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Knight, Alan D. (2007) Who Is A Journalist?. In Proceedings 16th AMIC Annual Conference / 1st WJEC Media, Education and Development: The Quest for New Paradigms, Singapore.

© Copyright 2007 (The authors)

Who is a journalist?

Alan Knight PhD

Queensland University of Technology

29.4.2007

2

Introduction

Blogging has reshaped globalised communications.

More than seventy million bloggers, indeed almost anyone who has a computer with an internet

connection can write and publish their work, mostly without mediation.

Freedom of speech threatens to become universal, empowering bloggers to articulate. advocate,

prosletyse, and sometimes mis-inform, dis-inform, vilify , threaten and subvert.

Eyewitnesses are said to be citizen reporters and Wikis are claimed to replace editors.

So where does this explosion of unmediated information leave journalists who previously enjoyed

privileged access to mass communication?

Before the World Wide Web, Journalism was defined by mainstream news agencies,

newspapers, radio and televisions stations. But the internet has raised questions about who

journalists are, what they should do, where they can report from, why they choose particular

stories, and even when they report.

Who should be considered journalists in an age when anyone can publish a blog?

How might traditional publishers survive when anyone can establish a practice and try to earn a

living in the market of ideas?

3

Centering digital production

Australia's public broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) this year

restructured to place its online convergence at the centre of its operations.

The ABC, Australia's most complex media organisation, launched its national radio network in

1932. (ABC, 2006) It's organisation reflected the telephone network, which carried its information;

centred in Sydney and radiating out to state capitals and eventually regional centres. In 2007, it

operated five major radio networks, and three television networks, presenting 12,196 hours of

news and current affairs a year on radio and 2479 hours on television.

While the ABC's executive offices remained at the old analogue hub in Sydney, its News

production had been dispersed to the ABC's 64 newsrooms around Australia and converged on

the online newsroom near my office on the QUT campus.

In 2007, digital media, in particular digital journalism moved from the periphery to the centre of

ABC operations. Announcing a corporate restructure ABC Managing Director, Mark Scott. said

that "Digital media is now integral to everything we do." Scott said the corporate changes

reflected " the shift of digital and new media from the fringe of ... operations ten years ago to the

very centre of ... Television, Radio and News and Current Affairs output". (Scott, 2007)

The ABC re-organsation recognised that radio, television and text were no longer separate

products, couched in discrete production cultures. Rather these ABC divisions were content

producers serving digital delivery systems, which might include radio, television and websites. It

was a belated admission that multi media journalism was a core practice rather than an

experiment.

"It is not an add-on, it is not a novelty, it is the present reality as well as the future,” Mr. Scott said.

Australia's oldest newspaper group, Fairfax media, changed its name in 2006 to address changes

wrought by computers and the Internet. Fairfax, which used to be called John Fairfax and Sons,

published Australia's first daily newspaper in 1840. Launching a new online newspaper in 2007,

Chief Executive, David Kirk, said the overwhelming fact was that our complex world was more

interconnected than ever before:

Of the 6.4 billion people on Earth, the Internet now reaches 1 billion, or 16%, and is

growing at 190% per year. After North America, Oceania has the highest Internet

penetration of 52%

... Africa and the Middle East are growing at over 400% per year.

4

Today, developing countries have 49% of the world’s telephones – up from 19% in

1990,and they own 30% of the world’s computers, up from 20% 10 years ago (Kirk

2007)

Dr Kirk said that the Internet would not replace newspapers but rather provide them with

challenges and opportunities. Fairfax Media had engaged on a three pronged strategy; defend

and grow its existing newspapers and magazines, aggressively expand its online portfolio, and

build a digital media company using broadband as a driver for growth. " More profoundly, the very

connectedness of our internet sites with their audiences is driving a change in our thinking about

our culture, and our need to be collaborative and connected across all the natural boundaries of

print and online, of editorial and commercial, and between the geographies where we operate,"

Dr Kirk said.

Challenges?

The re-invention of the Fairfax group might be seen as a response to global declines in

newspaper sales, combined with growing Internet advertising revenue. The economic

underpinnings of the big mainstream newsrooms has co-incided with a generational shift to online

information, often created by amateur writers characterised as citizen journalists.

During periods of massive change, the death of the newspaper has always been

greatly exaggerated. So given the Industry' s survival skills, why worry now? One

reason might be that the burst of the dot com bubble in the late 90s made many

think they had overestimated the impact of the Internet. But in retrospect the news

media might have completely underestimated the influence of this new medium.

(Bowman, S.,Wills, C. 2005)

Meanwhile, a series of takeovers followed by cost cutting have been seen to weaken the

mainstream commercial press. The Project for Excellence in Journalism identified trends, which

were converging to "reshape the news landscape". Project Senior Associate, Dante Chinni, said

there was a "thinning of the news product". The identified trends included:

• Growing numbers of news outlets chasing shrinking audiences

• Investment in news distribution rather than reporting

• The movement of advertising revenue

5

• Uneven journalistic standards

In the United States, large national news outlets embraced entertainment and lifestyle issues in

an attempt to hold onto their audience. "On the evening network news, government coverage has

dropped from 32 percent of stories in 1987, to just 16 percent in 2003. And in news magazines,

national affairs coverage made up 35 percent of pages as recently as 1995. In 2001, it was 30

percent. In 2003, it has dropped to 25 percent." Chinni said. (Chinni 2004)

The formerly Australian newspaperman, Rupert Murdoch led the way to address these trends,

with the creation of Fox News, which might be described as an entertaining collection of

prejudices presented in news style rather than an assembly of recognisable facts. Murdoch's

News Corporation was meanwhile converging text, audio, television, and animation to become

the first fully globalised, integrated media consortium. The company was switching its emphasis

from newspapers, which launched Rupert's journalism career half a century ago, to new media.

News Corporation would not just tell stories but sell cultural packages, which included news.

Movies, music, blogging and Internet dating. Murdoch hoped to secure profits by addressing new

ways in which news was created by and for younger audiences.

In this new media world order, older media, newspapers had to "grab" on to the digital revolution

to prosper in the future, according to Rupert Murdoch. He said that he considered himself a

"digital immigrant" while his two youngest children would be "digital natives". (Murdoch 2005)

I wasn’t weaned on the web, nor coddled on a computer. Instead, I grew up in a

highly centralized world where news and information were tightly controlled by a few

editors, who deemed to tell us what we could and should know. My two young

daughters, on the other hand, will be digital natives. They’ll never know a world

without ubiquitous broadband Internet access. (Murdoch 2005)

He told the American Society of Newspaper Editors Conference in 2005 that 44% of news

consumers aged between 18 and 34 used the Internet once a day for news, compared to 19%

who used newspapers. 39% expected to use the Internet more, compared to eight percent who

expected to use newspapers more. (Strupp 2005) Murdoch was commenting on a Carnegie

Corporation report written by Merrill Brown. Brown said that the news industry was "seriously

threatened by the seemingly irrevocable move by young people away from traditional sources of

news":

6

Through Internet portal sites, handheld devices, blogs and instant messaging, we

are accessing and processing information in ways that challenge the historic function

of the news business and raise fundamental questions about the future of the news

field. Meanwhile, new forms of newsgathering and distribution, grassroots or citizen

journalism and blogging sites are changing the very nature of who produces news.

(Brown 2005)

Blogs and Journalism

Reportage of the 2004 Tsunami indicated how bloggers might compete with the mainstream

press for coverage of an unfolding, international event. A survey of eight major Asian Pacific

newspapers informed their readers about the unfolding social and economic impact of and

responses to the Tsunami. There was less emphasis on education about the waves, with minimal

or even negligible reports on its scientific aspects of the disaster. But there was a great deal of

often prurient entertainment derived from images of the destruction, tales of suffering and even

occasional reports of heroism.

Journalists faced spirited competition from amateurs some of whom were located within sight of

the Tsunami. The combination of Internet distribution and access to digital images and

computerised editing, allowed swift and often credible responses. While Bloggers frequently

lacked the journalism technique of deploying identified sources, their use of eyewitness reports

combined with the ability to cross reference to other sites, contributed to their credibility.

Emotions, opinions and experiences were more widely shared on the Internet through web

postings, discussion groups and “blogs”. It was here on amateur created, maintained and

controlled, but internationally distributed sites where thousands met and talked. Web sites

globally provided updated information on where people could donate funds, provide support, and

contact NGOs and even contact missing relatives. Conventional media, staffed by traditional

journalists, would have been hard pressed to equal such efforts.

One logger, Stewart Lock, gave a full account, including pictures of the waves as they hit his

holiday house in the Maldives. Ironically. When he was evacuated to Britain some time later, he

and other refugees, were approached at the airport by journalists seeking what was by now a

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very dated story (Knight 2005). Lock's case demonstrated how blogging might replace

conventional reporting.

Opportunities?

The Internet overwhelmed journalists' monopolies on international news distribution. It challenges

their presumptions to the truth. It may replace professional reporters with citizen journalists and

traditional editors with an interactive online community.

In April 2007, Technorati, a specialist Internet searching company, tracked its 70 millionth blog (a

web log; a diary style journal, regularly updated on the web). 120,00 blogs were being created

every day, or 1.4 blogs every second of every day. (Sifry, 2007)

Mass postings were news related, with the Israeli-Hezbollah conflict co-inciding with the highest

peak to date. Among web sites, traditional news outlets remained the most popular. However,

Technorati CEO David Sifry said the number of blogs in the top 100 had risen substantially:

During Q3 2006 there were only 12 blogs in the Top 100 most popular sites. In Q4,

however, there were 22 blogs on the list -- further evidence of the continuing

maturation of the Blogosphere. Blogs continue to become more and more viable

news and information outlets. For instance, information not shown in our data but

revealed in our own user testing in Q1 2007 indicates that the audience is less and

less likely to distinguish a blog from, say, nytimes.com -- for a growing base of users,

these are all sites for news, information, entertainment, gossip, etc. (Sifry 2007)

Journalists would argue that their professional system of reports with identified sources; stated

codes of ethics, fact checking and professional editing would systematically produce more

credible news. However a study conducted by Johnson and Kaye in 2004, may indicate

otherwise. Surveying a relatively small sample of 3,747 respondents, they found that only 42.7%

rated online newspapers as moderately or very credible, 73.6% rated blogs moderately to very

credible. Only 3.5% rated blogs as not at all or not very credible! (Johns, J. & Kaye, B. 2004)

Writing in the Niemann Reports, Jon Palfreman, said that a generation reared on video games

was primed for an interactive multi media platform life the web:

8

With the web, we could be witnessing the most important development in expressive

media since the advent of writing. One exciting if disruptive possibility is that under

the influence of the young, the Internet will usher in a new era of interactive,

audiovisual literacy. Though written words will remain critical to human

communication, it's likely that they will no longer dominate in the exchange of news

and information. (Palfreman 2006)

Journalists fretted that the growth of new media might mean the abandonment 0f traditional core

values such as independence, autonomy, objectivity and fairness. It was easy to be offended as

media barons snapped up new media assets like MySpace and Youtube. However, journalists

must adapt to this new media order or perish, he said. (Palfreman 2006)

According to columnist and logger, Dan Gilmor, journalists must learn that in an emerging era of

multi directional, digital communications, the audience should be an integral part of the news

making process. He called this approach, "We-Media":

Interactive technology - and the mostly young readers and viewers who use and

understand it - are the catalysts. We Media augment traditional methods with new

and yet-to-be invented collaboration tools ranging from email to weblogs to digital

video to peer-to-peer systems. But it boils down to something simple; our audience

know more than we do, and they don't have to settle for half-baked coverage when

they can come into the kitchen themselves. This is not a threat. It is an opportunity.

And the evolution of We Media will oblige us to adapt. (Gilmore 2003)

Journalism Cultures

Mainstream journalists deploy technologies embedded in a culture of ideas through which they

construct the way they report, select, edit and prioritise news. These ideas reproduce and

reinforce themselves in the news making process, re-creating apparently flexible yet in practice,

conformist ways for imagining the world outside the newsroom. In this largely unconscious

process, called "news instinct", journalists prioritised accepted versions of events while

dismissing alternate accounts as "not news". In this way, many western journalists embraced

and colluded with colonial constructs of Asia, creating a self-justifying narrative of empire (Knight

1997). Contemporary journalists in Hong Kong call this process when genuflecting to Beijing, the

emerging superpower, and "self censorship".

9

Press coverage of the Hong Kong handover in 1997 illustrated how cultural and political

differences framed national reporting of an international news event. Foreign correspondents, this

time from Britain, the US, Japan and China often relied on secondary sources. National agendas

skewed coverage: the British were nostalgic for empire, the Americans feared communism, the

Japanese were concerned about trade and the mainland Chinese were rather patriotic. By that

time, it seemed no longer relevant to talk of dichotomies between western journalists and their

Asian counterparts. Journalists from the US, Taiwan and Hong Kong had more in common in

practice and philosophy than those from Hong Kong and Beijing

Even within China, there were clear differences emerging between coverage by the official Beijing

press and their counterparts in Guanxou, who seemed to have been influenced by the style and

practices of Hong Kong Radio and television (Knight/Nakano 1999).

China

Blogging has emerged as a clear alternative to the official or mainstream commercial press in

mainland China.

When Li Datong news supplement. Freezing Point, ceased publication after it carried critical

views of official histories, he turned to the internet. He said that the world wide web had created

wider debates in China. Li said that China's journalists were freer than ever before while

paradoxically, it remained under Party control. He said that it was like an expanding balloon

marked by a design, which also got bigger as the balloon got bigger. In an open letter distributed

by the Internet that "a hundred schools" should speak out. (Li cited by Cunningham 2006)

In the United States, members of the religious sect, Falun Gong, formed a global network of

programmers to break down Chinese government firewalls. The group operated an "intelligent

proxy network" which sought to guide users through the censor's walls to overseas "middlemen"

servers, which in turn re-directed users to blocked websites (Standard 2006).

In Hong Kong, Free Speech activists followed up the huge, anti Article 23 demonstrations in

2003, by creating an online newspaper, Inmediahk.net. Editor, Lam Oi Wan, said her group was

concerned that news in the SAR had been constrained by commercial interests, which

10

genuflected to mainland authorities. She hoped that her group would operate independently of

government and business.

We have local issues, issues of mainstream concern, environmental issues, and

popular culture and cultural politics. We have border cross issues like peace and

war. We also have individual columns. There are 318 individual columnists. They

have to register on the site by giving us their mobile phone number. We approve

them and then categorise them. If they are writing about the environment they go

into the environmental category. They are bloggers but we encourage collective

writing. Once you get your column you can invite other people to join you, you can

communicate the agenda you want in your column. Traditional Bloggers are

individuals who communicate by network. But here we hope to have a public space

where people can discuss and work together. (Lam 2006)

Lam Oi Wan said she wanted people to engage, rather than being cynical and therefore

disempowered.

By 2006, more than 125 million mainland Chinese people were online. Third generation mobile

phones should wireless broadband access, which was expected to significantly increase

interaction on the net. (Tuinstra 2006)

However, global connections could also lead to globalised disinformation. Foreign

Correspondent, Fons Tuinstra, related how he had received an email from Global Voices, a US

based internet research project, that the Chinese authorities had closed down three blogs written

by Chinese journalists.

A string of emails emerged a few hours later the blogs disappeared. While I made an

entry on my own blog, others did the same and soon news of this event raced

around the world. Reuters and the BBC started to file stories the same day.

Reporters sans Frontiers in Paris, an NGO focusing on press freedom, issued an

angry press release denouncing Chinese censorship. (Tuinstra 2006)

However, Tuinstra reported that before he went to bed that night, the "censored" blogs

reappeared on the internet. According to Tuinstra, the Chinese joumalists involved later told

correspondents they played a practical joke on western media, misusing Western obsessions

with censorship of the Internet in China.

Hong Kong based blogger, Roland Soong, traced interrelations between the foreign press,

bloggers and the Chinese media, through his website, EastSouthWestNorth.

11

Soong, a professional translator, said there was an international "historical notion" that many

Chinese journalists were upset because they perceived that unless the English language press

reported on events in China, the events didn't happen.

I run a translation blog. I am putting the original Chinese blogs before foreign

correspondents who read my blog. It creates a certain pressure on what they can re-

write. It highlights what appears in the Chinese media but which is not reported in

the western media. It may give them new story ideas. In one sense I am a one

pressure group trying to get a more balanced coverage of China so that it reflects

more of what the Chinese people are seeing and reading. (Soong 2006)

Soong said that he wanted to encourage Chinese reporters, by giving their work international

recognition. He said that reporters in Hong Kong and the United States might learn from China's

press.

In China, everyone understands that you can go out and get a new story but you

can't write it up. Your editor will say, "No Way". Even if your editor agrees with

you, his boss isn't going to allow it. Even if he does, somebody in the Propaganda

Department will say," You can't say that because it's a bad image!" But reporters

who get stories spiked can post it anonymously on the Internet saying, "So what if I

don't get credit!" "I wrote this story, I was really touched by it. It's a shame it should

be killed. I will post it on the net." That's step one. Step two is even more amazing.

The reporter might write a follow up, saying, "You saw the stuff I wrote. This is the

stuff that I wrote but there is other stuff I couldn't even write about". "There is other

stuff which is very suspicious which I couldn't even get near". This stuff gets on

forums. They might go back and delete in three days but by that time everybody has

read it. (Soong 2006)

The Internet atomised international communications. The metropolitan centered, conventional

news systems were competing with locally produced, globally distributed "amateur" information.

The Internet provided journalists with unprecedented variety and depth of sources. Yet it also

allowed their intended audiences to check journalists’ interpretation against the original.

12

Discussion

Journalism is in transition.

Private media's financial base, which underpins journalism will continue to shift ground. The

advertising revenue which supports sites such as Nytimes.com, may be be diminshed, with some

industry commentators claiming that revenues will cross over within two decades.

This process has already begun as corporations investing in newspapers cut costs (eg LA Times)

or seek to package news and opinion as fiction entertainment, Fox News.

Commercial Network television revenues can also be expected to reduced as broadband use

expands and portals such as Joost offer high quality digital video downloads. Why wait for the

local free to air station to broadcast the latest US sitcom, crime drama or reality show, when the

material can be accessed at source?

Individual websites, such as blogs, which may offer previously unrepresented opinion, already

attract much larger audiences than some conventional columnists.

The old style exclusive, international news order is already dead, even in mainland China where

the government strenuously and unsuccessfully attempts to enforce official accounts of

international events. It has been effectively replaced by blended and multi sourced information,

which collectively contributes to the new global media environment.

The Internet allows the creation of multi-layered reports, which are embedded with images, video,

and animation. Accuracy will become a key issue as diligent consumers compare journalists'

analysis with their sources original words. Authenticated websites which aggregate these reports,

such as the BBC, New York Times and the ABC (Australia) are recording rapidly rising page

views.

As a result, public funded broadcasters which have been under pressure for a decade may have

a new lease on life, if they are able to adapt. High content programs which may have a low

audience on radio or television can accumulate huge global audiences. In 2006, ABC Online

reached an average of 2.02million people per month from within Australia, and ABC Online’s

audience reach increased by 20 per cent from 2005 to 2006, nearly three times the rate of growth

in internet uptake (7 per cent). (Cook 2007)

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It may be that governments will re-consider the worth of such broadcasters delivering information

and therefore influence to wider audiences. This in turn may mitigate politicians past claims of

public sector broadcasting elitism.

These broadcasters will still have to compete for audience with blogs.

They may be able to do so be offering branded packages of quality information. To retain

credibility such mainstream packages should promise fairness, accuracy and identifiable sources.

Individual conventional news stories, delivered in text with summary leads and one or two

quotable sources are fast becoming irrelevant to the individual news consumer. Such stories are

often more useful as the raw source material for online databases, such as Factiva, operated by

the wire service, Reuters. The information they contain can then be archived, considered and

compared. Journalists will be still be required to create summaries of ideas, expositions and

events, but if their reports are to have veracity they must be buttressed by supporting documents

and sites.

Journalists were once defined by where they worked; in newspapers, or radio and television

stations. The internet promises everyone can be a publisher.

But not everyone has the skills or training to be a journalist; defined by their professional

practices and codes of ethics. Such journalists will continue to authorise information, providing

signposts for discerning audiences.

Former Executive Producer, Tom Bettag, said that journalists were not omniscient not were they

necessarily good business people. "What journalists are is a vital element in the operation of

democracy," Bettag said, re-affirming support for professional values and ethics.

The old -timers were on to something. "News is what I say it is". They were putting

their reputations on the line. They were taking responsibility, expecting to be held

accountable. Journalists may have thought it necessary to set the old school aside to

accomodate the new realities, but with the new realities there is no ethic. We were in

fact, abdicating our responsibilities and letting ourselves off the hook. (Bettag 2006)

The International Federation of Journalists stated that respect for truth and for the right of the

public to truth is the first duty of the journalist.

The IFJ said that media must respect the professional and ethical principles upon which the

freedom of expression and opinion relies.

14

In doing so, journalists advance the public interest by publishing, broadcasting or circulating facts

and opinions without which a democratic electorate cannot make responsible judgments. (IFJ

2004)

Irrespective of recent attempts by the founder of the Wikipedia, Jimmy Wales bloggers have no

code of conduct.

Professional journalists however, are trained to synthesize and present ideas. By publication

through recognized channels, they become part of identifiable information brands and can be

judged accordingly. Anonymous web postings would, and on reflection, should not be granted

similar credibility. Mainstream media framed this certified news in ways, which news consumers

should be able to comprehend integrate and apply. This demand for authenticated information

should continue to create a need for mediation by journalists.

Journalists will still need to bear witness to events. Foreign Correspondents, as imagined by

Hollywood, have already become something of an anachronism. The Internet allowed anyone

with a computer and a camera not only to file stories, but more importantly fact check and

feedback. The World Wide Web empowered this hive intelligence to expose individual journalists'

intellectual frauds, thereby destroying their credibility and often their careers.

Perhaps for the first time, journalists' opinions, assumptions and self-censorship are subject to

intense and pervasive public scrutiny. The challenge for those who describe themselves, as

journalists will be to produce accounts, which can survive these, sustained analyses.

15

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Selected Articles etc.

Selected articles by the same author:

Knight, A. "Jihad and the Media: Osama bin Laden as reported in the Asian Pacific press."

(Awaiting publication by AMIC, Singapore). 2006

Knight, A. "Capturing Digital Natives; The News Corporation Agenda" eJournalist, Vol 6 (1). 2006

http://www.ejournalism.au.com/ejournalist_v6n1.htm

Knight, A. "Covering the Boxing Day Tsunami: the media mandate." Australian Studies in

Journalism. University of Queensland. Brisbane. Vol 15, pp 56/ 91. 2005

Knight, A. "The 'political gorilla' and the Pacific Forum" Pacific Journalism Review. Auckland, NZ.

Vol 11 (2), pp 170/190. 2005

Knight, A. "Free Speech in China; the article 23 debate." eJournalist, Vol 4 (2). 2004

http://www.ejournalism.au.com/ejournalist_v4n2.htm

Knight, A. “Ratbags, revolutionaries and free speech; the radical press in Queensland in 1968.

Pacific Journalism Review, Vol 10 (1), pp 153/170. 2004

21

Knight, A. “The Hollywoodisation of war: The media handling of the Iraq conflict” Global Media

Journal, Vol 2 (3). 2003

http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/SubmittedDocuments/Fall2003/Refereed/Knight.htm

Knight, A. “Reporting News: The Internet and Terrorism”, Knight, Alan and Ubayasiri, Kasun,

Media Terrorism and a Culture of Peace, Asia Media and Communications Conference, Perth,

2002 http://www.ejournalism.au.com/ejournalist_v2n1.htm

Knight, A. "Won't get fooled again: the rise of radical radio in Queensland" Journalism Education

Association Conference, Maroochydore, Queensland. 2000.

http://www.brisinst.org.au/resources/knight_alan_zzz.html

Knight, A. "Investigative Journalism on the Internet". Australian Journalism Review. Vol 22 (2),

pp 48/58. 2000

Knight, A. "Fact or Friction; the collision of journalism values in Asia" from, Foreign Devils and

other Journalists. Ed. Damien Kingsbury. Monash Asia Institute. Melbourne. 2000

Knight, A. "Australian based foreign correspondents and their sources" eJournalist, Vol 1 (1) 2000

http://www.ejournalism.au.com/ejournalist_v1n1.htm.

Knight, A., Nakano, Y. Reporting Hong Kong: The Foreign press and the handover. Curzon

Press/St Martins Press London/New York .1999

Knight, A. Reporting the "Orient": Australian correspondents in southeast Asia. PhD Thesis.

University of Wollongong. 1997

Knight, A. “Covering the Global Village” Media Asia. AMIC. Singapore. Vol 25 (2), pp 71/77. 1998

Knight, A. " Foreign Reporting and the Internet", Asian Advertising and Media Conference, Hong

Kong University. 22. 4.1998.

Knight, A. "Reinventing the Killing Fields: Press coverage of Cambodia", in Austral-Asian Image

Cultures, ed. M. Dever (London: Curzon Press/University of Hawaii Press. 1997

Knight, A. "The Ghosts of Colonialism: Australian foreign correspondents in Asia". Asian Mass

Communications and Research Centre, Annual Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia. 24.6.95.

22

Knight, A. "Re-inventing the wheel: Sources used by Australian Foreign Correspondents in

Southeast Asia". Media Asia. Asian Mass Communications and Research Centre. Singapore. Vol

22 (1), pp 9/17. 1995

Knight, A. "Mis-reporting Cambodia", Australian Journalism Review Queensland University of

Technology. Brisbane. Vol 17 (44). 1994