Quest for JapanMarco Polo wrote a book “The Description of the World” while in prison in 1298 after being caught in the middle of the Venetian-Genoese conflict.

This book was the basis for Columbus’ quest for “Zipangu” which led him to America instead.

Commodore Perry, in 1853, sought to complete Columbus’ interrupted voyage. The Perry Expedition is probably of equal importance to the history of the world.

Matthew Calbraith PerryCommodore Perry’s naval career spanned nearly 50 years. He first went to sea at the age of 15, his first command was the Shark that sailed to Africa to help stop the transatlantic slave trade.Perry had been studying Japanese history and had determined that Japan’s isolation was due to a set of peculiar circumstances that had long since passed and was, in fact, in direct opposition to what historically had been the temperament of Japan.

Perry landed in Uraga, near Yokohama on July 14, 1853.

Landing in JapanEdo was just 27 miles up the bay from Uraga. The city was in an uproar over the reported “foreign invasion”.

Knowing that the Japanese loved ceremony, Perry was determined to either set all ceremony aside or to outdo the Japanese at their own game.

He refused to give audience to any officials of inferior rank. When dignitaries suggested he go to Nagasaki, he refused.

Audience with the ShŌgunPerry demanded an audience with “the Emperor”, as he called the ShŌgun, Ieyoshi, the 12th of his line. He marched, with great ceremony, to a hall which had been erected for their meeting.

He was flanked by two black body guards and preceded by two boys carrying Perry’s credentials as well as a letter from President Fillmore.

Letter from the President“Our steamships, in crossing the ocean, burn a great deal of coal, and it is not convenient to bring it all the way from America. We request your Imperial Majesty to appoint a convenient port where our vessels may stop for this purpose.

The letter went on to request that any Americans shipwrecked on Japanese soil be returned unharmed.

“I’ll Be Back”Perry stayed only 8 days and then left for China, promising to return the following spring for an answer. Before he left, Perry sailed up the bay to Edo with his “four black ships of evil mien”.

Ieyoshi fell ill following his encounter with Perry and died 5 days after he left, leaving his son Iesada as 13th ShŌgun. It is said by some that Iesada was mentally unfit to be ShŌgun.

Divided CouncilThe new ShŌgun was unsure what to do next, so he sent a copy of the letter to the 276 daimyŌs to ask for advice.

A majority of them, lead by the house of Mito, urged action. “Is not the present an auspicious moment to quicken the sinews of war?”, they said.

A minority, lead by Baron Ii, urged him to trade with America in order to acquire naval skills and weapons to build up the navy and fortify the coasts.

DaimyŌ of Mito Ii Naosuke

Perry’s ReturnThe minority view held out, with the stipulation that Christianity did not accompany the foreign trade.

Perry returned in February of 1854, this time with 10 ships. On March 31, Japan signed their first treaty every with the West.

Perry brought the following gifts to the ShŌgun: a sewing machine, a telegraph outfit, and a miniature locomotive. His officials took turns riding the latter, which was barely large enough to carry children.

A Time of Unrest

An earthquake hit Edo the year after the Perry treaty was signed which killed about 15,000 people. Many took this as a punishment from the gods.

A 2nd treaty was signed in 1858 to clarify some of the material in the 1st. This was signed by the ShŌgun and by Ii, but the Emperor wasn’t even consulted.

The daimyŌ of Mito denounced the Tokugawa line for their insubordination and had Ii assassinated.

Problems with the British

The slaying of a British man named Richardson had far-reaching effects.

This Shanghai merchant rode a horse up to the daimyŌ of Satsuma’s procession as he was traveling home from Edo, and was instantly slain.

The British dispatched a squadron of warships to Kagoshima who sunk 3 steam boats the daimyŌ had purchased, dismantled his shore batteries, and set fire to the city.

Other Problems with ForeignersAnother powerful daimyŌ was the ruler of ChŌshū. He had the habit of firing upon American, French, and Dutch ships as they passed through the strait of Shimonoseki. These powers retaliated, with the help of England.Both daimyŌs, instead of turning against these foreign powers, recognized the need to acquire the foreigners’ equipment and skill in order to contend with them. They urged the emperor to trade with and to learn from these foreign powers.

The Boy EmperorThe emperor died in 1867, four years after the Kagoshima and Shimonoseki affairs.

A 15 year-old emperor, Emperor Meiji, assumed the throne. He was backed by the powerful Sat-ChŌ clan, who called themselves “The Loyal Army”, and duly surrounded his palace. This level of guard would normally have brought the emperor in direct conflict with Keiki, the 15th ShŌgun of his line, but the latter resigned in a surprise move.

The ShŌgun’s Letter: Though I fill the same office (as Ieyasu),

almost all the acts of my administration are imperfect, and I acknowledge with shame that the present unsatisfactory situation is due to my shortcomings and incompetence. Now that foreign intercourse becomes daily more extensive, unless the government be directed from one central authority the foundations of the State will fall to pieces. I believe it my highest duty to give up entirely my rule over this land.

Meiji Keiki

War of RestorationKeiki soon realized that the Sat-ChŌ clan did not intend to restore all authority to the emperor, he advanced his troops against the “Loyal Army”.

He was soon defeated and forced to retreat to Edo. Eventually, he had to surrender his fortress there and move to Shizuoka, where his family was from.

A “War of Restoration” soon followed, where supporters of the Tokugawa line tried to set up a variety of leaders in opposition to the new emperor.

Competition for the Throne

First, the Lord-Abbot of a Buddhist monastery was set up as “Eastern Emperor” in Edo, but this didn’t last.

Next, Admiral Enomoto tried to establish a republic in Yezo. Since the admiral had control of all of the war-ships in Japan, he was the last to surrender to the Sat-ChŌs. To appease the resistance, they appointed him to an office in the new government.

WesternizationIn 1868, the Sat-ChŌs announced that the emperor would come out of seclusion and move his capital to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo. The country was shocked at this bold move. In another shocking move, all foreign ministers were invited to an imperial audience. Initially, the British envoy was attacked and kept from their meeting, but the next day they were able to make it.The emperor then issued an edict protecting all foreigners and prescribing death for any who would molest them.

Ito HirobumiIto was the son of a lower class samurai from Hikari. He was chosen by the daimyŌ of ChŌshū to study in London in order to learn Western ways, he was to become one of the main molders of modern Japan. He is quoted as saying:

“Japan is anxious to press forward. The red disc in the center of our national flag…the emblem of the rising son, (is) symbolic of the awakening of Japan, and

End of Feudal Systemof her wish to be found ever moving onward and upward amid the enlightened nations of the world”Ito authored a document in 1869 that abolished the feudal system. In it, the daimyŌs, agreed to give up rights to their lands, possessions, and followers to the emperor and to allow him to make all law-making decisions.The emperor accepted this proposal, but promised not to rule in the spirit of absolutism. Ito became his closest and most trusted advisor.

New MissionsAs suspected, among the first foreigners to come to the reopened Japan were missionaries. A cathedral was dedicated in Yokohama in 1862, followed by one in Nagasaki (dedicated to the 26 Martyrs) in 1865.

Within a month, several thousand Christians had come forward who had kept the faith during the long years of persecution in what is known as “The Finding of the Christians”.

Guido VerbeckOne missionary who arrived in 1859 was a Dutch-American named Guido Verbeck. Guido had a “liberal arts” education that included languages, philosophy and science. He thus laid the foundation for the Imperial University and translated classic works concerning politics and international relations into Japanese. He suggested that an embassy be sent around the world in 1872 that could pick and choose the best ideas from every nation.

Eclectic Mix of InfluenceBecause of their unique approach to modernization, Japan ended up with a mixture of influences:France- army tactics and law codesEngland- navy, lighthouses, railways & telegraphsU.S.- postal service, agriculture & educationItaly- artGermany- local government, medicine, training army officers

German InfluenceGermany also served as a model for the new national constitution. Although the constitutions of the other countries were studied, Ito, which lead the special commission was impressed by the German system.

However, instead of adopting them outright, German principles were superimposed on the Chinese foundation responsible for Japan’s 1st transformation.

Japan’s constitution was put into effect on February 11, 1889.

Prime Minister ItoUnder the constitution, Japan became a constitutional monarchy, lead by a Prime Minister that is named by the emperor.This restored the dualism that had existed in Japan for so long, with the PM taking the place of the ShŌgun. Ito was appointed the 1st PM of Japan.One thing that had definitely changed was, with the abolishment of the feudal system, 29 million people had been given a political status as free subjects of the emperor.

Shinto vs. BuddhismThe Meiji government had ridden into power during a Shinto revival and soon supported this religion at the expense of Buddhism.Buddhist priests were stripped of their privileges and ousted from Shinto shrines they had inhabited for 1000 years.The morning the constitution took affect, the Minister of Education was stabbed to death because he had lifted a Shinto curtain with his walking stick to see into the courtyard.

Modernized Military

A foundation for national progress was laid by the introduction of taxation and a system of compulsory military service. Samurai, like the daimyŌ, became obsolete. Sword-wearing became optional, and then prohibited, as the modern army assumed their former duties.Their source of income dried up as well, where before they were paid in bags of rice by the daimyŌ, now they were issued government bonds as pensions.

Korea’s InsultSamurai discontent came to a head in 1873 when Korea cut off all relations with Japan and called it “a renegade from the civilization of the Orient”.

Four members of the emperor’s cabinet resigned in protest that the government did not retaliate and one of them headed a local rebellion that was speedily crushed.

Another, General Saigo of Satsuma, was more successful in his protest.

Satsuma RebellionSaigo withdrew to Satsuma and surrounded himself with 40,000 samurai, armed with rifles and field-guns, in addition to their swords.

The Tokyo government tried to appease the group by forcing Korea to sign a treaty after it fired on Japanese ships and making China pay Japan for misuse of Formosa as well as give up rule in the Ryukyu Islands.

This failed, so 66,000 soldiers fought the samurai for 8 months, until their leaders had fallen.

Different Means of Opposition

With outright rebellion ruled out for many, remaining samurai turned to two very Western means of opposition to the government: political parties and the press.

Itagaki of Tosa started the Seiyukai party which is now conservative and has its strength in rural areas. Okuma of Hizen started the Kenseikai party, which is liberal and has its strength in urban areas.

Founding UniversitiesOkuma also started a university in Tokyo, Waseda U., to help produce Japanese journalists. Literary weapons were now used in attacks on the government.

Fukuzawa was a scholar who founded Keio University, known for its business school. He wrote a book called “The Condition of the West” which has been summarized by the slogan “Young men, poverty and ignorance are hobbling your country- master Western science, make money, free her!”

Tsuda UniversityUme Tsuda was sent to the U.S. when she was 7 by the Empress of Japan, along with 5 other girls, to learn English and act as an interpreter. She attended Bryn Mawr College learning not only English butdemocratic principles as well. Upon her return, she was put in charge of a school for noblewomen and given a title of nobility but she gave these up in order to found her school to teach English to girls of all social classes. Tsuda U. soon became the main source of English teachers in Japan.

Swift ChangeWithin one decade, from 1860-1870, Japan had gone from a medieval feudal society to a thoroughly modernized one.Foreign goods were for sale throughout the country to people of all social classes. Bookstores stocked with French and English books abounded.Steamer, stage coach, and telegraph lines connected Yokohama and Tokyo, and a railroad was being build to Osaka.The Mitsubishi Steamship Company became one of the first corporations in Japan.

More ChangesWestern medicine had largely replaced the old Chinese system, vaccination against common diseases was introduced. Foreign physicians were employed in hospitals and medical colleges.

The introduction of meat-eating was further proof that Buddhism was starting to lose hold.

The European calendar was accepted, with Sunday being observed as a holiday. Christianity, once shunned, was now embraced with a passion.

Problems in KoreaWhen riots in Korea were quelled by the Japanese, China declared that it didn’t want the peninsula to meet the fate of the Ryukyu islands, and sent their own troops.

A treaty was signed in 1885 where both countries agreed to assume a joint protectorate over Korea, which means “Land of the Morning Calm”, and that neither would send troops there without consulting the other.

Inequitable TreatiesDespite the changes, Western countries refused to revise their treaties with Japan.

According to original treaties, Japan could not impose more than a 5% tax on imports. In addition, any American or European that violated Japanese laws could not be tried by the Japanese, but in the nearest consular court.

In 1889, when diplomats failed to revise these treaties, there was a backlash against the West.

Okuma’s Close Call

During this backlash, Okuma lost a leg to a would-be assassin’s bomb. This, despite the fact that he was working on revising the treaties the moment he was attacked.Okuma was enamored with the West but mainly as a means to advance Japan’s nationalistic tendencies, he had once declared that Japan, “as a matter of necessity must become a great power on the Asiatic continent”.

War with ChinaIn 1894, riots had broken out in Korea, bringing it to the brink of civil war. Both parties ignored their previous treaty and rushed troops into the country.Passions ran high and Japanese warships fired upon Chinese transports.It was China who declared war on Japan saying, “the pygmies of Japan have on the other hand broken all the laws of nations and treaties, which it passes Our patience to bear with…hasten with all speed to rout the pygmies out of their lairs”.

Quality vs. QuantityIto replied to this declaration with Japan’s newly modernized army and navy. Although vastly outnumbered, it took Japan 7 months to beat China.

When Li Hung Chang, the Chinese general, came to Shimonoseki to sue for peace, he was attacked by a rogue warrior, scarring his features for life.

Peace was arranged quickly and equitably by Japanese leaders who were anxious about the opinion of the West.

New TreatiesChina now agreed to Korea’s complete independence, and ceded Pescadores and Formosa to Japan. Japan was also allowed to lease the Liaotung Peninsula, thereby gaining a foothold on the Asian mainland.

Following the war, Western countries were much more inclined to revise their treaties with Japan, 7 months of warfare had accomplished more than 40 years of diplomatic wrangling.

An Elite ClubAn American clergyman summed it up

after the war:

All hail, Japan! We seven, the Sovereign Powers, Greet thee compeer; inscrol thy name with ours;- United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. Henceforth the world-estate we share with thee, Japan the Great!

Dividing Chinese TerritoryNo sooner had Japan acquired the Liaotung Peninsula that they were forced by Russia, Germany, and France to give it back. This was for “the preservation of the integrity of China”, they said.

Then, each of these countries, in turn, acquired their own foothold in China.

Russia took control of northern Manchuria.

Germany seized the Shantung Peninsula.

France took Cochin-China in the south.

Fate of ChinaChina followed Japan’s example following the war. The emperor introduced the “Hundred Days” reforms in 1898.

This was not enough, for in 1904, Sun Yat-sen, who had studied in Japan during his youth, published his manifesto and started an association to spread his progressive ideas. This alarmed the Empress who hoped to appease the revolutionists by sending an envoy to foreign countries, much like Japan had.

Chinese RepublicWhen the mission returned and advised a setting up of a constitutional government under imperial protection, the revolutionists denounced the idea as a trick of the Manchus.

In 1911, the Chinese Republic was proclaimed, with Sun Yat-sen as provisional president. He soon stepped down and Yuan Shi-kai became president.

Egging Them On

In 1902, Japan made an alliance with England, the first between an Asiatic and European country on terms of national equality.

This angered Kaiser Wilhelm, who hated the English. He spent 10 years trying to get Russia to go to war with Japan. Wilhelm wanted Russia out of Germany’s way and he hoped a war with Japan would distract them from Europe.

War with RussiaAfter exhausting diplomatic resources, Japan went to war with Russia.Learning that France and Germany intended to come to Russian aid, American President Teddy Roosevelt informed them that, if they did, America would fight on the side of Japan. He had concluded that a Japanese victory would serve American interests better than a Russian one.After 16 months of fighting, Japan secretly asked America to intervene and end the war.

Treaty of PortsmouthA treaty was signed in Portsmouth, NH, on Aug. 29, 1905, ending the war between Russia and Japan.

In it, Japan obtained the Liaotung Peninsula again as well as Korea, Southern Manchuria, and half of the island of Sakhalin.

Hence, Japan gained the “strongest strategical position possessed by any nation in the world”

Fate of Russia & GermanyThe war with Japan had been very unpopular in Russia. The failure of the war was regarded as the failure of the Tsar.The Russian Revolution followed on the heels of the war.Feeling good about the removal of Russian interference in German ambitions in Europe, Kaiser Wilhelm traveled to Morocco and posed “in shining armor”. This lead to friction with France, who had colonial interests in Morocco, and the isolation of Germany from the rest of Europe.

Financial WoesFollowing the war with Russia, many Japanese were disillusioned.

Returning soldiers, although celebrated, returned to find poverty and unemployment.

The annual budget had more than doubled following the war with China and almost tripled following the war with Russia, leading to a 10-fold increase in the public debt. Taxes were raised to pay this debt, so that property taxes were 40 times higher than equivalent land in California.

Increasing PopulationIn addition to financial crisis, the population of Japan was rapidly increasing, at a rate of 500,000 people/year. It had gone from 36 million in 1880 to 50 million in 1908.

Two solutions to this economic and social crisis were 1) industrialization and 2) emigration and/or colonization .

This period had seen the development of 6,000 miles of railroad, 18,000 miles of telegraphs, and 191 warships (including the world’s largest, the Satsuma.

Industrialization of JapanAlthough Japan had seen a 40-fold increase in foreign trade, it was unique in that it had to export before it was able to import industrial raw materials such as coking coal and iron ore. It started by selling silk to China and to France.

In the 1880s and 90s, Japan developed a cotton textile industry. To compete on world markets, Japan kept worker’s wages low, prohibited labor unions, and employed many women.

Japanese ColoniesIto Hirobumi became the first Resident-General of Korea, following a few terms as Prime Minister.He was interested in expanding Japanese interests in Manchuria as well. This area bordered Korea and had rich natural resources, it had been part of China for only 300 years and only recently had seen many Chinese move there. Ito was assassinated by a Korean national in Manchuria on Oct. 29, 1909. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea, renaming it ChŌsen.

Japan-U.S. RelationsDuring the war with Russia, Japan-U.S. relations were at an all-time high.

Afterwards, this relationship began to cool as America became concerned about Japan’s imperialistic ambitions.

Japan’s attitude towards America cooled as well, but for different reasons. These centered on California’s treatment of Japanese immigrants.

Japanese ImmigrantsBetween 1885 and 1900, so many Asian immigrants flowed into California, that the leaders of San Francisco urged congress to restrict immigration from China and Japan.The Japanese population of California had grown from 86 in 1880 to 50,000 in 1905.In San Francisco, an Asiatic Exclusion League sprang up that pressured the Board of Education to undertake segregation of Oriental pupils in city schools.

Gentleman’s AgreementThe school legislation was eventually abandoned and the two countries made an arrangement, called the “Gentleman’s Agreement” in 1907.Here, Japan agreed to limit emigration to the U.S. themselves without the U.S. having to enact legislation.California did not trust this agreement, so they sought to pass an “alien land law” where aliens would be ineligible for citizenship and could only lease their land, not own it.

Alien Land Law

When Japan complained to Washington about the Californian legislation, the Secretary of State traveled to CA to mediate.

The governor of CA had just been defeated in a run for Vice President and saw this as a challenge to his political strength. He now backed the land law with new-found determination and the law passed.

Some StatisticsThe story of Japanese immigration mostly involves California.

2/3 of the immigrants lived there, with 1/6 in Washington State, and only Oregon and Idaho having noteworthy numbers.

The ratio of males to females dropped quickly: from 25:1 in 1890, to 7:1 in 1910, to < 2:1 in 1920.

While Caucasians had 99 births for every 1,000 women, Japanese immigrants had 288 (1/12 of all births to 1/30 of the pop).

World War IJapan was called to come to the aid of its ally, Britain, in World War I. Japanese warships patrolled the Pacific, sweeping it clear of German raiders.

Japan had not forgotten Kaiser Wilhelm’s role in depriving it of the Liaotung Peninsula or instigating the war with Russia. Japan sent a note to Germany in 1914 recommending the relinquishment of Kiaochow on the Shantung Peninsula. When this went unanswered, they took it.

German Influence

Despite their animosity with the Germans, Japan resembled this country in many ways.Okuma had become its war-time PM in 1914, running on a liberal platform but Japan soon “out-Heroded all its predecessors in imperialism, militarism, and corruption”, according to critics.He took advantage of anarchy in China and the preoccupation of Europe and issued the “21 Demands” to China in 1915.

Twenty-One DemandsThe 21 demands were divided into 5

groups:Control over the Shandong ProvinceRights of settlement and extra-territoriality over southern Manchuria.Control of the Hanyeping mining complexNo more coastal or island concessions to other nationsJapanese advisors appointed to Chinese government, administration of police.

Chinese AnimosityOn May 8, 1915, Yuan Shi-kai signed the 21 demands, giving Japan what they had wanted since Hideyoshi, complete domination of China. Yuan then took the title of Chinese Emperor.This arrangement proved to be short-lived. Yuan was poisoned 6 months later and his successor refused to honor the 21 demands. Okuma was forced to retire the following year due to his age, his 21 demands accomplishing nothing more than increasing Chinese hatred for Japan.

1918: A Critical YearTokyo had entered into secret agreements with the U.S., Russia, England, France, and Italy that they would honor Japan’s claims to the Shantung and other former German holdings at the upcoming peace settlement.

Japan then loaned China large sums of money with the stipulation that they had to honor the 21 demands. When word of this somehow leaked out, wide-spread revolt broke out in China against the Japanese.

New-Found WealthUnlike following the previous wars, Japan emerged from WWI in good financial shape. In these four years, Japan’s foreign trade had increased 4-fold and its gold reserve 10-fold.

Much of the new wealth went to Japanese profiteers, called narikin (queened pawns) and not to those who needed it most.

Strikes grew from 50 to 417 during this time, with about 8,000 workers involved in the former but over 66,000 in the latter.

The Rice RiotsIn August of 1918, riots flared up among fisherman of Toyama and spread to the industrial centers of Nagoya, Kobe, Osaka, and Tokyo. “Give us rice!” was the cry which rang out.

The narikin, unappeased by the profits of war, had cornered the rice market and driven the prices up 3-fold.

The Imperial Household rushed a gift of $1.5 million to the relief of those affected, and the narikin had sense to add to this.

Power of the People

In 1918, the current PM (Terauchi) was forced out of office and a commoner became PM for the 1st time. Premier Hara doubled the size of the electorate and was moving toward universal manhood suffrage.As the war ended, the youth of Japan lost their enthusiasm for the military, it was now hard to find new recruits and those completing military service were berated.

Treaty of VersaillesAt the treaty of Versailles, Japan reminded the American and European powers of the understanding that had been worked out, and the Shantung peninsula was handed over to them.

The Chinese were vehemently opposed, Shantang being the birthplace of Confucius. When the facts of the Shantang affair became clear to the American public, tensions between the two countries increased.

Washington Disarmament ConferenceMany of these tensions were relieved in 1921 at a conference in Washington.

Here, it was decided that naval armaments would be decreased in America, Japan, and England and that a four-power pact in the Pacific to replace the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Shantung was restored to China at this time as well.

Admiral Kato, who was chairman of the delegation, was made PM upon his return home (Hara had been assassinated).