RADIO JOURNALISM AND PRODUCTION RADIO JOURNALISM SIMPLIFIEDThis book is aimed at enabling the learner utilize radio to produce news and appropriate programmes for the benefit of society.

At the end of this course the learner should be able to:

Gather news from various sources using appropriate methods and techniques.

Process and present information to the audiences

Develop skills, attitudes and values in presenting radio news and other programmes

And for those using this as a guide to attain a diploma in journalism and mass communication at UMCAT SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION, ought to be prepared to attempt a two hours practice exam, of which one and half hours is planning session, and thirty minutes for presentation

Assessing ability of the candidate to:

Script writing, presentation, moderation, timing, coherence dress code, voice, clarity in presentation, accuracy, individual confidence among others.

2015

Katamu Eddy Nedinani

INTRODUCTION I. RADIO STUDIO SET UP

Radio studio is a special room where radio signals are originated. It affords various production

activities including recording, transmission, and other performances of the radio personals.

The studio is therefore specially built with certain features to make it a quiet place, and to prevent

unwanted sound from with inn: heavy door with air tight-lock; well-treated walls with acoustic

treatment; shaped ceiling; double glass window with corridor between them; noiseless air-

conditioner and suitable lightings.

Radio studio is divided up into two parts:

Studio floor or performance area

Studio control room which houses technical equipment.

Radio stations have two types or more studios:

On-Air Studio: this type is normally meant for live programmes like news, discussion,

talks, continuity announcement and other programmes that have a call-in segment.

Production Studio: this type is for the purpose of producing pre-recorded programmes like

drama, documentary, magazines, commercials, etc. it is also used for a rehearsal and voice

testing.

Talks studio

The talk’s studio is an acoustically treated room for interviews and discussions. Guests sit around a circular or hexagonal table facing individual microphones. There will be visual contact with the main studio through a large glass window.

Catering for every form of audio, old, new and emerging – computers, phone, CD, cart, record and tape decks, all input through the mixing desk.

Remote studios

Some radio stations serve large areas where reporters would struggle to cover a story and get back in time for the deadline. Likewise, because of the distance involved, guests might be unwilling or unable to travel to the station to record an interview.Recording everything by phone is quick and cheap, but at the expense of quality. Remote studios are a better solution. These are usually small rooms rented in well-placed larger buildings such as city hall. They contain a microphone, mixer and possibly a recording deck. The remote studio is connected to the radio station by a broadcast-quality telephone line. Guests can go there to be interviewed and reporters can use them to send back reports.

Some stations may have a broader categorization based on microphone placement and type, size

and activities performed thereof:  drama studio; music studio; announcing studio, auditorium

studio; and general purpose studio.

STUDIO EQUIPMENT:

The studio equipment are many but the most common type includes the console

boards, microphones, recording devices, and loud speakers,

The Console Board: radio programmes are channeled to pass through the console board

which serves as the converging point of all signals sourced in the studio. It is design to

perform the following functions:

 Selection: it can select from different audio sources on which one to go on air.

Mixing: It mixes and balances two or more sound signals or inputs

Amplifying: it amplifies to desired level, all the signals coming in its weaker form

Traducing: it converts sound energy into electrical impulse and moves it to boaster.

Shaping: it shapes sound to produce echo or thin pitch sound.

Measuring: measures the intensity of sound to detect over or under modulation.

Channeling: various sound inputs are attached to produce a needed programme.

Microphone: has two basic components: the diaphragm, which is a flexible device and

very sensitive to air pressure variation of a sound wave; and the generating element

attached to the diaphragm and it converts the diaphragm’s vibration into electrical energy.

The more you talk the more the diaphragm vibrates.

Types of Microphones

Microphones can be broadly categorized into three:

1)      According to their internal construction and under this category we have:

a) Dynamic Microphones: This type of Microphone is capable of producing excellent sound

fidelity; it is rugged in construction which makes it relatively insensitive to harsh handling.

b) Ribbon/Velocity Microphones: This Microphone is similar to a dynamic microphone but tend

to be more fragile. It produces a very warm, rich and mellow sound which is often desirable for

announcers, singers and musical instruments.

c) Condenser Microphones: This type of Microphone offers excellent audio response

characteristics but it requires a power supply to both charge the capacitor and to amplify the

tiny out-put current.

2)      According to how they are used

a) Lavalieres: tiny microphones attached to the shirt or blouse during production.

b) Boom Microphones: these are larger ones and desirable for drama production.

c) Hand-Held microphones: handled close to the mouse and mostly unidirectional. It is used by

musicians and outside interviews.

3)      According to their pick up patterns:

a) Omni-Directional Microphones: pick sound from all directions, mostly used in round-table

discussion.

b) Bi-Directional Microphones: Pick sound from two angles and are desirable for two- person

interview.

c) Unidirectional Microphones: pick sound from one direction and are used for announcement

and news casting.

Recording Devices: these are the audio sources used to record and play recorded audio or

sound in the studio:

Tape recorder: records and plays music and other documented audio with tape.

Compact disc (CD) Player: functions like tape recorder but using CD plate.

Reel-to-Real Machine: used for recording and playback music.

Turn Table: an outcast device used for backup on which the record turns.

Monitor/ Loud Speaker: broadcast what is on the air. It houses a magnet, coil and

woofer. The magnet creates reaction. The reaction passes through the coil to the woofer

which vibrates and produces sound.

Characteristics of radio

Radio informs: The medium of radio is such that affords both the technical crew and the on-air

performer the opportunity to make information available on first time basis without the

complexities of film processing or visual consideration. All the performer needs to do is to speak

intelligently on the microphone while the audio console operator provides the technical support.

The medium in other words is a medium of immediacy where fast-breaking news is relayed first

to thousands of people in different places in a matter of minutes. Information about an

occurrence can be filed in by listeners via cell phones, sms and fax to presenters who

immediately relay such information without caution by calling for more information from other

witnesses around the event.

Radio educates: Radio can educate us and broaden our knowledge about issues and events.

Even more importantly, radio is now use to compliment the classroom teaching in a more

interesting and exiting way and at learners’ convenience.

Simplicity of radio: The simplicity of radio takes various forms. In the first instance radio

is easy to operate and as such does not require heavy equipment that is needed as compared to

all other media. In another instance it affords those working in the station to be creative and

express themselves freely but taking cognizance of the acceptable on-air norms. Again its

simplicity makes production process less cumbersome as compared to the production process in

television

Radio is inexpensive: Just like radio is simple, it is also financially healthy. Firstly, it is

cheaper it terms of purchasing receivers, secondly, it is financially healthy because it does not

require a full complement of staff that is needed for television. Some radio stations in Uganda

are managed by 10 staff and in some countries it could be less. This means that the station

gets to pay less staff and can use the money for other innovative programmes

Radio does not need electric power supply: The good thing about radio, particularly in

developing countries like Uganda where electric power is erratic, is that people can listen to

radio broadcast just by powering there receiver with batteries.

Radio receiver is portable and mobile: Radio receivers come in different shapes and sizes

which makes it possible for people to carry and move around with it without losing out any

aspect of their favorite programmes.

Radio receiver is portable and mobile: Radio receivers come in different shapes and sizes

which makes it possible for people to carry and move around with it without losing out any

aspect of their favorite programmes.

It is not a literate medium: Unlike the print medium which require ability to read and

write, radio does not require a literate audience. All that is required is a good ear and a

good listen habit.

Radio is an entertainment medium: it is a medium that provides entertainment to the different

category of listeners. Its raw material is sound and as such rely heavily on music from popular

types of music are classical, light classical, light, devotional, folk to reggae.

Radio is a medium of persuasion: when enlightening a large disperse audience is the ultimate

goal, radio may be the best medium to use, because it can be use to raise and motivate people

to action.

Radio signals can reach almost all corners of the world, with an instant message;

The message can be understood easily;

Radio appeals to the ear and other human faculties, particularly the imagination;

Radio programmes can be very stimulating to human emotions, depending on the

way they are presented; and

Radio is very profitable for group listening, because of the discussion which

naturally follows.

PERSONNEL IN RADIO STATIONS

Radio Announcers

Announcers in radio perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program

information, such as program schedules and station breaks for commercials or public service

information as they introduce and close the programs. They are commonly referred to as Radio

Presenters or Radio DJ’s. Announcers read prepared scripts or ad-lib live commentary as they

present news, sports, weather, updates and commercials. While “On Air”, DJ’s provide

information about Music and Artists, Weather and the Traffic report. They may take requests from

listeners, interview guests; manage the social platforms like Face book or Twitter in addition to

managing listeners contests.

Radio Animators

Radio animators read prepared advert scripts or ad-lib dialogue in commercials suitable for the

selling of a product or service. These are usually free lance and report to the Production Manager.

They are expected to create interesting and ear catching radio spots and skits for the clients.

Play by play announcers

These provide an on spot account in sports narrative and provide a colorful play by play action of

live sports activities. In some radio enterprises they are referred to as “Commentator‘s”.

Radio Programs Manager/Director (PD)

The Radio programs manager or Head of Programming, is responsible for planning and

coordinating the day-to-day programming of a radio station. He/she manages programming

resources including personnel and locally and nationally generated broadcast materials. He/she

supervises both full-time and part time employees on a regular basis. He/she makes decisions

regarding hiring, evaluation, promotion and termination of employees, or makes related

recommendations that are given particular weight. Further still, the manager monitors broadcast

traffic and makes improvements where necessary to enhance programming format. The PD

evaluates materials prior to broadcast for accuracy, quality and adherence to commission

guidelines in addition to maintaining quality control of broadcast material.

Personnel/Administrative Manager (PAM)

The PAM manages and supervises administrative services and special projects run by the station.

He/she is responsible for a variety of administrative, fiscal and or personnel as well as specialized

functions. The primary difference between this job and other administrative portfolios relate to the

size and complexity of the department and the scope of responsibility. He/she assists in

administrative planning and evaluation of policies, procedures and services plus specialized

operational units within the department. These include the implementation of goals, evaluating

quality of services and executing changes recommended by other departmental heads.

News Editor

The News Editor has overall editorial and management powers of the station’s News and Current

Affairs programs. He/she has to oversee the news making process on a practical level ensuring

good liaison with external news sources and international outlets like the BBC and CNN. The news

editor gives the legality of any news package.

News Reporters

Reporters gather information from various sources, analyze and prepare news stories and

sometimes present the information on air. On the other hand, Correspondents file stories about

events happening in the regions they are stationed. News reporters are under the supervision of the

News editor.

Technical Department

Employees in this department operate and maintain the equipment ranging from studio machines to

transmitters. They are interchangeably referred to as “Engineer,” “Technician,” or “Operator”.

They manage equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity and range of sounds. They

operate equipment to regulate the volume and audio quality of a broadcast. This department is

headed by the Chief Engineer.

Marketing/ Sales Executives

The Marketing executives sell advertising time to business companies, advertising agencies, and

other organizations on behalf of the radio station. They must be highly knowledgeable about the

station’s mission and vision, the reach, target format and other related listener demographics,

including income levels, gender, age and consumption patterns.

Traffic controller

He/she schedules and lines up spot adverts/commercials and promotions to be played by the

announcers. The traffic controller carefully schedules commercials, taking into account both the

timeslot in which a commercial is to be played, as well as spot adverts in relation to competitors in

the given business. For example, two car dealership spot adverts should not be played during the

same commercial break. This portfolio calls for high concentration, confidence and sensitivity.

Music Director

Every radio station must have somebody in charge of Music. In addition to producing music play

lists on a daily basis, he/she coordinates the compiling of new songs, stores old hits for future use,

and helps keep the station in line with the format. For example, Jazz music, R&B, Country music,

Local hits, Oldies, Rock etc. She/he works hand in hand with the PD to produce theme days and

nights.

Production Manager

The Production Manager is in charge of the production studio. He/she assigns

announcers/animators, schedules studio time for recording, produces commercial and station

promos. At times the Production Manager does the achieving of radio programs. In some radio

establishments, this manager doubles as a radio producer. He/she directs and produces recordings

of programs. Remember not all programs on a radio station are broadcast live.

Promotions Director

Coordinates and executes station promotion ideas and activities for both the programming and

marketing departments. He/she creates and manages listener contests and promotions in addition to

fulfilling other value added promotions on behalf of the clients.

Receptionist

Handles all incoming calls, receives guests plus letters in addition to a number of key

administrative activities in the day-to-day operations of clients.

Business Manager

This is the Financial Manager of the radio station. This portfolio calls for the understanding of the

business of the Media and how the media product differs from other consumable products or

services. The FM ensures a smooth flow of the station’s revenue including paying of all bills,

wages and staff salaries. The business manager heads the accounts section.

General Manager

He/she works for the station owners. He oversees the station operations. Must possess general

business knowledge, leadership ability, sales and programming skills and technical understanding

of how the station operates. In majority of radio stations, the General Manager doubles as the

Human Resource officer responsible for maintaining staff operational guidelines, company policies

and reinforcing company procedures.

Carrier opportunities in radio

Radio presenter Radio Presenters are the voice of a station or programme, whether they work in speech-based or music radio. They create the tone and style of radio output and establish a relationship with listeners.

TIPS FOR A GOOD RADIO PRESENTER

When you are a radio presenter, there are guidelines that when perfectly followed will make you a second to none as far as presentation is concerned and also gain as many listeners as possible.

The main thing to remember is that you need to be entertaining. On the radio, it is your personality that people will begin to know you for, so have it clear in your mind what type of radio personality you want to be and remain consistent at all times.

Let your natural self shine through the airwaves and this will be the way how people will remember you. In other words, be natural. Avoid imitating another good presenter. “Always be yourself’’

A radio presenter should always have interesting things to say, whether it is exciting news and facts, or simple anecdotes.

It helps if you are particularly knowledgeable about the topic that your show is based on. This means that if your radio programme is about music, then you should be very clued-up on this subject.

You should also be interested in what you are talking about. If you can show that you are passionate about something, then people will love to hear you talk about it and your show will become more popular.

Be able to generate original ideas and to think creatively about how to communicate them to audiences.

Understand how to use the voice effectively for radio.

Be able to learn how to use a variety of recording equipment and to operate different radio studios.

Be able to present while operating studio controls and coordinating a range of simultaneous technical activities.

Have excellent communication skills and be able to draw information from people. Make them listen for longer and get them to come back for more.

Be able to work calmly effectively under pressure, react quickly and meet tight deadlines.

Have knowledge of the law, ethics and industry regulations around radio production.

Understand the requirements of the relevant health and safety legislation and procedures.

Have knowledge of the radio market, different station and programme styles and audience demographics.

Read thoroughly ant text off air that you will be reading on air and rout out any strange pronunciations or uncommon words.

Establish the authority and confidence. (Nothing bothers an audience more than hearing a presenter who sounds unsure, tense, confused, or diffident)

Speak clearly and have a generally appealing voice and manner.

Set the tone of the programme depending on its nature and content. How serious do you want your programme to sound?

Know your running order before you start the programme. Have a plan for your show. Pre read and understand any scripts before you do them.

Don’t rely on newspapers to fill your show out. They are a tool, but think how you can put your own spin on a story. Anyone can read a newspaper out.

Concentrate. Personal problems are left at the door and remove any distractions.

Radio Producer The producer’s role and basic tips

Radio producers co-ordinate the content of a programme. They control the creative aspects of the show, and are often closely involved in the business and technical sides too. They may not appear on the air themselves, but they play a key part in creating what listeners hear.

Producers are found in national, local and digital stations. Most of them work in speech radio, such as news, features, documentaries and sports programmes. Others work on music shows.

A radio producer's tasks may include:

generating ideas and researching content creating a schedule, booking guests and selecting music

recording and editing

managing the budget

Working hours can be long and unpredictable. As many radio programmes are broadcast live, shift work is common, and may include evenings and weekends. Radio producers work in offices and recording studios.

A radio producer needs to be:

a strong communicator - verbally and in writing able to generate fresh ideas and make them happen

able to take the initiative and remain calm under pressure

good at working in a team

comfortable working with computers and broadcast equipment

knowledgeable and passionate about radio

Producers work for radio stations and production companies all over the Uganda. The widest opportunities are in kampala, where most of the national stations are based.

It is important to get early experience of radio and make contacts in the industry. Many radio producers start off by volunteering on student radio local fm, or gaining work experience on a local station. Radio producers develop their skills on the job. They are expected to keep up to date with advances and new technology in the industry.

News EditorWhat does a Radio News Editor do?Radio News Editors oversee and direct the work of a news team supplying news content for one or more different outlets, from single local radio stations to international news services.

They have day-to-day control of news output, identifying stories, and selecting and commissioning material for bulletins or programmes. They set and drive the news agenda in line with the approach and style of their station or programmes. They have editorial control over news output and ensure that professional journalistic standards are maintained, and that content complies with the law, broadcast regulation and organizational policy. They are the first point of contact for legal or editorial queries.

Radio News Editors must keep abreast of local, regional, national or international issues of relevance to their station or programme output. They should also have good contacts within the communities they serve.

It is the Radio News Editor’s role to generate original ideas and approaches to the way stories are covered. They assign work to their team, briefing and deploying Reporters and Broadcast Journalists. To do this role, you will need to:

understand and have an instinct for what makes a good news story and exercise sound editorial judgment

have excellent writing and storytelling skills, with the ability to tailor and adapt content for different audiences and platforms

be able to generate original ideas, and to think creatively about how to communicate them to audiences

be able to work calmly effectively under pressure, react quickly, and meet tight deadlines and lead with confidence and decisiveness

have excellent communication skills, complemented by diplomacy

be able to manage creative teams, and encourage acceptable creative risk-taking

be able to coach and develop talent in others

be able to give and receive constructive feedback, and manage performance

be able to encourage frank and constructive reviews of news or programme output

be able to manage programme budgets and resources and maintain objectivity in order to be fair and balanced in the treatment of stories

have an interest in news and current affairs and good general knowledge

be able to learn how to use a variety of recording equipment and to operate different radio studios

have knowledge of the law, ethics and industry regulations around radio production, and broad experience of their application in radio and the practice of journalism

understand the requirements of the relevant Health and Safety legislation and procedures

have strong IT skills, including word processing and data handling

have knowledge of the radio market, different station and programme styles, and audience demographics

INTRODUCTION What is News?

When asked to define the concept of news, most beginners simply say news is any information that

is new and reported by journalists. Their perspective of definition is founded on new events and

not past ones. Although this definition may be true, it is however looking at news writing from a

single perspective. Often there are events that have been reported in the past but which someone

stumble on a new twist to the information the public already has. The new twist to the information

quite frankly makes that old even news worthy.

News Treatment

News can sometimes involve good event that leave everyone happy at the end of the day. At other

times news can be bad that it leaves a nation sad for days and months.

Thus, news can be presented in two forms –hard news or soft news.

Hard news is an account of events that are serious, topical and timely and they have to be

reported immediately. Events such as accidents, disaster, speeches y senior government

officials, labour disputes, political campaigns and statement, major crimes, accidents are

stories that are regarded as hard news.

Soft news events are stories that though are not serious but contain the elements of news.

Soften news are stories geared towards informing and entertaining the public. Nwabueze

(2009) writes that “soft news may not be as timely as hard news but it is not necessarily

stale news. Soft news may not be breaking news but it could be interesting and exciting,

providing insight into serious matter.”

3.1 A news Bulletin

A news Bulletin is a radio program that carries a collection of news items about a variety of

topics (politics, economics/finance, culture, sports, etc.). These news items can again be

subdivided into categories like world news, regional news and local news business news sports

news among others.

Radio news is current, topical information on events, facts and opinions. It is objective and must

not contain the journalist’s opinion. In most cases, news reports are spoken texts only. Sometimes,

news items also include short sound bites from a reporter, a correspondent or a statement from a

person mentioned in the news item

Types of News Programmes News programmes are essential part of programming for any radio.

News is very important to everybody because it keeps people informed about current events and

developments happening in their community and other communities.

News satisfies people’s curiosity and concern and it provides basic facts, which enable people to

make up their minds and so join the general discussion that leads to community discussion.

News programmes may take the following formats

News in brief: this is a five minute newscast that presents five to 10 stories in their briefest form. It

does not necessarily include actualities and voice reports.

Integrated News format: this usually is between 10mins to more or different news presented in

different segment in the course of the news. It is usually hard news with each segment may be

handled by different newscaster. The segments include, sports, business and economy,

entertainment etc.

News magazine: though a news magazine is like the integrated news format, it however differs in

that news magazine approach stories form human interest angle. It is a combination of hard and

soft news. It usually starts with straight straights for about 15 to 20mins breaks away to

commercial before the anchor goes on to present the stories of the day. It makes use more of voice

reports.

Headlines news: this format is adopted by both radio and television stations. On radio, the

headline news is present for 60secs with each story been presented in a simple short sentence. This

usually precedes the bulleting or integrated news which is to come later in the station

programming.

3.2 Writing news items

The principle of writing news for radio is very simple:

Be precise,

Brief, (“clear Write it how you would say it. Get straight to the point at the beginning”).

Correct “Get your facts, spelling and grammar right”.

Neutral

Objective.

But nonetheless interesting.

This is what news language is all about.

Make short sentences to ensure that listeners can understand everything quickly.

Do not overload the sentences with information to make sure that the listeners are able to take in

what is carried in the news copy.

Be neutral and objective to make sure that listeners can make up their own minds about the news.

In radio news, the most important information comes first – though not necessarily at the

beginning of the sentence. The first sentence or the first two sentences contain the core of the

information (‘lead sentence’). Everything that follows just adds further detail or background,

which will help listeners understand the issue and put it into perspective.

News language

Radio news gives the listeners a lot of information in a very short time. Therefore, the news has to

be worded in a way that it is easy to understand and to follow.

News language has to be absolutely concise and neutral. And since the aim is to convey a

maximum of information in a minimum amount of time, there is no room for literary style in the

news

Here is a short overview over of the most important rules:

Repeat key words rather than using synonyms. Synonyms are often difficult for listeners to

understand and sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

Beware of foreign words. Do not base your manuscript on what you understand. Consider

whether your listeners will understand it. If there is no alternative for a foreign word, you

should use it and then explain it.

Abbreviations and acronyms need to be explained the first time they appear in a news item.

Do not assume that all listeners know what UNICEF means (United Nations Children’s

Fund) or UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

Keep numbers and figures to a minimum. They are hard to understand on the radio. If you

have to use numbers, try to round them off. However, there are cases when it is absolutely

necessary to give the exact figures and numbers down to the decimal points – particularly

when reporting election results, inflation rates or exchange rates.

Percentage rates often sound very abstract. Wherever possible, try to find different

expressions for them: ‘50 percent’ can also be described as ‘half ’, ‘200 percent’ are ‘twice’

or ‘double’.

Draw comparisons to visualize information about size and/or distance. If, for example, you

mention that a building site is about the size of two football fields, listeners will visualize

this better than if you say the size in square metres.

If possible, write your news in the active voice. This will make the news item sound livelier

and more natural. The passive voice often sounds like an official announcement: dry and

boring.

There are no quotation marks on the radio – unlike in print. So if you quote someone, use a

phrase like ‘end of quote’ to tell the listeners where the quote ends and where your

journalistic text continues. Or better yet: use indirect speech.

The use of sound clips/ Actualities/Sound Byte/Grabs

Sound clips make news or a report livelier, more interesting and more authentic. But not all sound

clips are good and make sense. Before you use a sound clip, you should consider whether it will

truly provide listeners with new insights.

3.4 Editing

 Few raw interviews appear on air without some form of editing – live interviews are the obvious

exception. But where an interview has been pre-recorded, and time permits, the reporter will

usually want to tighten it up and trim it to the required length.

Just as important is editing out irrelevant questions and statements to throw into focus comments

that are newsworthy. You may also want to alter the sequence of questions and answers to point up

a strong angle that emerged during the interview.

Finally, recordings are usually fine edited to give them polish by removing hesitation, repetition

and intrusive background noise, such as a passing lorry or a ringing phone.

Editing has four main functions:

To reduce length

Removes unwanted material

Alters the sequence of the record material

Permit creative treatment

If you were to produce a 3 minute sound bite from an interview with minister Daudi Migereko

about his claims to land rights and you returned 7 with minutes then unless the material is

stunningly good, 4minutes will just have to go, so the last 4minutes can just be chopped off or the

best

Sound clips should be unique

Using sound clips makes sense if they contain, for example, strong feelings, expressions of

opinion or humour. Sound clips are also unique if they tell something about the personality of

the interviewee, if they are witness reports or historical sound documents.

Sound clips should be neither too short nor too long

The listener needs time to adapt to the new voice. However, the sound clip should not be so

long that it dominates the news bulletin or the report. In the case of news with clips, the sound

clips should not be longer than 20 seconds. For longer journalistic reports of between 2 and 4

minutes, each sound clip should be between 15 and 30 seconds long.

Be careful with expert language in sound clips

Journalists often use sound clips when they have to report about complex subject matters, e.g.

complicated scientific or business topics. Frequently, the journalists themselves have not fully

understood all details and aspects of these issues. But they fear that they might be unable to

translate the specialists’ jargon into generally understandable language. Such sound clips

containing expert lingo are

At the end of the sound clip the voice should be down

The listener should hear that the interviewee has come to the end of their sentence and/or

thought. If you cut a sound clip at a point where the interviewee’s voice is up, the listener will

suspect that the interviewee may have further expanded on his or her thought. So a statement

cut in mid-sentence may sound like you are trying to keep something from the listener –

manipulating what was actually said.

Be careful with the introduction of sound clips

When leading into a sound clip, journalists frequently make the mistake of saying exactly the same

things that the listener will hear again from the interviewee.

This is a waste of time and it is boring for the listener. Instead, guide the listener towards the

statement of the sound clip. Explain who is speaking and what they are speaking about, but do not

summarize what the statement is about in advance.

The use of Vox Pop

The meaning of Vox Pop is simply ‘the voice of people’. This is most often achieved by means of

stopping people in the street and asking them a question which is recorded in video or audio. With

vox pop you have to be quick and firm, the availability of minutes you will have will be at least

three minutes to ask the person the question, due to the fact it is being taken on the street; the

interviewee may urgently need to be somewhere else so as a journalist you have to make sure there

is a minimum of three questions and you have to ensure they are all open questions, this is vital in

order for you to be able to edit the opinions you want to keep and the ones you don’t need.

Each script is written for a presenter to read out. Think of a news script like the lines of a play

with an invisible PRESENTER: at the beginning.

Header, Tape Cues, Story Tags and Lead-in

The Header

Most broadcast media require reporters to put some basic information right at the top of the page.

This information is a brief description or keyword that identifies the story. This information is

called the slug in print journalism. These include:

The writer’s name or initials

Date the story was written

Tape Cues

Broadcast newscast is a combination of reports that are read by the newscaster without actuality

and reports with the voice of news makers and voice reports of reporters. Hausman et al (2011)

advised readers to take note of three things:

1. That there is a sound file (or tape) and it should run at this point in the story. The script should

contain an advisory listening name of the file –the title with which it is labeled

2. The time of the sound file (actuality). This is important so that the newcaster can be ready to

start reading at the appropriate time.

3. The out cue/ cue out. The cue out is a written transcription of the final words spoken on the tape.

This is the newscaster cue to begin reading the rest of the story.

Story Tags

The news report ending with the correspondence report is not always the best way to end a story

before picking another story to read. It is advisable to always end a report after the actuality with a

sentence or two – this is tags.

An example

Sample Slug:

10/12/2015 7AM SONKO SHALIF

(Date the story was written) (Time of filing the story) (The writer’s name or initials)

Police in Nakaseke District have impounded 103 heads of cattle for violation of quarantine

regulations. Seven trucks that were carrying the cattle were also impounded, and four people are

held by police over the charges.

The seven trucks were transporting cattle at night from a quarantined area to the different markets.

Two of the trucks carrying 22 heads of cattle are at Kiwoko police station, while the other five are

held at Wakyato sub-county.

Nakaseke District Police Commander, Denis Kamugisha says the animals and the trucks were

apprehended on Tuesday night after a tip off from concerned residents.

Luganda //Cue in: “Emmotoka zikwatidwa………

Cue Out:……………….emisango egyo.” //

Savannah region police spokesperson, Lameck Kigozi confirmed they impounded the cattle and

trucks, and arrested some suspects. Kigozi says these will be charged in court.

English //Cue In: “We impounded………….cue in/ cue out.

Cue out: …….blink an eye on anybody.”//

Dr. Moses Sekabembe, a veterinary officer at the district says the suspects will face charges of

spreading the Foot and Mouth Disease and face imprisonment for two years or a fine of two

million shillings, or both. 

Luganda //Cue In: Abakwatiddwa……… cue in and out

Cue Out: ………….kutambuza nte.”// 

In June this year, government announced a fresh cattle quarantine following the outbreak of the

Foot and Mouth Disease in Nakaseke. The disease was reported in Ngoma town

council, Kinoni, Wakyato and Ngoma sub-counties (tag)

End

Strong introduction

Always start with a strong opening, which catches the listeners’ attention, arouses their interest and

makes them want to hear more about the news. A slow, boring introduction will make listeners

switch off and turn their attention to other things.

The outward appearance of the radio script

When writing a radio news script, the contents and structure are undoubtedly the most

important factors. However, if you want to get your message across to the listeners, it is also

important how you present your piece. It’s helpful if your script is easy to read. This will make

a good and lively presentation possible. You can focus totally on the text and the presentation

instead of battling with unnecessary obstacles.

Only write on one side of the paper

If you have to turn the pages of your script to read text on the reverse sides, your listeners will

hear you rustling the pieces of paper. This unwanted sound will distract them. In addition, you

may get confused whether you’ve already read both sides of the paper. You can make things

easier for yourself if you just write on one side. You can then put each page aside once you

have read it and don’t have to look if there is anything written on the reverse side.

Define space between the lines and clear paragraphs

Generous space between the lines of your text will make it easier for you to focus on the text

while you are reading it on the air. It will prevent you from accidentally slipping into the wrong

line. If you leave space between the lines of your text, you can add pronunciation and

intonation marks over or under the words. Clearly define paragraphs within your text. This

visual aid will show you at first sight where to pause and take a breath.

Write legibly

When you are reading an illegible script on the air, you have to focus mainly on deciphering

the text. Your pronunciation and intonation will not be lively. It’s very likely that you will

stumble over certain words or phrases that are hard to read. Listeners will think that this sounds

unprofessional. Their attention will be diverted from the contents of your report.

Avoid words and expressions that are hard to pronounce

When writing a text, avoid words that you might stumble over later, when you present the text

on the air. If you think you could have a problem pronouncing a certain word, choose a simpler

one. Numbers and figures can also be linguistic stumbling blocks, especially large numbers. It

helps if you write out ‘thousands’, ‘millions’ and ‘billions’ in words rather than figures. It’s

easier to read ‘two million’ than to see a figure like ‘2,000,000’ and have to count the zeroes to

figure out whether you are dealing with millions or billions.

Check the script

If you stick to the above-mentioned tips and tricks, you should have a radio script that looks

virtually impeccable. But before you can present it in the studio, you should read it aloud at

least once. This way you will discover which sentences may be too long, where you may have

the odd unpronounceable word and whether your report has the intended total length. Finally,

ask a colleague to go over your script or to listen to you reading it aloud. Maybe your colleague

will spot phrases or words that are hard to understand or do not make sense. Once you have

been given the green light, you are ready to go into the studio and present your text on the air.

The form of the news bulletin as a whole

It’s just as important for your station or news desk to agree on a uniform design for all news

bulletins as it is to define a certain format for each individual news item.

Once again, you have numerous options:

Musical introduction of the news broadcast (news jingle/intro)

Music underlying the whole news bulletins (news bed)

Short jingles between the individual news items

A short overview of the most important news headlines at the beginning and/or at

the end of the bulletin. News Headline is the top line of each story of the day, its

role is to give a snapshot of the key story of the day, and a headline's aim is to

quickly and briefly draw attention to the story. The purpose of a headline is to

attract audience and to reassure the listeners to keep listening.  In radio news

bulletin, the headline is recognised to be the significant reason in the

effectiveness of radio news.

The weather report at the beginning or at the end of the bulletin

Giving the name of the editor at the beginning and/or end

Giving the exact time before and/or after the news bulletin

Standard salutation

Ranking stories or News Alignment

One of the major problems in bulletin preparation is ranking the stories in correct order.

The job of the news producer (in some station it is the job of the news editor) is to decide which

story goes on air and the one that does not. As part of his duty, the producer must decide the order

of importance.

News assembly process can involve both choosing the stories and story order and choosing the

sound elements as well.

Just follow some simple steps.

First read through all the stories available. Then go through them again, making three lists (or

selecting the stories on to three piles). These categories should be:

1. Important stories which you must use;

2. Stories which you can use, but which are not so important;

3. Stories which you cannot use, for any reason.

REHEARSAL

There are two distinct kinds of rehearsal: the dry-run, sometimes called a read-through, and the

microphone rehearsal.

The dry-run is a rehearsal held in an office, a conference room or an unmanned studio that

is a studio without the equipment switched on.

It reduces the pressure on studios and technical services. A straightforward talk may need only one

dry-run whereas a complex drama may need several and the technical operator to attend at least

one so that he can familiarize himself with the dramatic production. For news anchors this give a

mastery of the copy scripts, strengthens diction among others.

The microphone rehearsal is held in a studio with all technical facilities working.

Talks seldom need any microphone rehearsal if' they have been read through before, but drama

and documentary need several. Drama producers frequently rehearse parts of productions

separately, with separate rehearsals for sound effects, music and actors before bringing all three

elements together at the microphone.

The producer has much to do at a rehearsal; he has to ensure that the performance follows his

interpretation of the hama-that the actors really live their roles, that the timing and pace of the

performance are right, pronunciation correct, cues properly taken, that the performance is smooth

and sounds as it should.

Use these guidelines for reading scripts: both at rehearsal and on air

Prepare. Unless there's a real emergency, never read anything on air that hasn't been

practiced aloud. Tongue-twisters are not always apparent until they are spoken aloud.

Understand. Never read anything that could be confusing to your listener.

Your voice will reflect it. Take the time to re-write the script before reading.

Mark the script. Underline key words, mark pauses (with "/" or another symbol), write

phonetic pronunciations for foreign words.

Choose the appropriate tone of voice. How much emotion/feeling should be conveyed?

Should the tone be light-hearted or serious?

Look ahead. Don't look at the script word by word. Train yourself to take in whole blocks

of words.

Handle mistakes professionally. If you make a mistake, don't panic. If it's a big error--one

that could cause confusion or misunderstanding—apologize and correct it. Otherwise, take

a breath and carry on. Don't draw attention to stumbles.

NEWS PRESENTATIONSNews reading is generally the preserve of a station’s leading and clearest Announcers. The news

reader should be well informed and familiar with the Background to every story that he/she reads.

S/he must be well versed with the language.

Things on which a news Anchor should put much emphasis while reading news;

Flaw (also means rhythm e.g. slow, fast or intermediate)

it is clear that a news cast with a reading speed that is too quick and with minimal breaks

impacts negatively on the understanding of the message, while a slow reading speed with too

many pauses negatively affects the listener's attention. It is thus necessary to find the

average between the two, and especially, to know that the speech rate has to vary depending

on the meaning of each part of the message.

Intonation

Intonation can be defined as a group of pitch variations produced in a spoken sequence that

characterizes the type of sentence, differentiates the syntactic units, and defines the emotions

and attitudes of the speaker. These pitch variations are expressed in phonetic or melodic groups,

that is, in units of verbal sense that are delimited by pauses or pitch movements. This pitch

distribution through delimitation in phonetic groups is particularly influential during

information processing, given that “the listener will base her decoding of the message mainly on

these (and possibly other) phonologic units, and not on the syntactic structure of the sentences”

Pronunciation: S/He should know accurately the pronunciation of all words which appear in the

bulletin-words in everyday speech and the names of places and people appearing in the news.

Punching with regard to the qualities of the voice, the studies indicate that the audience prefers

low pitched voices, resonant timbres, and clear and strong intensities. This combination is the

optimal to generate sensations of credibility, confidence, powerful and safety. These qualities are

very important in radio news.

Intro includes:

salutation which is a Greeting: Usually, good morning, good afternoon good evening, then the

time, the anchor’s name, frequency and station)

Outro: Outro includes name of station and frequency, thanking listeners, informing them to stay

tuned, repeating headlines and his/her name; Intro Speed and Timing (slow down, it’s not a race) to

end the news a quick look at the headlines once again,…. “Main stories”…., with that we come

to the end of the news. Thank you for listening and stay tuned to (name of the radio) or

announce the continuing program purposely for continuity of programming.

Am Andy mayuni

Voicing/Microphone practice

Keep the microphone 6 –12” from your mouth.

Generally, keep the microphone as close as possible to your mouth to avoid picking up unwanted

room reflections and reverberation. Do not get too close either.

Proximity effect, which is an increase in low frequency response that occurs as you get closer to a

directional microphone, can cause your voice to sound “muddy” or overly bassy.

Aim the microphone toward your mouth from below or above.

This placement minimizes “popping” caused by plosive consonants (e.g. “p” or “t”).

Use an external pop filter.

Though most microphones have some sort of built-in windscreen, an additional filter will provide

extra insurance against “p” pops. The pop filter can also serve as a reference to help you maintain a

consistent distance from the microphone.

Keep the microphone away from reflective surfaces.

Reflections caused by hard surfaces, such as tabletops or music stands, can adversely affect the

sound quality captured by the microphone

Speak directly into the microphone.

High frequencies are very directional, and if you turn your head away from the microphone, the

sound captured by the microphone will get noticeably duller

Wraps

News wrap is an audio piece with the news wrapped around it, this is added to provide

more information and to maintain the listener's attention.

A wrap can also mean a piece that is a summary of news lines or elements in a story.

Live Cross

A live cross is where a reporter has just finished he/she's part and passes it onto another

reporter to provide us more facts of the story. A live cross is done to give us the immediacy

of what's happened and most important to give the news of what's going on at that

particular time.

Two Way

A Two Way is a format of news report in which the newsreader interviews a reporter who

is generally out in the field and at the scene to get the information we need from the main

story. In an illustrated two way, the reporter introduces clips of audio if the news is on radio

or otherwise video if it’s being reported on television.

This is also when the newsreader is leading in the story with the sound giving us

specific vital details in the form of a live cross.

Closing stories

Sometimes called tail-enders, closing stories are almost as important as lead stories. They are the

last stories your listeners will hear and remember from the bulletin.

Script writing OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

Describe the different types of script formats

Understand broadcast markings

Identify the different sound element that can be incorporated in broadcast script

Write a broadcast script with little supervision

3.0 INTRODUCTION

A broadcast script is like a road map that guides the production and presentation of both live and

recorded programmes. Broadcast script writing means writing for radio and television. The radio

script is all about writing for the ear while scriptwriting for television is explained as writing for

the ears as well as the eyes. Broadcast writing is different from print writing in that print writing

comes in hard copy and can be read at when and where the reader wish, but in broadcast script

writing, simple and short sentences are employed to make it conversational to make it fit into its

transient nature. This unit is dedicated to taking student through the process of script writing,

scripts formats and other elements that can be incorporated into broadcast script.

3.1 Scripting

Writing for radio and television requires that the copywriter adopt a more natural friendly tone to

make the script appear as if the presenter is carrying on a conversation with another person even if

the message is targeted at millions of people. Doing this meant using the spoken words of everyday

speech. Writing for broadcast medium also entails understating the medium, the uniqueness,

advantages and challenges of the medium.

It is important to keep in mind when writing for radio and television, that the words spoken are

heard once as such it is critical to always use easy, simple short sentence and understandable words

that the audiences know. For radio, the scripts are delivered through sound and the in case of radio

of television sound and picture, the script should therefore try to bridge the gap between the

present and his/her audience.

The rules of writing broadcast script are presented below:

For Titles and names:

Titles must precede names.

Use complete name in the first reference, then last name or first name thereafter.

Drop obscure names or places that add nothing your story

For Quotations:

Use direct quotes sparingly.

Let people say their own words.

IF you must use a direct quote set it off with such phrases as: “In the words of...” or “As he

put it...” or try to paraphrase as much as possible. This will help you avoid the words

sounding as if they were yours.

Writing hints

Keep sentences short.

Prefer the simple to the complex.

Put action in your verbs.

Write like you talk.

Use plenty of pauses or music bridges.

Don’t use technical jargon. The medium is not a medium of explanation

Write with emphasis on picture.

Don’t get “wordy.”

Read the cop aloud

Words

Eliminate most abbreviations, but you can abbreviate Mr., Mrs., Dr.

Write out days, months, states, military titles.

Numbers

Spell out figures through eleven.

Use hyphenated combinations. Example: 33-thousand.

Use “st,” “nd,” “th,” and “rd” after dates, addresses and numbers to be read as ordinary

numbers.

Types of Script Format

There are different types of broadcast script format but basically they can be grouped under three:

fully scripted programme, the outline or semi-scripted programme, and the show format or the run-

down sheet.

The Fully scripted format: fully scripted programme format are scripts that contain all

audio material that would be spoken on air as well as the director’s instruction or makings.

Programmes that employ this format include news programmes, dramatic programmes

documentaries, commercials, station breaks.

The Outline Scripted format: this format is best suited for programmes that do not require

that every word be written down. Programmes that adopt this format include educational

programmes, variety shows, and interviews programmes. This format entails the writing of

the opening and closing credit. In other words the outline script is used in news or sport

coverage, where certain information for openings, closings and commercial introductions

are carefully written into the script.

The Show Format or Run-Down Sheet/semi-scripted format: this format is particularly

suitable for routine programmes that are either daily or weekly. This type of script format

provides all the vital information about a production precisely and concisely with each

segment of the programme showing the talent involved, where it is taking place and its

approximated running time. The beauty of this script format is that the same format is the

same.

Parts of broadcast script

Broadcast scripts are divided into three parts, the identification part both at the top of the script

and at the bottom of the script and the body. The information at the top of the script depends

largely on the in-house style of each station, but generally the identification (ID) part at the top

of a script contains station ID – name of the station; name of the programme, time of

transmission, date of transmission, name of presenter(s), the signature tune (sig tune) among

other information.

The information at the bottom ID also depend on a station in-house style and it may consist of

the name/initials of the writer, the editor/director and source of information which could be

coverage, agency report of press release. Note that the top ID and bottom ID are voiced in the

case of radio and are shown as opening and closing credits in television for people to read.

On the other hand, the body of the script contains all action and speech cues. The speech is

what the reader/presenter reads on air while the action cues are those instructions that are not to

be read but carried out on air. The action or instructions must be written in capitals capital

letters to show that it must not be voiced.

Editing Broadcast Copy

Broadcast scripts are not presented on air as written in the first draft; this is because the copy must

pass through the editor on duty, he/she must look out for the pitfalls, wrong spellings and likely

legal issues in the copy.

The following simple rules will help you ensure that your copy remains readable.

Insert punctuation: When you insert that missing period, quotation mark, comma, question

mark, etc., neatly place the mark where it belongs.

Correct Spelling Neatly: Never try to correct a letter within a word, block out the

misspelled word and write the corrected word on top of the block.

Inserting Words or Phrases: Insert a word or phrase by printing the word or words above

the line and indicating where you want to insert it.

3.2 Preparing the Copy

Although the product of radio is music and the spoken works while for TV is the spoken works and

the video, there are other basic elements like; style, timing and pacing that can aid the delivery of

the copy in the most interesting way.

Form and Style

Broadcast script must be typewritten and double-spaced to help the reader pick words

from each line clearly.

The copywriter must also try as much as possible to use fairly short sentence. This will

help the reader control his/her breathing and inflections, but most especially, punctuation

must contribute to readability.

Another way to make broadcast script interesting and meaningful is to underline phrases

that you want emphasized or stressed.

The heading or ID as stated earlier should contain information that will indentify the

station and the programme.

Just as each station has its own in-house style/format, copywriters and presenters also must

develop a style that define them and set them apart from others.

The style you develop is an individual thing, “it must reflect an aspect of your personality,

one with which you are comfortable with.

Specimen of A Radio Script

Name of Station: 90.7 Umcat Fm

Programme: A Day with Celebrity

Date of Broadcast: Tuesday 13th 0ct 2015

Time of Broadcast: 11.00 Hrs Gmt

Producer: Athieno Veronica

Table that carries the different programme segments, (refer to copy appended with the

interview program)

The voice quality is especially important in broadcast production.

While well-modulated tones may be of some advantage, they are not essential. Style compensate

for almost any voice quality…your style develop over a long period of time. It will be closely tied

to your personality and interests.

The style a presenter adopts in delivering his /her script will endear audience to his /her programme

and the personality. It wins audience loyalty to a station and more commercials for a station. it is a

method that becomes a part of a presenter over time. It includes the way he/she reads a copy, the

tone of his/her voice and his/her pacing and timing.

Pacing and Timing

Pace and timing plays a vital role in how the meaning and acceptance of a message.

The two elements are seen as the two most important elements in oral style and yet the most

elusive. Pacing includes rate of delivery, as well as the variations in the rate.

Variation can be described as variations of voice and it should be made to transit smoothly. Timing

on the other hand, according Hasling (1989), timing is the sense of knowing how long to “hold” on

a word or a pause before picking up the next line. Pennington (2006) adds that:

If you were listening to a piece of music which had the same pace and rhythm all the way

through, no crescendos, no allegros, no change of pace or mood, you would soon be bored! It’s

exactly the same with a programme. Particularly within a magazine programme, be aware of the

importance of changing the mood and pace as you move from one item to another…Timing is

crucial. Be aware of it from the beginning of your work on a programme. Don’t neglect it; don’t

continually leave it till later. You will need to be aware of overall timing of the programme, and

the timing of every item within it, including all the presentation (menu, links, closing).

3.3 Sound Elements in Broadcast Production

Words alone cannot tell the story a scriptwriter or the director of a radio/TV programme wants to

pass across to the audience. He needs other elements like music, sound effects, voice quality

among others. Here are ways by which music, sound effects and voice quality can add meaning to

an overall production.

Music

Music can be incorporated into radio and television programme for a variety of reasons. These

include:

Music can be use an audience along from one feeling to another for instance

music can be use to create an illusion of love, hatred, horror or happiness.

Music should be used to establish mood and atmosphere but it is important not

to over-emphasize emotional moments.

It can be employed as a programme identification tune which is otherwise called

signature tune.

In some cases, mu music can be use to bridge two segments of a programme

In some children and adult programmes music can be use to tell a story.

Music can be use in any radio or television programme; however when using music it must be a

song that the audience is familiar with, in other words it must be interesting and appealing to the

audience.

It is important that you do not speak over vocals. The announcer’s voice may clash with the lyrics

of the song playing under if it not carefully executed.

Music is such an evocative tool that it is used in a great many radio production task; unfortunately,

it is also frequently misuses and overused. By indicating that music can be misused or overused, I

implying that the radio or television scriptwriter and director be wary of how and when to use

music in any production. Hausman et al therefore identify what they called the “do use music” and

the “do not use music”.

Do use music

When you can find a logical reason to do so, use music to create and reinforce a theme.

When the music has a logical purpose and fits into the format of your station.

Do not use music

Do not use music strictly as reflect: don’t make it “other stations are using it, I have to use

it”, in “many times you’ll be better off without it”.

Do not use music indiscriminately. According to them this warning applies specifically to

the novice radio producer who is tempted to use currently popular music within

announcements or other productions, whether or not it serves to reinforce the message.

Sound Effects

Sound effects can come from audio files, pre-recorded tapes or CDs; and they are use to either

indicate location or action. When sound effect is applied to production appropriately it can add

meaning to the message on the one hand but if it is wrongly applied it may make the message

appear amateurish. According to Hausman et al (2010), there are two good reasons for using sound

effects which they called “do use of sound effects”.

Do use of sound effects

To save time and words

To inject drama into the programme

Do not use sound effect

Do not use sound effect just because they are there: According to them, sound effects are

excellent production tool, but if they’re used just for the sake of using them, they are

inappropriate and can detract from the message.

Voice quality

Most scriptwriters often want to have a say in who delivers the script they have written. Their

reason, though may sound ridiculous, is based on the quality and the inflections the reader can

bring into the script to drive the message home. A well-written script with a powerful message may

lose its power if the presenter failed to inject the right voice quality. Voice quality, according to

Hausman et al (2010), is the overall image that an announcer’s voice projects. In their opinion, the

voice of a reader should not have defects of any sort. They write further on possible factors that

may cause distractions in the voice of a reader:

One of the most common distractions is improper breathing by the announcer. Over-breathy

voices, except when they are a well-known novelty, sound amateurish. Often in experienced

announcers can be heard gasping for air between phrases. Such gasping sounds might not be

apparent in everyday speech, but a mic can be merciless

The way out of the above problem, is to maintain generous breath support instead of trying to talk

until all your breath is expanded. By planning where to take breaths you can hit the right

inflections

3.4 Useful tips for writing for Radio

The good thing about radio and television is that they carry programmes with powerful messages

that are capable of changing lives positively. So when you are writing for these media keep the

following in mind:

Decide what the programme is for: knowing what the programme sets out to achieve will

you as a scriptwriter to come up with a script that will do just that. Pennington (2000)

agrees that asking yourself what the programme is for may seem an odd, even a ridiculous

but according him, this seemingly obvious question is useful – because it forces you to

focus – and stay focused – on exactly what you’re trying to do.

Providing answer to this question will help you to re-focus, and make decisions about what

is right for the programme you want to make. The programme can be to inform, educate,

entertain or campaign or do all.

Who is the target audience: knowing who the message is targeted at. The demographics of

the target audience help you design appropriate message and language to use.

Decide on the format or approach you want to use

Research: Research is the foundation of any story, so carry out comprehensive research on

whatever topic or issue you are working on.

Be creative: being creative means selecting specific details that will help create vivid

pictures and allow the listener to imagine what is being described.

3.5 CONCLUSION

Words scripted down in the broadcast script are just one of the various elements that make a

radio/TV production meaningful and successful. Although important must be carefully selected to

add meaning to the overall image the production is trying to create. Also important to the success

of the production, is the ability of the presenter to develop distinct style that will give him an edge

over others anchoring similar programmes on other station; and his ability to control his pace and

timing.

3.6 SUMMARY

So far you have learnt from this unit:

Meaning and uses of sound effects

Different sound element in broadcast production

That individual style is a product of many factors

That pacing and timing contribute to the success of broadcast

copy

ASSIGNMENTS

1. What are sound effects and how do they influence a successful production

2. How is pace different from timing?

3. Discuss three strategies available to a presenter if he/she must deliver copy

effectively.

4.0 OBJECTIVES

On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Understand the concept of programme format and why it is necessary in broadcast media;

Understand the concept of station philosophy;

How audience affect station format; and

The need to promote the station

3.1 Station format, philosophy and its implication

A station programme or station philosophy refers a certain kind of approach to fulfilling its role in

the society or toward its audience.

A stations programme reflects the philosophy of the station ie the programme is designed to

achieve the goals of the station.

Every station must have a programming structure. The most meaningful way we can organize radio

stations is according to their format, a type of consistent programming designed to appeal to a

certain segment of the audience.

4.2 How audiences affect a program format

Before a station determines the type of programmes it airs, a lot has to be put into consideration.

They must have researched into the market they are operating, the people and their needs. Their

efforts culminate into designing programmes that will appeal to the audience and advertisers.

A well arranged programme will attract a number of listeners to the station.

In other understanding a format is the arrangement of programme elements into sequence that will

attract and hold the audience segment a station is seeking.

On the other hand radio programming format:

Programming is the most important aspect of radio station operation. The message that is

communicated is, after all, the central reason for all of the technological talents and energies that

go into sound transmission.

In other words, programme does not match the needs and aspirations of the audience, getting

money to stay in business may be difficult. Generally speaking, the research that a station conducts

on its audience will reveal the categories of people who make up the audience, their profession,

age, gender, location and economic status. Station programme tend to tilt towards what the

research outcome is. If the audience has more teenager and young adult, the type of programme a

station will transmit will appeal more to this category of audience that it will to the older audience.

4.3 Programme format

Generally speaking, there are two main formats – music and talk. Every type of programme falls

under these two broad categories. The two categories are discussed below:

Music format

There are many variations of music formats; each variation is built around the specific genre of

music.

Country-western format: This programme format mostly attracts older generation and those who

love country music. Music in this format reveals emphasis on steel guitar and vocals in a

southwestern accent.

Folk: This is a broad category that can include contemporary music as well as traditional. This

could include highlife music that is found in most African society

Adult contemporary (AC): This consists of a blend of suitable oldies and current soft-rock hits.

Classical: This refers to serious music that has survived for several generations. It is the type of

music that is played by symphony orchestras in concerts hall.

Jazz: This type of music is highly rhythmical and often free-form music.

Gospel/Religious music: This type of music is often inspirational and used to spread the gospel.

Reggae music is associated with Jamaicans and is played among different African countries.

Top 40: On some radio stations it could be Top 10, Top 100 and are labeled so because they are

current hit records. It consists of selections that are most popular in terms of requests and record

sales.

Talk Format

Radio stations rely on speech and music to fill the air time.

Talk programmes are basic form of broadcasting and existed before radio began, so it is no surprise

that the other broadcast programmes is an off-shoot of talk.

The different programmes that emanate from talk is listed below, however these programmes will

be discussed extensively in the subsequent pages.

Talk shows, Drama, Documentary, News, News magazine, Interview and Discussion

5.0 CONCLUSION

Programming is the most important function of a radio stations the reason d’être of their

operations, but the truth is if the programme does not see the broadcast audience appeal to the

audience, the station would be out of business.

Although there are various ways a station can source for programme, it is often advisable for each

station to develop its own programme that will reflect its philosophy and at the same time attract

and hold the audience.

This is the ingredient that every station needs to get commercials or sponsors for their programmes.

5.1 Exercise

2. If you are the manger of UMCAT fm 90.7 a radio station that has the program format of less

talk more music and caters strictly for the Ugandan audience, make a suggestion of the type of

music that your station will play to satisfy your listening audience.

3. What do you understand by a station philosophy or program format?

RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

Now let us learn about the different stages of radio programme production.

Whatever we do, there has to be a clear plan. In the case of radio production also, there is a well

accepted process of production which is carried out in three stages.

Let us list them out.

a) Pre-production

b) Production and

c) Post-production

a) Pre-production

As the title suggests, this is the first stage before the actual production

i) An idea is born: This phase includes how a programme is born as an Idea and its

conceptualization. The topic or subject matter is decided.

ii) Plan of action: After the topic is decided, a plan of action is worked out. Here the format of the

progamme is determined i.e whether the programme is a talk, discussion, interview, drama,

documentary etc. Once that is clear, the right person for writing the script and the performers are

decided. The plan of action would also determine the equipment for outside recordings that are

required. The time and venue of the recording are also worked out.

iii) The script is examined to make it suitable for broadcast. It is examined according to the

principles of writing for radio or in other words ‘for the ear’. We will discuss this is detail in the

next section.

iv) Paper work: If people who are not working in the radio station are involved for writing or

providing voice for the programmes, they have to be invited with an agreement to accept the job or

assignment. This type of agreement is referred to as a contract. Similarly, permission is often

required to interview certain people if the programme is based on such interviews. Therefore, as

you can see, there is a lot of paper work at the pre-production stage.

v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.

b) Production: This is the actual process of recording and editing a radio programme. Proper

studios, microphones and computers are required to record and edit the programme.

c) Post production: Writing to inform people involved in the production is a major activity during

this phase. The progamme has to be given publicity both on radio and in other media. This is done

to ensure that people know about the programmes and also listen to them. The announcements for

the presentation of the programme are also written and provided for the actual broadcast of the

programme.

RADIO PROGRAMMING CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Programming

3.2 Construction Programme Format

3.3 Sources of Programme

3.4 Programme Scheduling Strategies

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutored-Marked Assignment

7.0 References

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcast programming or scheduling is the practice of arranging television or radio programmes in a daily, weekly, or season-long schedule.

Programme scheduling strategies are employed to give programs the best possible chance of attracting and retaining an audience. They are also used to deliver programs to audiences when they are most likely to want to listen to them and deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertising most likely to be effective. Having said that therefore, it is expedient to expose you to strategies broadcast stations use to arrange their programmes to hold loyal audience and to possibly get other potential audience in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

o Identify the different types of programme scheduling strategies.

o Distinguish between programme and programming

o Describe how programme formats are constructed

o Discuss the various programme sources

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Programming

A radio programme is what a station has to offer to its listeners and advertisers. The type of programme a station has determines the type of people who listens to it and the amount of adverts it commands.

A radio program is a segment of content intended for broadcast on radio. It may be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series.

Broadcast stations must through their programmes:

• convince listeners that they are on their side, and interested in what concerns them;

• encourage them to feel part of the programme;

• encourage them to contribute their views and concerns to you; and

• Not to patronize them.

On the basis of this therefore, the task of every programmer/producer/director is to:

Choose programs that meet the needs and wants of an audience.

Negotiate the development or “rights” to a program.

Organize those programs into a cohesive schedule that flows from one program to the next.

Market the programs to the appropriate audience.

Convince advertisers the programs will reach their consumers.

In view of the above, every station attempts to arrange their programmes in such a way that will suit the audience they cater for.

Broadcast Programming or scheduling is the defined as the practice of arranging television or radio programmes on a daily, weekly, or season-long schedule. The practice is used to schedule programmes to build an audience for a new show, retain audience, or compete with other stations’ programmes.

Station schedule programme in a particular time for the following reasons:

To maximize the size of an audience targeted by advertisers.

To attract audience for the programme;

To give the programmes the best chance to survive or be accepted by its target audience;

To match programmes with target audience available at the time; and

Deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertisements most likely to be effective.

3.2 Constructing programme formats

Broadcast stations (radio) have different formats. For commercial broadcast stations, their target is to get advertisers to bring their products and services to their station for airing and for sponsorship of some of the stations` programmes. The concerns of this type of station are to attract advertisers’ money so as to keep the station going while at the same time keeping the interest of their listeners high. Without the money from advertisers, the station may find itself at the brink of collapse.

Another station format is non-commercial broadcasting in which the station rely more on subvention and public goodwill. Unfortunately, there is no private broadcast station operating a non-commercial programme format and the few government stations transmitting public affairs programmes still commercialize some of their other programmes. Ubc radio, radio star, magic fm, ubc blue among others

Regardless of the kind of format a station adopts, it must also have a programming structure or programme format that suits the station as well as the audience of the station. The programme format a station adopts gives the station its identity as separate from other stations in the same market.

Reasons why station must have a well-defined programming structure

“Programming is the most important aspect of radio operation.

The message that is communicated is the central reason for all of the technological talents and energies that go into sound [audio] transmission.”

The message could be in form of speech or music. In this instance, some stations could adopt a music format with a mixture of talk which in most cases forms part of their evening programme. Others could adopt sports or news. It is however important to note that the language of transmission also form part of the station`s format.

3.3 Sources of radio programmes

A radio station sources its programmes two ways: internally and externally.

Internal programmes are those programmes that are developed and produced by staffs of the station or a programme a station developed in collaboration with another agency.

Programmes sourced internally include among others:

Networks may have lost its importance in some countries; they are still very relevant in Uganda. Such Agencies include Uganda Radio Network. One such program is the national perspective, a well researched documentary that is sent every week on the network with subscribing stations free to download and play it to their audiences.

Network programming implies that the there are local stations that depend for some part of their daily transmission even if they still have their own programmes that they transmit to their audience. The relevance of network programmes are often in the areas of news, public affairs programme, documentaries and even entertainment programmes like drama and talk shows.

In another way, a programme could be syndicated to stations who have agreed on the terms with the network to air the programmes.

When a station becomes affiliated with a network, it agrees to make a certain amount of its air time available for the broadcasting of network programmes. Stations can also develop a variety of programme from talk to drama to fill the air time. A station could also develop musical programmes that suits the audience that tune to the station.

Programmes sourced externally include among others:

Independent producers: there are independent producers who come up with programmes like drama, soap opera, discussion and talk shows as a means of livelihood. These producers may syndicate their programmes to interested stations. They buy air time from stations but source funds from sponsor of the programme.

These many times present written proposals for their programs to aired onto radio

The draft of aproogram proposal could take the following fomart

HOW TO WRITE A PROGRAMME PROPOSAL

Personal Information

None Address Phone Email Address

Program Information

Program Host(s) Program Producer(s)

Note: The producer organizes the show’s content, arranges guests and any special equipment needed.

Length of proposed program Duration of series (in case needed) Program description (specify the design of your program, how you plan to divide the time) What experience and skills do you bring to the radio station?

The general genre of your program

For example; will it be a sport or music program, or a talk show?

Target audience of program

Please be as specific as possible with regards to the targeted program audience. Think about specific subjects like age, level of education, field of interest and/or the ethnic background of your audience. Are you mainly targeting men or women? Also: what is the need of a program for this specific audience?

Production Information

Where will this program be produced – at the Station or elsewhere? What, if any, costs are associated with the production? What, if any, resources will you request from the radio station?

Promotion and Evaluation

What are the objectives of your program? How will you determine whether you achieved your objectives? Describe the contribution this program will make to the community? How do you plan to promote your program?

Note: Don’t forget to justify every point

Sign and Date.

Religious programmes: more stations are accepting religious programmes from sermons, live crusades and magazine programmes.

Reality shows: the trend world over is reality TV, and UGANDA is not left out. Today programmes Project Fame among others command good number of audience across the nation.

Live shows/coverage: stations like CBS (ENKUKA), SIMBA (EKIGUNDA), BUKEDDE (EMBUTU YE MBUTIKIZI), BEAT FM (LUWOMBO) KABOOZI FM organize different festival like, Christmas carnival; musical shows et cetera to fill the air and also source for funds. Although these programmes are seasonal, they are planned (depending on when the event occur) to fall into the station’s quarterly scheduling of programmes.

3.4 Programme scheduling strategies

Flow/Stacking: is a technique used to develop audience flow by grouping together programmes with similar appeals to “sweep” the listeners along from one programme to the next. This strategy revolves round audience of broadcast programmes; the idea is for audience of a particular programme to flow from one programme to another. For audience to flow into another programme, the station must be ready to schedule its programmes with similar appeal together.

Block programming: station schedules programmes back-to back for a period of time to retain viewership. Scheduling p rog rammes i n blocks to make WONDERFUL sense since so much of a programme rating success depend on habitual listership. Breaking viewers` habit can weaken the power of that juggernaut. Thus, a network will gain the rights to air a chartbuster drama o r popular rock concert and place it opposite a highly successful programme.

Day parting: most talk shows are scheduled for day time this is because they are geared towards a particular demographic group. Most day time talk shows target women, youth and singles, the reason for this is that it is the period of time they are available. Thus, day parting involves dividing the day into several parts, and different radio/television programmes appropriate for each day part are aired.

Stripping: this strategy involves running the same show in the same slot every day of the week so as to retain listership. Forexampl radio stations like radio one fm 90, 107.5innman fm, 93.3 kfm Uganda have reserved 7-8 pm Monday through Friday in which for about 60 minutes air political talk show program. For that slot, these radio station are assured that their listeners are there and waiting Monday to Friday. Again, this works in favour of both the station and advertisers. The station can use this to attract sponsorship, and in any case advertisers are ready to air their messages on a station they know people are viewing.

Hot switching: in hot switching the station eliminates any sort of commercial break. When one programme ends and another begins, this immediately hooks the audience into listening to the next programme without a chance to change the channel between programmes.

Tent pole programming: This strategy is similar to hammock programming in that a programme is sandwich in between two. However in the case of tent pole programming, a very strong programme with high followership is sandwich between two weak programmes at each end. The essence of this strategy is to make people listen to the first weak programme while they await the popular programme, and of cause most people will stay with the first weak one so as not to miss the interesting programme. Also, programmers hope that by the time the

interesting programme ends, some may stay around to watch the second weak programme. In other words, programmers bank on the strength of the central programme to draw viewers to the two other weak

4.0 CONCLUSION

As interesting as some programmes are, they may not have the desired effect, if radio programme directors did not place in the time slot when the target audience will be available to listen. To ensure that the target audience is waiting to watch a programme, the station must know the type of audience the programme is meant for; the time suitable for the programme; and the programme the competition is offering at the same time.

5.0 In this unit you have learnt:

The concept of programming;

How to programme a station;

The various strategies a station can use to place its programmes

How stations source programmes; and

How programmes are constructed.

6.0 TUTORED-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between programme and programming

2. What are the factors every programmer must take cognizance off when planning station programme scheduling?

3. What is the essence of scheduling programmes

THE INTERVIEW PROGRAMME Definition

The interview is a focused exchange of questions and answers with the objective of

acquiring information.

It aims to get comprehensive and clear information from the interview partner within the

shortest possible time.

An interview can be conducted with the intention of broadcasting the complete exchange of

questions and answers.

An interview can also be conducted in order to research information or to record individual

statements for news items or reports.

One thing holds true for any interview: the interviewee is the main person. His or her

answers are the most important thing in the interview.

Radio journalists only ask questions on behalf of the listeners – the questions they would

ask the interview partner if they had a chance to talk to him or her.

The questions should be short and precise and directly targeted to reach our information

goal. We have to stay unbiased and should avoid getting emotional. Our personal opinions

must not shine through at any time during the interview.

Length: between 3 and hours minutes

Strengths of an interview program

Authentic, credible First-hand information, opinions and emotions containing spontaneous,

unplanned elements that is surprising and attractive for the listener.

Makes the programme lively

Cheap and quick to produce

Weaknesses of an interview program

Risk of confusing the listener if you do not strictly adhere to a logical structure

Only presents one person’s opinion

It can be difficult for the journalist to stay in control of the interview – especially when

dealing with very experienced interview partners

Experts have a tendency to use jargon; here, the journalist has to intervene and ask the

expert to repeat the information using simpler words

Procedures for Conducting Interviews

Decide on the topic of the interview Focus on just one topic.

Don’t ask questions about side aspects – otherwise your interviewee will get carried away and the

listeners will be confused. Next, you should define your interview goal. Ask yourself what the

listeners want to know about this topic and what information is relevant for them. Do your research

properly. Nothing is more embarrassing than if an interviewee corrects mistakes in your questions

during an interview or if your interview partner gets away with making false statements because

you did not know enough about the topic and did not realize how you were being manipulated or

tricked. And finally: Define a lead question for

Decide on who to invite as the guest:

There are many things you need to consider when deciding whom to interview: their expertise,

their ability to explain things in a straightforward way, their position and views with regard to the

topic of the interview.

In addition, you need to know whether your interviewee will be available for the interview and

willing to talk on the radio. It is also good to know beforehand if your interview partner is someone

who is quiet and shy or someone who will talk a lot during the interview.

Write a letter of request to the guest

Before you start conducting an interview, you should always brief your interviewee about some

things:

What is the topic and the focus of the interview?

How long will the interview take?

Will the interview be recorded or broadcast live?

When will the interview be broadcast?

Will it be broadcast as a whole or is it just a research or statement interview?

When and where will the interview be conducted?

Will it be a one-on-one interview, or will other interviewees or additional journalists be

present?

An example of invitation card for interview guest

To The President General

Uganda People’s Congress

Dear sir/madam

RE: INVITATION FOR INTERVIEW PROGRAM

90.7 Umcat FM, an English broadcasting radio station located on Block 10, Plot 421, Grace Road

Adjacent to Mengo S.S.S Near UMEME offices Nakulabye, takes pleasure to invite you to our

Nature Of Program/ (recorded or live) interview program Called Name Of The Program (eg. talk

to my country) Duration/Running Time running 7-8pm on the 3rd of September 2015, Topic Of

And Focus Of Program eg.discussing the success of 2016 general election without electoral

reforms

I will be grateful for your positive response.

Your’s faithfully eg. (Athiono veronica)

Your contact eg (you phone number or email address)

Title eg. (Program Host).

Prepare a script and make it available to the presenter and technical Director for the

programme

PROGRAM SCRIPT

STATION FREQUENCY AND NAME SAY 90.7 FM UMCAT FM

PROGRAM NAME:……………………………………….

DATE ………………………… DURATION 1HOUR (7-8PM)

TOPIC OF DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………..

PRESENTER ……………………………………………………………………………..

GUEST……………………………………………………………………………………..

Segment Content Timing

Intro Welcome the listener, reveal the

program name, the presenter’s

name , the guest’s name the topic

of the day

7:00-7:10pm

Break Adverts, program jingle 7:10-7:13pm

Introduction Topic

Back ground

Intro of guest

Interview Question and answer session

starting with the lead question

(Open questions) all question may

be listed for your guidance

7:13-7:48pm

Call in Invite phone calls from the listener

(as may deem necessary )

7:48- 7:50pm

Reaction Reaction to calls from listeners 7:50- 7:55pm

Closing remarks Last words from the guest, and your

closing remarks as well

7:55-8:00pm

Prepared by ………………….Approved by………………….

Types of interview questions

Closed questions

Yes/no question

This form of question only allows a ‘yes’, ‘no’ or ‘I don’t know’ answer. In most cases, you will

have to ask a follow-up question to find out more. This can be a waste of time. Yes/no questions

are good to pinpoint an interviewee on a certain topic, but they will not get the interviewee talking.

Information question

This form of a closed question is used if you want to get short and precise information.

It is also suitable as a follow-up question or in order to specify an issue.

Open questions

The answers to open questions are usually longer. You are giving the interviewee a chance to go

into more detail, to explain the background, reasons, developments or personal opinions

Special forms of question

Statement plus question:

The interviewer states a fact and then adds a question.

You should only choose this form of question if you are absolutely sure that the fact you are stating

is correct. If your statement is false or needs explanation, the interviewee will start a discussion

about your incorrect statement instead of answering your question. You run the risk of the

interview developing into an argument, something that you should avoid at all costs.

Suggestive question:

With a suggestive question, you are implying something in the hope that your interviewee will

agree or disagree in a very lively way. This form of question can force the interviewee to take a

stance and make the interview more dynamic.

But be careful: a suggestive question can sometimes be seen as a provocation by the interviewee.

This could spoil the atmosphere of your interview. A disturbance on the relationship level of the

interview will also affect the information level.

If things turn sour, your interviewee might even refuse to answer or ask a counter- question. In the

end, your listeners will perceive your questions as unfair or even aggressive.

Interpreting question

If the interviewee is not clear in his or her answers or tries to get away without making a clear

statement, you can offer a possible interpretation in a follow-up question. This would force the

interviewee to take a stance and make the original answer understandable for the listener.

Indirect question

In an indirect question, you confront your interviewee with a statement made by a third party.

Usually, this statement will be in opposition to what the interviewee thinks or says. Since you can

hide behind the critical remarks that someone else made, this method allows you to be somewhat

confrontational without hurting the interview atmosphere.

Sequence of questions

The interview as a whole should answer a lead question. Getting an answer to this lead question is

the information goal of your interview. It is usually best to start an interview with a general

question. This will give the interviewee a chance to talk freely and to get used to the interview

situation.

Your first question should be interesting and new for your interviewee and for your listeners. If

your first question is one that your interview partner has already answered frequently in other

interviews, he or she will not develop much interest in your interview, will be bored and provide

answers that sound like they’ve been rehearsed. However, if you ask your interview partner an

unusual question as an opener, he or she will be drawn into the interview – and so will your

listeners.

It is essential to get the listeners’ attention from the start of an interview and to make them feel

that it’s worth their time to keep on listening. Radio listeners decide within the first 30 seconds of

an interview whether they will keep listening or whether they will mentally switch off. So the first

question of your interview will already determine whether you will have an interested and

attentive audience or not.

One traditional form for an interview is the so-called funnel-structure. You start off with

rather general questions. During the course of the interview, you get more and more specific, until

you end with a yes/no question that pinpoints your interviewee. This way, your interview ends on a

clear statement from the interviewee.

And this will leave your listeners with the impression that the interview was worth their while

because it left them with clear and concise information

Do not stick to a sequence of questions that you may have prepared. Instead, try to derive your

questions out of the answers you get. This way, the flow of the interview sounds natural and

logical. It is vital that you listen to what your interviewee says. If you give interview partners the

feeling that you are personally interested in their answers, they will give much livelier answers than

if they feel that you are just ticking off a list of questions.

Badly worded questions

Either/or question

If you ask an either/or question, you narrow your interviewee down to only two alternatives.

But instead of the either-or alternative, your interviewee would possibly have mentioned a third

option that you did not think of. Either/or questions will usually require follow-up questions. This

wastes time and can be confusing to the listeners.

Multiple questions

Multiple questions create confusion and lead to you losing control of the interview.

Your interview partner can decide which part of the question he or she wishes to answer. It’s better

to always ask one question at a time.

TYPES/CATEGORIES OF INTERVIEW

Here are five categories of interview, but it should be remembered that an interview could be

made up of a combination of all or some of them.

I. Collecting information: The main purpose of this type of interview is to obtain facts or

elucidation about a subject and the interview can take place off- or on air. It will include

interviews with experts, spokespersons or eyewitnesses. You need to make sure you are

talking to the most knowledgeable person available, and to spend a fair amount of time

going over the questions you are likely to ask, ensuring that the topic is covered in a clear

and logical sequence.

II. Expressing opinion or offering explanation: Once facts are made available, you need

someone to interpret and comment on them for you and the listener. So once again you will

be contacting your friendly expert on the subject, or the spokesperson from an organization

for reaction. You may also want a snapshot of opinion from the general public; this is

usually in the form of a vox-pop or phone in.

III. Accountability: The aim of this interview is to ask someone responsible for decision

making and instigating a plan to explain and justify their reasons for embarking on a course

of action. As an interviewer you may need to challenge these actions, or invite comments

from another interviewee who opposes or disagrees with the actions.

IV. Emotional or sensitive: For many journalists this type of interview is the most problematic.

The knee-jerk cliché question they usually ask is ‘How do you feel?’ This is understandable

because they are trying to explore the interviewee’s state of mind – they may be a victim or

a relative of a victim involved in a tragedy or a crime. On a lighter note, it may be there turn

of a round-the-world yachtsperson. Whatever the subject, interviews that will produce an

emotional response need sensitive and non-intrusive questioning. Extra care should be

taken in making the initial approach for an interview. It is advisable not to attempt to

conduct an interview until permission has been obtained from the potential interviewee; if

the person appears to be in a state of shock. The interview should describe or explain what

happened, or contain information that would help others to avoid similar incidents in the

future.

V. Research interview

If you want to research or double-check information, you conduct a research interview. This kind

of interview is usually not broadcast. Your only aim is to get additional information that you will

use for writing a report, a commentary or a news item.

Take note. Technical stumbling blocks

Interesting interview partners and clever questions are worthless if technical problems ruin your

interview. Always make sure that your technical equipment is working before you start recording

an interview. Test your recording device, your microphone and the levels before the interview.

Always take a foam wind screen for your microphone with you to avoid wind noise. Check

whether your batteries are charged and bring spare batteries. After the interview, check whether the

recording is all right. Do this while your interviewee is still around. If you discover that technical

problems have spoiled your recording, you may be able to convince your interview partner to

repeat the interview

What to do if the interviewee’s answers are too long?

Non-verbal interruption: Open your mouth and take a breath as if you wanted to start

speaking. This will show your interview partner that you want to ask your next question.

You could also indicate with your hand that you would like to say something.

Direct interruption: If the interviewee takes a breath, interrupt with ‘but’ and add a short,

quick question like ‘why?’ or ‘can you give an example?’

You can also interrupt by calling interviewees by their name: ‘Mr./Mrs. I, …’. For most

people, hearing their own name is a key stimulus. It will startle them and make them come

to a halt.

A ROUND-TABLE DISCUSSIONDefinitionA round-table discussion is a debate about a controversial topic between two or more people with contrasting views. A neutral host chooses the participants and then leads a structured, yet lively debate. At the end of the discussion, the host briefly summarizes the different points of view and the key arguments that were brought forth. A round-table discussion can be broadcast live or it can be prerecorded, with or without an audience and with or without audience participation.

Strengths of the format

There are numerous elements that make a round-table discussion an attractive journalistic format for radio listeners.

They will hear an exchange of different opinions on a controversial topic.

Complicated contexts will become transparent through the direct exchange of views and arguments.

The arguments and counter-arguments will provide the listeners with new insights.

The discussion may help them find new arguments that support their own point of view or which are an inspiration to think differently about the topic.

Round-table discussions are usually very lively components of your programme because of the different voices and personalities of the participants.

Round-table discussions can be surprising, revealing, entertaining or enlightening. And this is what makes them interesting for the listeners.

How is it done?

Choosing the topicThe topics of round-table discussions can be from The world of politics, business, culture, Social issues, religion, Ecology, Sports, Almost any topic is conceivable – As long as it is interesting and relevant for as many listeners as possible. Most importantly, however, the topic should be controversial. If the participants do not hold diverse or even opposing views on a topic, the result will be mutual agreement, but not a fruitful debate.

Selecting the participants

The most important factor for the success of a round-table discussion is that you find good participants. It is essential that your participants be well informed about the topic of the discussion.

They have to have opposing opinions and must be able to explain their points of view. The more the participants enjoy debating, the livelier your round-table discussion will be.

The participants can be decision-makers (politicians, business people), experts(Scientists) or people affected by the issue.

Briefing the participants

As the host, you should brief your participants about some things before the discussion starts or goes on the air. The main purpose of this briefing is to agree on a set of rules and a structure for the round-table discussion.

In the briefing you should introduce your guests to each other to create a good atmosphere for the round table.

You should also tell the participants exactly what the discussion will be about. Explain what aspects of the topic you want the debate to focus on.

And tell your guests how long the discussion will be.

All this will help prevent them from digressing later on.

Please note: The briefing should not turn into a meaningful discussion before you actually go on the air. If the participants want to begin debating before you start recording or broadcasting, you should politely stop them. An off-air debate about your topic at this point would certainly deprive the round-table discussion of its spontaneity.

During the programme, the participants and the host usually sit in a circle around a studio desk. Everybody should see everybody else and be able to make eye contact. This applies especially to the host who has special responsibilities in a round-table discussion.

Tips for the host Do not allow any of the participants to take control of the discussion. You are the host

You are the one who should be in control. Point out politely but persistently that every guest will get an equal chance to have their say.

Dig deeper, if one of your guests does not make his or her viewpoint clear or tries to be evasive.

If one of your guests uses technical terms or jargon that some listeners might not understand, ask that guest to explain it again using simpler words.

Make sure that all aspects of the discussion topic which you consider relevant for your listeners are addressed.

Briefly summarize the state of the discussion a couple of times during the debate. This will work well as a structural element whenever you have finished discussing one aspect and

would like to move on to another. It is also a service to your listeners: not every one of them has been following the discussion from the beginning. Through brief summaries, you can bring all listeners up to date and you can remind them, which participant represents what viewpoint.

Keep an eye on the time. Breaking off the discussion because you have run out of time is both embarrassing and unprofessional. If you do not have a clock in the studio or at the venue of the discussion, place your watch in front of you and check the time out of the corner of your eye every now and then.

At the end of the debate, give your listeners a final brief summary of your guests’ position on the topic and possibly the main arguments they presented during the discussion. It is vital to stay neutral and objective in your summary.

Your own opinion and the conclusions you personally draw from the discussion are of no interest to your listeners.

The role of the hostYou will have to prepare extremely well if you want to host a round-table discussion, because you will need very good knowledge of the subject of the discussion.

In addition, you have to know the points of view and the lines of argumentation of all your guests. And you should know in advance, which of them tend to talk a lot and which are a little shy.

As the host, you should be self-confident and tolerant.

Your most important task is to steer the discussion. Make sure that your listeners get a clear idea of all your guests’ views and arguments. It goes without saying that you should remain impartial and unbiased. In a round table, you as the host of the debate should never present your own opinion or comment on what your guests are saying.

At the beginning of every round-table discussion, you must introduce all the participants: their title, first name, last name and function. If necessary, briefly say what position this guest has with regard to your topic or explain the reasons for inviting this guest.

Give each participant a chance to say a few words during the introductory round, so that the listeners do not only learn their names, but also get to know their voices. Keep addressing your guests by name throughout the programme to ensure that the listeners always know who is speaking. At the beginning of the discussion, you should give your listeners a short introduction into the topic of the discussion. If necessary you could also add some background information.Then, open the discussion with an interesting question to one of the participants.

DOCUMENTARIES1.0 INTRODUCTION

One important programme that radio invests money and time is documentary. The aspect of this

unit will take you through the meaning of documentary, how they are produced on radio and the

planning that goes into it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

Write a documentary with little supervision;

Produce a documentary with little supervision;

Understand the importance of actualities to radio documentaries.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.2 Documentary on radio

A radio documentary or feature is a purely acoustic performance devoted to covering a particular

topic in some depth, usually with a mixture of commentary and sound pictures. It is broadcast on

radio or published on audio media, such as tape or CD.

Ideally, a documentary possesses a depth of research or proximity to its subject that

distinguishes it from a long feature or enterprise story.

Narrative documentaries are far more common in public radio than investigative projects,

because investigative reporting devours time and money.

Early radio documentaries strongly reflected the techniques of the talk, the outside

broadcast and drama. But the documentaries produced today are far better and more

technical than what it was in the beginning.

Today, documentaries can include recorded interviews, debates, and statistics to be shared

with listeners. Radio documentaries rely on audio techniques to engage the audience,

allowing listeners to visualize what is being described.

Tone of voice, use of background music, and choice of sound effects are all very important

in developing a quality radio documentary.

Steps in Creating a Radio Documentary

The procedure for developing a documentary to be broadcast through a radio station can vary

depending on the station, but the points stated below are common to most documentaries:

Develop an Idea/Research: the first step is to come up with a unique and flexible idea after

which you must create a basic outline. The topics covered must be appropriate for the

desired audience and well researched

Decide on equipment and set team roles: You' will need to make a list of materials and

equipment necessary for recording. Select the right microphone and sound effects that are

relevant to the message. Also select the team you want to work with.

Decide who to approach with your concept: Executive producers are the people in charge

of the programming for radio stations. Radio stations are usually designed to appeal to a

specific audience, so it is important to do some research and find the right station for your

show.

Write a proposal: You will need to write a detailed proposal that discusses the

documentary’s subject matter, its length, the people who will be involved, and the overall

purpose of the project. This proposal will give the producer all the necessary information he

or she will need in order to accept the show. It will also put your team on an organized path

to make the documentary.

Write a script: the storyline of your documentary is important, but don’t forget to use

music, background noises, and other types of audio techniques to illustrate the stories and

information that you share.

Record the show: once the script is written and reader is ready it is time to record.

Recording may take several hours but the most important thing is to get it right so be patient

Edit the show: edit the tape to meet the time, sound effects, mood music etc.

WRITING AND PRODUCING RADIO DRAMA.

1.0 Introduction

2.0 objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Radio Drama

3.2 The Structure of Drama

3.3 The Technical Consideration for Radio Drama

3.4 Audio Perspective in Radio Drama

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One way through which radio performs is entertainment and educational functions is through

drama. Radio drama is described as a dramatized, purely acoustic performance, broadcast on

radio.

Because radio is an audio-only medium, radio drama has no visual component, rather it

depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to tell its story so as to help the listener relate

with the characters and story.

Radio drama is “auditory in the physical dimension but equally powerful as a visual force in

the psychological dimension”.

As intending writers and perhaps producers, you should understand the ground rules of

writing drama for radio so as to make it a standard programme instead of a minor

segment on a programme as it is on most radio programmes in Uganda.

This unit therefore will advance your knowledge about writing drama for radio.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

On successful completion of this unit, you should be able

to:

Understand the meaning of drama

Understand the distinct structure of radio drama

Understand the concept of audio perspective and balance

To appreciate the strengths and limitations of radio as a communication medium.

Identify a radio drama script.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Radio Drama

Drama is an ancient Greek word meaning ‘act’ or ‘deed’ it is a composition that tells

a story through action and dialogue or an imitation of an action of a person or persons

in action with the ultimate objective to edify or entertain.

On the other hand radio drama can be described as a specific mode of fiction represented

in performance. It is right to say then that drama is a form of communication that

connects people, groups or societies for better. All radio drama therefore, whether it is a

part of a programme or it is a programme on its own is a form of communication.

Radio Drama takes us into the lives and thoughts of people and exposes their characters

and how these changes as a result of the conflicts, which face them and how these are

resolved.

The essence of this is to help us take informed decisions when faced with similar

situations.

A radio drama creates image in the mind that can give more information to the listener

than even the power of television or films. This is because it is the listener who is

creating the image from what the story described. This image stays with him even long

after the play had ended. This helps the listener in four ways:

The use of imagination;

powers of creative self expression;

decision making and problem solving skills; and

An understanding of self and the world.

Essentially, radio drama can be presented in three methods,

namely

As self contained programme: This is a way of presenting a full drama in one programme

without breaking it into parts. Often radio stations reserve a slot in their weekly

programme for this, allowing the producer to present different drama o n

each transmission time.

Serial: one in which the action progresses from one episode to another.

As a series drama: the idea behind this is for the principal character to re-appear in new

situations, in each new drama in the series

Radio drama is today phasing out with most radio station in Uganda only using drama as a

segment. The reason is not far fetch. With television presenting both audio and visual images in

drama, most people are turning to television to be entertained and informed.

1. Create a visual picture: Radio is a medium of imagination which implies that writing

for radio requires you to paint a picture in the audience's mind. Creating an image

means using descriptive words to build up images that enable the listening audience to

identify with the characters, the world the characters live in and the atmosphere for each

scene.

2. Use the narrator device: although it is not always the case, a narrator in radio drama

can lay out the scene, explain action sequences and wrap up the scene. The role of

the narrator is also to summarize the previous episode's action

3. Create believable characters: for a radio drama to be accepted, the writer

most introduces believable characters. That is, characters the listener can relate with,

the everyday people and not a larger than life character.

4. Use precise and clear language: every word use must help the listener to see the

actions and the silent actions like the facial expression of the characters.

SELF ASSESSMENT 1

1. Monitor a radio station for seven days to find out the station presents its

drama programmes.

2. Listen to any radio dramas tha t make use of narrator device and identify the impact

the narrator brings to the drama.

3.2 The Structure of Drama

Radio drama is structured into sequences with characters imitating fiction or real life events.

Radio drama is structured to capture the audience; as such what the scripter should be

aiming at the beginning of a play is hit the ground running

The features of radio and peculiarity of the medium makes Walker advise not so simple -

perhaps for a beginner. But working on the job overtime gives dexterity. Main dimensions to

the structure of communication in radio drama:

Crooks (1999:160) identified five main dimensions to the structure of communication in radio

drama. These dimensions, according to him, represent tracks or streams of narrative directions.

These dimensions are:

1. The word through voices: dialogue and narrative.

2. Music through instruments and choral voices.

3. Sound effects: natural atmosphere and spot effects or abstract sounds synthesized or

natural sounds that have been symbolized.

4. Post-modernist use of previously recorded actuality, archive or sound history, or

previously recorded narrative and dialogue.

5. The imagination of the listener: this is the physically a silent dimension. In terms of

consciousness it is immensely powerful. This is the existence of a significant part of the play in

the imagination of the audience.

Dialogue: The voices of the characters are very important when casting, this is because a good

voice will be more captivating than a hoarse voice.

Good dialogue is not simply a matter of stringing together

different conversations- every bit of speech must help the

plot move in some direction, increasingly involving the

listener as it does

In addition to speech, the writer needs to think about

sound effects, music, and, something rarely appreciated by

the inexperienced writer, silence. Silence can convey a

variety of things: suspense, anxiety, tranquility.

Pauses also help listeners take in what they have heard

and help prepare for what happens next. Remember that

while the audience can`t see the characters, they don’t

want to be told what they are doing in clunky dialogue.

Dialogue must be crafted to create illusion of what the characters would say, in the context

of the conflict at hand.

The purpose of using dialogue in a radio play is to move the storyline forward; reveal

aspects of characters; to present exposition and particulars of past and present events; and to

set the tone of the drama.

THE SCRIPT WRITER MUST TAKE THE FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES INTO

CONSIDERATION:

o Dialogue must be a response to a situation, plot or action;

o Dialogue must be a response to each character in the scene;

o Dialogue must be comic relief;

o Dialogue must connect to the next scene;

o Avoid reflective, passive and neutral. Go for active, direct and emotional;

o Dialogue must be believable by being specific…by being specific to the

character`s background and emotional state;

o If dialogue is reacting to action or situation then it must be dramatic and

poised on polarities. The goals of the characters in each scene should be different;

o Dialogue must relate to function;

o You can mix direct with indirect between two characters because they have

different goals; and

o Humorous dialogue is not a character telling a joke but a line or lines

responding to the dramatic situation.

Plot: simply put the plot is the storyline of a play.

It is a planned series of interrelated actions and dialogue, that tells the story in the drama`,

each scene of action or dialogue must move the plot along and reinforce the message.

A radio play will be more interesting to the listeners if it has at least two story lines.

Conflict: people like conflict, and they want to see how the conflict in a play is resolved.

Conflicts in drama could be between people, people and a thing or nature and because of the

powerful emotions it conjure, it could make the listener cry, laugh, think, remorseful or

even bitter about the situation portrayed.

Suspense: suspense compels listeners to stay glued to the drama because they want to clear the

uncertainty that came with a particular scene that will be resolve in the next. A play with a lot

of good suspense will eventually turn listeners into loyal listeners of the station`s

drama programmes.

To achieve suspense in a play, plot writers must refrain from providing conflict and resolution

at the same time.

Exposition: exposition is the process of imparting information.

Exposition is about presenting details about what is happening in a drama to the

listener.

It is made up of the parts of drama that make the audiences know what has happened before,

thereby revealing their identity and relationship.

Characters: characters refer to men and women who act out the script. The characters try

to bring the script alive by revealing the story. A radio drama should not have more than

six characters; this is because of voice distinction, besides too many characters on radio that is

only an audio medium would end up confusing the listeners.

The audience may want to spend time with them and want to know what will happen to them. It

is not good to over-populate radio play with too many characters. The listener wants to be able

to identify each of the characters and this they do by the distinct voice quality of each

character. The following are the principles the director must consider when casting:

1. All the characters must be believable and recognizable, which is why the best

radio drama has fewer characters as possible;

2. A character should not be added for the fun of it if he/she has no purpose within the plot.

Every character has to be consistent with the allotted function;

3. Give each character a dominant physical or behavioural characteristic; and

4. The main character must be active and his voice must be distinctive.

Music: music performs two main functions in radio drama; it is either used to transit from one

scene to another or to convey the mood the characters are trying to portray. However,

when music is used as filter in production, it only conveys one message- that the director is

trying to kill time.

Sound Effect: this is one major element in radio drama because it is audio-only medium.

Sound effect is used to convey action. Sound effect like the horn of a car tells the listener the

actor is in his or her car.newseditor

Radio is not about sound- it`s about significant, meaningful

sound. So don’t be afraid of silence or varying the distance

between the speaker and the mike. The intimacy of a speaker with

the listener can be immensely powerful

Actions: the interaction of characters in a play gives the illusion of action. Actions are

conveyed through sounds, dialogue and sound effects. An action creates three things: illusion

of movement, illusion of place and illusion of believability. These elements will e discussed

fully later under technical considerations.

SELF ASSESSMENT 2

Listen to one radio drama each on public and private radio stations in your area and see if they

make use of suspense in their drama and identify station that employ it more effectively.

3.3 Technical Considerations of Radio Drama

Earlier, three functions of action in radio drama were identified as, giving the illusion of place,

movement and believability. These functions will now be discussed fully under technical

consideration.

Illusion of Place: by illusion of place, we mean the location of the character when the

action took place. This can be achieved through microphone placement, that is, the positioning

of the talent in relation to the microphone. if we want the talent to have audio presence or

proximity that matches their audio distance. For instance, if two talents are portrayed to

be having a conversation, with one of them cast in another room, what is needed here is for the

person on focus to speak on microphone and the other to move farther from the microphone

and speak off microphone.

Illusion of Movement: never forget that you want the imagination of the listener to come

alive so that he can visualize all actions taking place in the studio, and the only way to do this is

to act it out. For instance, if a character is supposed to leave the room, the words he has spoken

must be complemented with the sound of walking feet.

Illusion of Believability: the concern here is more of microphone perspective and balance.

When action is said to be taking place at an open market, it is the use of background sound that

is under the voice of the character that actually creates that believable element in the minds

of the listeners. You cannot say you are at a football match and there are no background sounds

of spectators or those on the field of play.

SELF ASSESSMENT

Create a five-minute drama that suggest farm setting scenario but which was produced in the

studio.

3.4 Audio perspective in radio drama

In radio drama we attempt to create the impression that actors are moving in and out of the

studio even when in real fact they did not. Creating the impression that people are moving

gives the impression of action but that is not all we want to create. We want to create the

audio presence and location of each actor in relation to the scene. Producers use microphone

to convey movement and perspective – position of the characters in relation to each other.

A prime item in perspective is how closely the speakers are heard in relation to the sound

centre. This will be due to their microphone placing (blocking), that is, their distance from the

microphone(s). If a scene involves two characters discussing in separate rooms, the two can be

placed in the same room while one speaks directly on the sensitive side on the microphone the

other can speak off mike to register distance. This suggests the location of the two characters in

relation to the scene. To register movement in a scene that involves two characters who appears

to be going out, the two can perform a bit of soft marching away from the microphone to

suggest they are walking away. Perspective is a prime item in radio drama for the reasons

below:

1. To eliminate unwanted sound;

2. To overcome poor acoustic of the studio;

3. To obtain proper ratio of direct to indirect sound

4. To ensure that sounds which logically occur in a common acoustic plane appear to

sound as though they do in fact occur in that plane;

General tips

1. Everyone loves a good story, so tell one. Try not to complicate the plots or sub

plots, characters or effects. Make it simple and interesting to the listener.

2. Vary the pace and length of your scenes otherwise it will appear bland.

3. Radio drama does not need too many characters, so limit your characters to six. There is

a risk of confusion if you have too many characters in radio play.

4. Avoid creating plays where characters tell each other information they already know.

5. Radio is not only about words. Use other elements like music, sound effects and

silence in addition to speech.

6. Know your ending and leave us satisfied - a poor ending is no reward for sticking with

a story. Finish with a strong resolution

7. Scripts should be typed.

8. Provide a synopsis of the play and full cast and brief notes on them at the top of the

script along with other information of the station.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Radio is a descriptive medium. It is a medium that is simple and inexpensive to express

creativity. However working for radio in any capacity demands a greater discipline of structure

and a more precise awareness of the nuances of language. It is a medium of speech and sound

where the writer must provide everything in dialogue. This implies that the writer must be able

to tell a good captivating story for the audience to stay tuned.. So use it to its full potential

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have been exposed to:

The structure of radio drama

The technical consideration of radio drama

Audio perspectives in radio drama

Suggestions on writing drama for radio

6.0 PRACTICLE ASSIGNMENT

1. Students should group themselves into a group of six or more and produce a five-

minute radio drama. Students should submit the script along with the CD.

2. Why is voice distinction important in radio drama?

3. Are there other programmes on radio that make use of dramatic elements? In what

way do they employ dramatic elements?

THE MUSIC PROGRAMME

Music fills by far the greater part of the broadcast day. It is the letterpress of radio between the

news bulletins and featured productions. The general tone and character of a station's music does

more to establish the image of a station than any of its other activities.

Listeners enjoy it for its rhythms, its melodies and its harmonies. Some music is predominantly

melodic-it has memorable tunes-while other music is dominated by its harmonic structure-the way

in which notes and groups of notes make pleasant sounds when heard together.

The music programme

A programme of popular music may open with a number having fast tempo but if we kept up the

same tempo throughout the programme it would begin to annoy the listener. After a fast tempo

opening, we may follow with something more melodic-a popular romantic vocalist for

example.

Then a medium-fast number building again to fast tempo and so on through the programme. The

final number is generally bright and tuneful.

This variety applies to all music programmes. Even ‘top twenty’ programmes can be varied by a

suitable placement of the various numbers.

They do not have to be played in the order in which they appear on the charts.

Presentation

Some radio stations require that the link-continuity in record programmes should be written out or

scripted in advance; others allow the announcers or disc-jockeys to ad lib. Where the announcer is

ad libbing he should have a good working arrangement with his technical operator who plays the

records -a wave of the hand or a nod of the head may be the cue for the operator to start the disc.

Link-continuity should be made interesting. It can tell us something about the artists or the

popularity of the number or even compare one rendition with another. But too much talking in a

musical programme can annoy the listener; after all he wants to hear the music not the voice.

The announcer who presents many popular disc programmes should familiarize himself with the

artists, their careers and what they are currently doing this message carried forward to listener

brightens the program, creating great presonality.

There are many musical magazines which contain this information.

The production of live music

The live music programme may be made in the studio or outside in a public hall or in a distant

village. The music producer of such programmes should know a great deal about microphones and

acoustics.

He should have a lively interest in this national music and should seek out new performers. He also

has a certain responsibility to research national music and build up a library of it.

Competitions

National competitions held for periods of several months or a year, prizes and awards being offered

by the radio station, can have a marked effect on the standard of live music output. These

competitions are often called eisteddfods -a Welsh term for the traditional national poetry and

music contests.

Judging of the competing groups can be divided between a qualified panel and audience reaction.

Competitions which invite audience reaction are also a form of audience research which helps to

inform the station about its listeners and their likes and dislikes.

Education by music

When we are young we learn a great deal about life through nursery-rhymes and lullabies. The

process of learning through music need not stop simply because we are grown up.

Popular folk-singers can be encouraged to write lyrics which teach village listeners some of the

things they should know about diet, hygiene, village government and more lucrative methods of

farming. A producer who is interested in this field can obtain the necessary information from the

various departments of government concerned with rural development and then work with the folk-

singer to develop suitable songs and verses.

Magazines Programme on radio

Magazine program on radio or television presents a variety of topics, usually on current

events, in a format that often includes interviews and commentary. By implication a

composite of segments are linked together by a theme that runs through the entire programme.

It can have one or two main anchors while each segments of the programme can be

anchored by different persons. Such segments may include health, fashion and style, football,

discussion, interviews, drama piece, music and studio performance.

Magazine programmes vary in length. Some radio magazines are scheduled to last for just

15mins, 30mins, and some (particularly news magazine programmes) are held for 1hr.

Magazine programmes also vary in terms of content. Magazine programmes could be general

interest magazines or special magazines. Some special magazine programmes are geared

toward a specified unit of audience like women or men and usually last for 3omins. The

general interest magazines programmes are targeted at a wider audience.

Tips for producing magazine programmes as follows:

1. Select items for magazine, carefully and arrange them in an appeasing sequence.

2. Use music breaks every 5 minutes to break the boredom jinx.

3. Open your programme with a short and topical item, to catch your listener/viewers

attention.

4. Reverse weightier material to 2/3 of the programme duration.

5. Leave lighter or humorous material to the end of the programme.

6. Maintain the same anchor person for each edition of the programme. This will give

the programme its own identity and allow the audience to develop a relationship with

the anchor person.

7. Transitions should be interesting and natural. It should tell us what we need to

know, about what to follow and it should make the magazine hold together.

8. The magazine script should include all that is necessary for the technical operator

and narrator to know.

9. Don’t live out the audience out of the joke. Programme break for commercial, when it

return and you are laughing with the studio crew, make sure your share the joke that

Made you laugh with the audience otherwise the audience might feel you are carrying on a

private conversation.

SELF ASSESMENT EXERCISE

Listen to a radio magazine and also watch a television magazine programme and come up with

a list of technical tips you notice while listening or viewing.

3.3 Writing Spot Announcement

Both radio and television depend on commercials or announcement to survive. These

announcement could be paid for which is known as Public paid announcements (PAP) or

not paid for which is known as publics service announcement (PSA). Public Service

Announcements are announcements that are not paid for but are for the generality of the

people.

The station or continuity announcer has no problem when a n advert has been written

and produced by the sponsored company, all he/she does is to insert the tape and play.

But some commercial copy calls for a re-write and voicing which a station must do on behalf

of the client and which must be to client taste while meeting the conventions of writing for

the broadcast media. The message of a spot announcement must be clear and easily

understood; inspire the listener to action; and must correspond with the time and the number

of words the advertiser has paid for.

Principles of Writing Commercial Copy

Length: the typical commercial copy is precisely less than 60sec/1minute –about 10 words at

the average speaking rate. As noted above, the advertiser is paying for the length or duration

of the commercial as such the time must correspond with what the sponsors specified and

paid for. It is also important to indicate the reading time of the spot at the top of the copy so

that whoever is reading the copy knows the duration. Note that:

10 second spot has approximately 20 words

20 second spot has approximately 50 words

30 second spot has approximately 75 words.

60 second spot has approximately 150 words

Information: the information to be included in the copy is supplied by the advertiser. So make

sure that the information included in the copy is correct and accurate. It is advisable to always

show the draft to the sponsor for approval. According to Hasling (1980) spots announcements

should include some specified information like the name of the product, the sponso r,

price, distribution channel, product description (uses and physical appearance). Vivid

description of the product is most important on radio to create the image on the minds of the

people.

Form and Style: the copy should be typed written and double-spaced. Check for spellings and

write neatly. Underline words and phrases you want to emphasize. The heading of the copy

should include:

The reading time. The name of the sponsor/advertiser. This is to help the traffic

director know how to log the announcement. It will also help the account department

know the bill will go to.

The “kill” date that is the date and time the announcement should no longer be aired.

In some PSA the kill date may not be indicated until the sponsors say so, in such instance

just write at the top of the copy –TFN (Till Further Notice). The information in this

category could come from the presidency, or NBC.

Format a Script for Your Voice Talent: the script readers need the scripts to be easily read.

The styles of script-writing used on the radio and TV that makes printed words easier to read

and illustrate verbally include:

Write out numbers example: 3 becomes three

Capitalize every word i.e. THIS IS A PREFERENCE

OR, Capitalize the first letter of every word i.e. This Is A Preference

Use short sentences that grab your potential customer's attention. You've got a

very limited time frame to capture your audience and you need to get your message across

quickly.

Your job is to overcome the listener or viewer’s apathy — create interest in your story motivate the listener to do something.

After writing the commercial read it aloud. If it does not sound right re-write but ensure

you grab attention from beginning to the end.

Register the key facts about project /product/organization strongly.

Mention the name of the product at least 3 times in a 60-second.

Spot and at least twice in any shorter spots?

Break lines where they seem most natural that is, create pauses where you want pauses

LIVE EVENT THE OUTSIDE BROADCAST

Outside Broadcast ("OB") refers to any radio programme which is broadcast from a location

away from the normal studio setting. The location doesn't actually have to be out-of-doors — the

"outside" simply means "outside the normal on air studio"

They are also called the on- spot broadcast meaning that they are broadcast at the same time

being heard on air, they can be live or recorded as played, and latter on ob is usually interesting

to both the broadcaster and the audience

A broadcaster normally gets chance to broadcast outside the studios, the audience also gets an

opportunity of listening to unedited material from the sources which is accompanies with un

edited sound effects and including other materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF OB

Events commonly covered by OB units include

Political occasions eg. The independence celebrations, Heroes day among other.

Games and sports like the world cup football match, boxing

Religious gatherings and social events

Concerts, ceremonies, etc.

OB units may specialize in a particular area; for example, a motorsports OB unit would carry

specialized camera equipment for in-car coverage and have staff which knows this particular

sport well.

PREPARATIONS OF AN OB

In order to make a successful ob, the commentator, the engineer and producer should prepare in

advance. Some of the preparations should be made by the radio itself while other preparations

must be done at the site itself whether live or recorded.

The following are reasons why we should visit the site before production to the outside

broadcast

In the presence of OB mobile van where the crew is going to use other techniques to relay the

broadcast, the crew should visit the site to establish whether there are essential facilities; there is

telephone network, electricity ports among others.

To establish where the vantage position should be. This is a point at which the

broadcaster is in full control of the entire occasion or event to broadcast.

To establish the number of cables and their length that will be enough for the occasion

including the microphones

To check the feature and hindrances to recording.

To ascertain the type of public system being used at the function. This may interact with

recording or the quality of sound on radio.

Other preparation may include

Writing the background of the event you are going to cover. The back ground

information gathered earlier help the presenter engage the audience in case the guest of

hoarer delayed to arrive as planned.

Have the name of and destination of the people coming to the occasion.

Establish the guest of honor and other delegates who are coming to the occasion

Obtain in advance the program of the event

Have a stop watch to tell the time

Do check on the time to check back to the on air studio for normal broadcasting or

always get in touch with the engineers who remain at the central control room for the

time of joining back to the station. It’s always advisable to record the commentator.

PRODUCTION OF AN OB

The main aim of the commentator is to create or express in the listener mind not to simply have a

picture but rather a total impression of the occasion or event.

The success of delivery at his level depends on how the words are wrapped and delivered into

the listener’s ear. This can be done in three ways

The words used at this level must be descriptive of the scene of event. Here the presenter

must be able to describe with appropriate words every moment of what is going on at the

event as it unfolds.

The speed and style of their delivery should underline or tell the mood of the event.

Additional effects on the microphone will tell re-inforce the action of public reaction to

the occasion. The sound effects produced will tell the audience what has happened

Please note, you are the listener’s eye as they can’t see what you see, imagine you’re as peaking

to the blind this should provoke you to report accurate, involving all the senses of mind so that

the listener will get total impression of the event as it unfolds. This means that the

commentator’s style of presentation of each item at the event at the site will to convince his

emotions.

Be prepared for the unexpected ie there are some events that can occur as you are

communicating such as fire during a foot ball match. The listener also wants to know how the

people [spectators] are reacting. So at this point you will give a section of person’s chance to air

their views and tell the listeners about how they feel about the shock of event

During the speech of dignitaries, let the audience hear what they are communicating without

interruption, assume you were broadcasting a wedding, at the time of exchanging vows, let the

religious leader officiating at the function speech and the couple exchange their views because

this is the only memorable time that need no interruption.

THE FORMAT FOR BEGINNING AN OB

Tell the time

Tell the station

The occasion or the site

Identify the team ie commentators, co-commentators, engineers’, co producer and the

entire crew

Tell the honor and dignitaries

Tell the time of rejoining back to the main studio for general broadcast

THE FORMAT FOR ENDING AN OB

Tell the listeners when you are about to end the ob broadcast before the top of the

hour

Provide the summary of what the guest of honor has said at the occasion including

other important happenings

Appreciate the listeners, the engineer at the station, sponsors, all utility suppliers etc

Sign off

Call the engineer at the station [hand over the broadcast to the station for normal

broadcast]