildings with a shared drainage line for wastewater collection; includes
Small cities HOAs Campuses Farms
Stanford Campus
Catchment: A region defined by the set of all clusters with a shared drainage system; includes
Cities with a shared treatment facility and shared storm drains Farms with shared drainage
Catchment of the City of Palo Alto
Watershed: A region defined peripherally by a divide and draining to a particular water body; the set of all catchments within a drainage basin
San Francisco Bay Watershed
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45 billion m3/year
12 billion m3/year
Large Amounts of Energy Are Needed to Pump Freshwater
From Northern California to Southern California
From Southern China to Northern China
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Scale
Stanford Living Innovation Center
(Green Dorm)
Stanford Campus
Catchment of the City of Palo Alto
San Francisco Bay Watershed
Energy for Transport of Water to User
High
Low
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At what scale does resource recovery make sense?
Which resources should be recovered?
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Approach
Determine baseline water balances at each scale
Determine baseline energy audits at each scale
Identify appropriate technologies at each scale
Conduct a cost benefit analysis to assess technologies and costs across scale
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Reuse or Receiving Water Body Treatment Plant
Catchment
Buildings at Nodes
Clusters
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Building Scale
Example: Stanford Green Dorm
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Steps used for water balance at the building scale
Choose time period for balance
Quantify uses for water plus leaks
Classify uses according to the required water quality requirement (ex: potable, non-potable)
Lump together uses of the same quality
Non-potable supply = sum of non-potable uses + losses + change in storage from previous time period
Potable supply = total water use – (non-potable water supply + losses) + change in storage from previous time period
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0.01 MG
1.10 MG Indoor
Demand 0.62 MG SFPUC
0.74 MG
0.20 MG
0.6 MG 0.10 MG
0.50 MG
0.10 MG Evapotranspiration
0.04 MG Roof Runoff
0.08 MG Evapotranspiration
0.08 MG Rain
0.04MG Leakage
0.07 MG Landscaping
Water
0.03 MG Pervious Runoff
0.01 MG Evaporation from Roof
0.05 MG Leakage and
Domestic Use
Stormwater
0.01 MG
0.03 MG
0.01 MG
Sewer
Condenser
0.35 MG Blackwater
0.74 MG Greywater
Projected Annual Water Balance
Percentage of Demand Met by Recycled and Collected Water Outdoor: 100% Greenhouse: 100% Indoor: 48% Overall: 58%
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Why Recover Water and Other Resources at the Building Scale?
It is the point closest to the demand for water; pumping energy will be lowest and pipe length will be shortest
Dilution of resources in the water will be least; source separation may be possible
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What Technologies Might Make Sense at the Building Scale?
Greywater treatment and reuse?
Rainwater harvesting?
Energy recovery from wastewater (restaurants, dining halls, etc.)?
Energy recovery from heat in the wastewater?
Source separation and collection (metals and organics at manufacturing facilities, urine, etc.)?
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Cluster Scale
Example: Stanford Campus
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2.3 0.7 0.5
1.2
Imported
Wastewater
Groundwater Surface Water
1.7
Irrigation and Cooling
Recycled
0.01
Stanford University
Cluster
Potential Resource
Water Balance
Units are m3/d
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Why Recover Resources at the Cluster Scale?
For many clusters, energy for pumping will be less and pipe lengths will be shorter than from centralized treatment systems
Recovered water may contain less salt than at centralized facilities
Sea-level rise could flood some centralized facilities
Compact systems with remote monitoring now feasible
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What Might Make Sense at the Cluster Scale?
“Scalping”: Extracting clean water from wastewater for local reuse?
Energy extraction from organics?
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Ecosystem Restoration
Water Use Aquifer Storage
Cooling
Washing Clothes
Flushing Toilets
Agriculture
Landscape
Salt Removal
Salt to Sewer
Sewer
Residuals to Sewer
Nutrient Removal
Scalping with Distributed Treatment
Residuals to Sewer
Carbon Removal Advanced Oxidation
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Ocean
Treatment Plant
Scalping Facilities
Harvest Water
Scalping Facilities for Water Recovery and Local Reuse
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Critical Technologies at the Cluster Scale
Highly efficient separators to remove solids
Reactors for low-energy removal of organics and nitrogen (Goal: net positive energy)
Advanced oxidation
Distributed monitoring and control
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Example: Palo Alto Catchment
Palo Alto Treatment Plant
Catchment Scale
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Los Altos Cluster
Mountain View Cluster
Palo Alto Cluster
Stanford Cluster
East Palo Alto Cluster
Los Altos Hill Cluster
Palo Alto Catchment Wastewater Treatment Plant
Imported Water
34 MGD
Groundwater 2.9 MGD
Surface Water 0.5 MGD
Discharge to Bay
24 MGD
Palo Alto Catchment Water Balance
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How Will Water Reuse and Conservation at the Building and Cluster Scale Affect the Catchment Scale?
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Palo Alto
Los Altos
Mountain View
Stanford University
East Palo Alto
Los Altos Hills
Palo Alto Catchment Wastewater Treatment
(Concentrated 2X)
Imported Water 24 MGD
(29%Decrease)
Groundwater 0.3 MGD
(90% Decrease)
Surface Water 0.5 MGD
Discharge to Bay 12.5 MGD
(50% Decrease)
What Happens with 50% Reuse?
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Transport of solids through sewers could be impeded. This has been an “unintended consequence” of water conservation in Southern California.
Sufficient water flow must be provided for water to carry solids or more radical decentralization becomes necessary.
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The Value of the Energy and Nutrients Arriving at the Centralized Facility Becomes Equivalent to That of the Water
x 2 = $0.36 per m3
How Does Resource Value Change at the Treatment Plant If Clusters Reuse 50% of Their Wastewater?
Resource Per m3
US $ per m3
Organic Soil Conditioner (kg) 0.10 0.03
Methane (m3) 0.14 0.07
Nitrogen (kg) 0.05 0.07
Phosphorus (kg) 0.01 0.01
Water (1 m3) 1.00 0.33
Resource Per m3
US $ per m3
Organic Soil Conditioner (kg) 0.20 0.06
Methane (m3) 0.28 0.14
Nitrogen (kg) 0.10 0.14
Phosphorus (kg) 0.02 0.02
Water (1 m3) 1.00 0.33
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Ocean
Treatment Plant
salt
Scalping Facilities
Harvest Water in Clusters
Harvest Water, Energy,
Nutrients in Catchment
Centralized Facilities for Water, Carbon and Nitrogen Recovery
We are currently
developing energy audits for the service area of the City
of Palo Alto
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The Palo Alto Treatment Plant (Built in the 1970s) Uses Large Amounts of Energy
High energy inputs for
incinerator!
Total = 3,300 MJ/1000 m3
198 MJ
396 MJ
429 MJ
132 MJ
132 MJ
66 MJ
1914 MJ
A Typical Wastewater Treatment Plant Uses 1,200–2,400 MJ/1000 m3
33 MJ
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The energy from combustion of the organics in typical domestic wastewater is ~ 6,000 MJ/1000 m3.
So the wastewater contains two to four times more energy than is needed for treatment.
Wastewater treatment could be energy-neutral or even produce energy.
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Advances in Technology Have Improved Recovery of Energy and Other Products
Organics Energy Materials Animal Feed
Nutrients Fertilizer Animal Feed
Waste Carbon
Treatment
Carbon Products (CH4, compost, biochar,
bioplastic, syngas…)
Waste Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Treatment
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Products
(NH3, struvite…)
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Example: Nitrogen Removal
In Europe, full-scale treatment systems that are using a new process for nitrogen removal—“Anammox”—are approaching energy-neutral operation
The largest Anammox plant in the world (11 tons N/d) is now being designed for the Melhua Group in China (amino acids and starch producer)
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Crystal Green (Struvite)
Example: Phosphorus Recovery
Mining mineral phosphorus for fertilizer is consuming it faster than geologic cycles can replenish it
U.S. reserve will last 40 years at current production
In 2008, China placed a 135% export tariff on phosphate
Process Product Crystalactor CaPO4
PhoStrip CaPO4
Ostara Struvite KREPO Ferric Phosphate Kemicond Ferric Phosphate Seaborne Struvite BioCon H3PO4
SEPHOS CaPO4
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Energy
Dewater
N & P Removal
Microbial Fuel Cell or
Anaerobic Process
Fertilizer
Energy
Energy
Solids
Biosolids
Energy
Energy
Soil Conditioner
Efficient solids
separation
Anaerobic Digester or
Gasifier
Future Resource Recovery Plant?
Fertilizer
Energy
Discharge or reuse
From Sewer
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Internet could enable
coordinated resource
recovery and marketing within
catchments
Information Technology & Remote Monitoring
…and between catchments
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San Francisco Bay
The San Francisco Bay is protected by 40 treatment wastewater treatment plants
All are currently involved in master planning to revitalize their wastewater treatment systems
The effects of regional resource recovery could be dramatic
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The Stanford-Palo Alto Water Team
Frank Josh Tom
Phil
Craig
Marty
Eun Jung
Sebastien
Weimin
David
Sandy
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Support Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University City of Palo Alto Stanford Utilities