quantum physics 101

8/3/2019 Quantum Physics 101

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Quantum PhysicsThe Wave Structure of Matter (WSM) and Spherical

Standing Wave Interactions explains Discrete Energy States

of Quantum Theory / Wave Mechanics). A Simple Solutionto the Particle / Wave Duality of Light and Matter, EPR,Non Locality & Quantum Entanglement.

Note: This article was written several years ago. It is long (by internet standards) and basicallyexplains the main subjects of quantum theory from aWave Structure of Matterfoundation (wavemechanics). If you prefer shorter summaries just browse the quantum physics links on the rightside of this page.

To begin, a few nice quotes on Quantum Physics.

On the one hand the quantum theory of light cannot be considered satisfactory since it definesthe energy of a light particle (photon) by the equation E=hf containing the frequency f. Now apurely particle theory contains nothing that enables us to define a frequency; for this reason

alone, therefore, we are compelled, in the case of light, to introduce the idea of a particle and thatof frequency simultaneously. On the other hand, determination of the stable motion of electronsin the atom introduces integers, and up to this point the only phenomena involving integers in

physics were those ofinterference and of normal modes of vibration. This fact suggested tome the idea that electrons too could not be considered simply as particles, but that frequency(wave properties) must be assigned to them also. (Louis de Broglie, Nobel Prize Speech,

Quantum Physics, 1929)

The development during the present century is characterized by two theoretical systems

essentially independent of each other: the theory of relativity and the quantum theory. The twosystems do not directly contradict each other; but they seem little adapted to fusion into oneunified theory. ... Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof

that the wave character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory do, really,correspond to the facts. ... de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus

as being connected with a hypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent thediscrete character of Bohr's 'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the

corresponding waves. (Albert Einstein, On Quantum Mechanics, 1940)

A careful analysis of the process of observation in atomic physics has shown that the subatomicparticles have no meaning as isolated entities, but can only be understood as interconnectionsbetween the preparation of an experiment and the subsequent measurement. Quantum theorythus reveals a basic oneness of the universe. It shows that we cannot decompose the world intoindependently existing smallest units. As we penetrate into matter, nature does not show us any

isolated basic building blocks, but rather appears as a complicated web of relations between thevarious parts of the whole. (Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, On Quantum Theory)

Intro: Physics: Quantum Theory / Mechanics - Principle One: What Exists - Principle Two:Necessary Connection - Planck / Quantum Theory - de Broglie / Quantum Theory -Compton

Wavelength - Schrodinger Wave Equations - Force / Charge - Resonant Coupling / Light-
http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Most-Simple-Scientific-Theory-Reality.htmhttp://www.spaceandmotion.com/Most-Simple-Scientific-Theory-Reality.htmhttp://www.spaceandmotion.com/Most-Simple-Scientific-Theory-Reality.htm


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Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle - Born's Probability Waves -Feynman's QuantumElectrodynamics- Wolff / EPR Experiment- Physics Summary: Quantum Theory / Mechanics -

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Quantum Theory / Wave MechanicsFrom 1900 to 1930 there was a revolution in the foundations of our understanding of light andmatter interactions. In 1900 Planck showed that light energy must be emitted and absorbed indiscrete 'quanta' to explain blackbody radiation. Then in 1905 Einstein showed that the energy oflight is determined by its frequency, where E=hf. Finally, in the late 1920s, de Broglie andSchrodinger introduced the concept of Standing Waves to explain these discrete frequency andenergy states of light and matter (standing waves only exist at discrete frequencies and thusenergy states).

So it is clear that Waves are central to Quantum Physics and our understanding of the structureand discrete energy states of Matter (which explains why Quantum Theory is also called

Quantum Wave Mechanics). As we shall explain, the problems and absurdities of quantumtheory have been caused by the continuing assumption of the discrete 'particle' concept for bothlight and matter, and thus the resulting paradox of the 'Particle / Wave' duality.

As we are dealing with a scientific theory, it is necessary to begin by stating the centralPrinciples of the 'Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Wave Structure of Matter' ,which describe how Matter exists in Space as a Spherical Standing Wave and interacts with otherMatter in the Space around it. From this foundation we can then deduce the solutions to manyproblems currently found in Quantum Theory caused by this ancient concept that matter exists as'particles'.

For example, the obvious solution to the paradox of the particle / wave duality of matter is torealise that the Wave-Center of the Spherical Standing Wave causes the observed 'particle'

effects of Matter (see wave diagram below). Likewise, the discrete 'particle' properties of Light(quanta / photons) are caused by Standing Wave interactions which only occur at discretefrequencies and thus energy states.

I think it is useful to end this quantum physics introduction with two very important quotes.Firstly from Erwin Schrodinger;

What we observe as material bodies and forces are nothing but shapes and variations in thestructure of space. Particles are just schaumkommen (appearances). The world is given to meonly once, not one existing and one perceived. Subject and object are only one. The barrierbetween them cannot be said to have broken down as a result of recent experience in the physicalsciences, for this barrier does not exist. (Erwin Schrodinger, on Quantum Theory)

Because Schrodinger believed in real waves, he was never happy with Max Born's statistical /probability interpretation of the waves that became commonly accepted (and was activelypromoted by Heisenberg and Bohr) in Quantum Theory / Mechanics.

Let me say at the outset, that in this discourse, I am opposing not a few special statements ofquantum mechanics / quantum theory held today (1950s), I am opposing as it were the whole ofit, I am opposing its basic views that have been shaped 25 years ago, when Max Born putforward his probability interpretation, which was accepted by almost everybody. (Schrdinger E,The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge, CN, 1995)


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I don't like it, and I'm sorry I ever had anything to do with it. (Erwin Schrodinger talking aboutquantum theory.)

And I very strongly agree with Schrodinger (and greatly respect him) when he writes;

The scientist only imposes two things, namely truth and sincerity, imposes them upon himselfand upon other scientists. (Schrodinger)

Secondly, David Bohm provides a clear account of how this incorrect 'particle' conception ofmatter not only causes harm to the Sciences, but also to the way we think and live, and thus toour very society and its future evolution.

The notion that all these fragments is separately existent is evidently an illusion, and this illusioncannot do other than lead to endless conflict and confusion. Indeed, the attempt to live accordingto the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has led to the growingseries of extremely urgent crises that is confronting us today. Thus, as is now well known, thisway of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the balance of nature, over-population,world-wide economic and political disorder and the creation of an overall environment that isneither physically nor mentally healthy for most of the people who live in it. Individually therehas developed a widespread feeling of helplessness and despair, in the face of what seems to bean overwhelming mass of disparate social forces, going beyond the control and even thecomprehension of the human beings who are caught up in it.(David Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 1980)


Wavelength - Schrodinger Wave Equations - Force / Charge - Resonant Coupling / Light-Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle - Born's Probability Waves -Feynman's Quantum

Electrodynamics- Wolff / EPR Experiment- Physics Summary: Quantum Theory / Mechanics -Top of Page

Principle One - On What Exists and its Properties

i) One Thing, Space (Infinite and Eternal) Exists as a Wave-Medium and contains Wave-Motions which Propagate at the Velocity of Light c.ii) Matter Exists as the Spherical Wave Motion of Space (which determines) the Size of ourFinite Spherical Universe within an Infinite Space.

+ = This (very rough!) diagram shows how the Spherical In and Out Wavesform a Standing Wave around the Wave-Center 'particle'.




Principle Two - On the Necessary Connections between What Exists


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i) Any Change in Velocity of the Spherical In-Waves from One Direction Changes where theseIn-Waves meet at their respective Wave-Center which we see as the Accelerated Motion of the'Particle'. (This is the Cause of All Forces, i.e. Newton's Law of Inertia F=m.a, see Fig:2.1below)ii) The Spherical In-Waves are formed from the Huygens' Combination of Out-Waves from Allother Matter in our Finite Spherical Universe. (This is the Cause of Mach's Principle - the Mass(mass-energy density of space) of an object is determined by all the other matter in the Universe.See Fig:2.2 below)

Fig: 2.1 Gravity is Caused by the Slowing of the In-Waves. Note: Very approximate wavediagram, only shows In-Waves (does not show Out-Waves) and the ellipsoidal shape is notaccurate. But the basic idea of gravity being caused by slower wave velocity in higher mass-energy density space is important. An obvious example of this is light curving past the sun.

Fig: 2.2 Huygens' Theory explains how our In-Waves are created by other Matter's Out-Waves

So let us now explain and solve the many problems and paradoxes of Quantum Theory using theTwo Principles of the Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Spherical Wave Structure ofMatter.

During the years 1900-1930, many experiments were done on the interactions of light beams,particle beams, and metal targets. Analysis of these experiments showed that Light and Matterhad both Particle and Wave properties. As we have said, the solution to this apparent paradox ofthe Particle/Wave duality is to simply explain how the discrete 'particle' properties (quanta) arein fact caused by standing Wave interactions.


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To do this we must begin by explaining the experimental foundations of Quantum Theory;1. Max Planck's Discovery of the Particle (Quantum) Properties of Light, E=hf. (1900)2. de Broglie's Discovery of the Wave Properties of Electron Interactions, y=h/mv. (1927)3. The Equivalence of Energy, Mass and Frequency and the Compton Wavelength Y of theElectron Y=h/mc = 2.43*10-12m.




1.1 Quantum Physics Foundations: Max Planck's Discovery of Particle /Quantum Properties of Light (1900)

In 1900 Max Planck made a profound discovery. He showed (from purely formal / mathematical

foundations) that light must be emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts if it was to correctlydescribe observed phenomena (i.e. Blackbody radiation).Prior to then light had been considered as a continuous electromagnetic wave, thus the discretenature of light was completely unexpected, as Albert Einstein explains;

About fifteen years ago (1899) nobody had yet doubted that a correct account of the electrical,optical, and thermal properties of matter was possible on the basis of Galileo-Newtonianmechanics applied to molecular motion and of Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field.(Albert Einstein, 1915)

Then Planck showed that in order to establish a law of heat radiation (Infra red light waves)consonant with experience, it was necessary to employ a method of calculation whoseincompatibility with the principles of classical physics became clearer and clearer. For with thismethod of calculation, Planck introduced into physics the quantum hypothesis, which has sincereceived brilliant confirmation. (Albert Einstein, 1914)

In the year nineteen hundred, in the course of purely theoretical (mathematical) investigation,Max Planck made a very remarkable discovery: the law of radiation of bodies as a function oftemperature could not be derived solely from the Laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. Toarrive at results consistent with the relevant experiments, radiation of a given frequency f had tobe treated as though it consisted of energy atoms (photons) of the individual energy hf, where his Planck's universal constant. During the years following, it was shown that light waseverywhere produced and absorbed in such energy quanta. In particular, Niels Bohr was able tolargely understand the structure of the atom, on the assumption that the atoms can only havediscrete energy values, and that the discontinuous transitions between them are connected with

the emission or absorption of energy quantum. This threw some light on the fact that in theirgaseous state elements and their compounds radiate and absorb only light of certain sharplydefined frequencies. (Albert Einstein, 1940)

Even the Greeks had already conceived the atomistic nature of matter and the concept was raisedto a high degree of probability by the scientists of the nineteenth century. But it was Planck's lawof radiation that yielded the first exact determination - independent of other assumptions - of theabsolute magnitudes of atoms. More than that, he showed convincingly that in addition to theatomistic structure of matter there is a kind of atomistic structure to energy, governed by the


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universal constant h, which was introduced by Planck. This discovery became the basis of alltwentieth-century research in physics and has almost entirely conditioned its development eversince. Without this discovery it would not have been possible to establish a workable theory ofmolecules and atoms and the energy processes that govern their transformations. Moreover, ithas shattered the whole framework of classical mechanics and electrodynamics and set science afresh task: that of finding a new conceptual basis for all physics. Despite remarkable partialgains, the problem is still far from a satisfactory solution. (Albert Einstein, 1950)

Albert Einstein (1905) used Planck's relationship to explain the results of the photoelectric effectwhich showed that the energy E of ejected electrons was dependent upon the frequency fofincident light as described in the equation E=hf. It is ironic that in 1921 Albert Einstein wasawarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, though he never believed in particles andacknowledged that he did not know the cause of the discrete energy transfers (photons) whichwere contradictory to his continuous field theory of matter!In 1954 Albert Einstein wrote to his friend Michael Besso expressing his frustration;

All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer to the answer to thequestion, 'What are light quanta?' Nowadays every Tom, Dick and Harry thinks he knows it, but

he is mistaken. (Albert Einstein, 1954)Most importantly, Albert Einstein also suspected that Matter could not be described by acontinuous spherical force field;

I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., on continuousstructures. In that case, nothing remains of my entire castle in the air, gravitation theory included,[and of] the rest of modern physics. (Albert Einstein, 1954)

Albert Einstein's suspicions were well justified, for he had spent a lifetime trying (and failing) tocreate a unified field theory of matter that explained both Quantum Theory / Light and Relativity/ Gravity.In fact Matter, as a Spherical Standing Wave which causes the 'Field' effect, interacts with othermatter in discrete standing wave patterns, not with continuous force fields as he had imagined,thus his task was ultimately impossible, as he sadly came to realise towards the end of his life.

However, his work on the photoelectric effect confirmed that light energy was only emitted andabsorbed by electrons in discrete amounts or quanta. This quanta of light energy soon becameknown as the 'photon' (i.e. discrete like a particle) and led to the paradox that light behaved bothas a continuous e-m wave (Maxwell, Albert Einstein) as well as a discrete particle/photon(Planck, Albert Einstein). So we see that Albert Einstein was partly responsible for the discoveryof the particle/photon concept of light, though he completely rejected the notion of discreteparticles. He writes;

Since the theory of general relativity implies the representation of physical reality by acontinuous field, the concept of particles or material points cannot play a fundamental

part, nor can the concept of motion. (Albert Einstein)Albert Einstein is correct that there are no discrete particles, and that the particle can only appearas a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high.But it is the high Wave-Amplitude of the Wave-Center of a Spherical Standing Wave in Space(not of a continuous spherical force field) that causes the particle effect. Thus of three concepts,particles, force fields, and motion, it finally turns out that Motion, as the spherical wave motionof space, is the correct concept, as it then explains both particles and fields. (For furtherexplanation see Article on Relativity)


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It is most important to realise though that Albert Einstein was correct in imagining matter asbeing spatially extended, as he explains;

I wished to show that space time is not necessarily something to which one can ascribe to aseparate existence, independently of the actual objects of physical reality. Physical objects arenot in space, but these objects are spatially extended. In this way the concept empty space

loses its meaning. (Albert Einstein)It is certainly true that the particle and its forces / fields are very useful mathematical concepts,unfortunately, they also cause many problems and paradoxes because they are approximations toreality and do not physically exist.

We can now finally solve these problems by understanding the reason for these discrete energystates, which are due to the fact that standing waves only exist at discrete frequencies, like noteson the string of a guitar, thus while the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter predicts thatenergy exchanges will be discrete, as observed, the continuous e-m wave does not anticipate this.

Thus the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter explains Max Planck's (1900) discoverythat there are only certain allowed discrete energy states for electrons in molecules and atoms,

and further, that light is only ever emitted and absorbed by electrons in discrete or 'quantum'amounts, as the electrons move from one stable standing wave pattern to another. (This isexplained in more detail in section 1.4)




1.2 Quantum Theory / Mechanics: de Broglie's Discovery of the Wave Propertiesof Electrons (1927)

The next step was taken by de Broglie. He asked himself how the discrete states could beunderstood by the aid of current concepts, and hit on a parallel with stationary (standing)waves, as for instance in the case of proper frequencies of organ pipes and strings in acoustics.(Albert Einstein, 1954)

It is with some frustration that I now read these quotes, as it is obvious in hindsight as to theirerrors, and how simply they can now be solved! de Broglie's realisation that standing waves existat discrete frequencies and thus energies is obviously true and important, yet he continued withthe error of the particle concept and thus imagined particles moving in a wavelike manner!

Nonetheless, as he was close to the truth he had considerable success with his theory, and thesepredicted wave properties of matter were shortly thereafter confirmed from experiments(Davisson and Germer, 1927) on the scattering of electrons through crystals (which act asdiffraction slits). As Albert Einstein confirms;

Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wavecharacter of the phenomena ofmotion as assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to thefacts. (Albert Einstein, 1954)


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So by 1927 the wave properties of matter had been predicted theoretically by de Broglie, andthen confirmed by experiment. But unfortunately these scientists continued to believe in theexistence of discrete particles, and thus they misinterpreted this most important discovery of thestanding wave properties of matter.

1.2.1 de Broglie's Interpretation of the Standing Waves as the Wave-Like Motion

of a Particle in Orbit (1927)In 1913, Niels Bohr had developed a simple (though only partly correct) model for the hydrogenatom that assumed; (Our further comments in brackets)

i) That the electron particle moves in circular orbits about the proton particle. (This is nearlycorrect, they are not 'orbits' but complex Standing Wave patterns)ii) Only certain orbits are stable. (This is nearly correct, only certain Standing Wave patterns areresonantly stable)iii) Light is emitted and absorbed by the atom when the electron 'jumps' from one allowed orbitalstate to a another. (This is nearly correct, the electrons move from one stable Standing Wavepattern to another. This is known as 'Resonant Coupling' and is explained in Section 1.4.)

This early atomic model had some limited success because it was obviously created to explainthe discrete energy states of light emitted and absorbed by bound electrons in atoms ormolecules, as discovered by Planck in 1900.de Broglie was aware of Bohr's model for the atom and he cleverly found a way of explainingwhy only certain orbits were 'allowed' for the electron. As Albert Einstein explains;

de Broglie conceived an electron revolving about the atomic nucleus as being connected with ahypothetical wave train, and made intelligible to some extent the discrete character of Bohr's'permitted' paths by the stationary (standing) character of the corresponding waves. (AlbertEinstein, 1940)

Fig: 1.2.1 The allowed discrete orbits of the electron as imagined by de Broglie.

de Broglie assumed that because light had both particle and wave properties, that this may alsobe true for matter. Thus he was not actually looking for the wave structure of matter. Instead, asmatter was already assumed to be a particle, he was looking for wave properties of matter tocomplement the known particle properties. As a consequence of this particle/wave duality, deBroglie imagined the standing waves to be related to discrete wavelengths and standing waves

for certain orbits of the electron particle about the proton. (Rather than considering the actualstanding wave structure of the electron itself.)

From de Broglie's perspective, and from modern physics at that time, this solution had a certaincharm. It maintained the particle - wave duality for BOTH light and matter, and at the same timeexplained why only certain orbits of the electron (which relate to whole numbers of standingwaves) were allowed, which fitted beautifully with Niels Bohr model of the atom. de Brogliefurther explains his reasoning for the particle/wave duality of matter in his 1929 Nobel Prizeacceptance speech;


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1.3 Quantum Theory: The Compton Wavelength 2.43*10-12m of the Electron

Y=h/mc (1923)As stated, in hindsight there were many clues as to the Wave Structure of the Electron. Anotherobvious clue being that the electron itself has a 'Compton' wavelength (named after Americanexperimental physicist Holly Compton who discovered this from experiments with electronbeams). But unfortunately they had come to accept the particle / wave duality of matter andsimply continued to assume that somehow this paradoxical conception of matter was true, andthus beyond human comprehension. (So they stopped looking for an obvious solution!)

So let us briefly explain the Compton Wavelength. Experiments show that Energy is directlyrelated to both Frequency and Mass (this is true since we now realise that they are ALL causedby Wave-Motion). As we know from experiment the energy E and mass m of the electron, andthe velocity of light c, we can calculate the Compton Wavelength Y of the Electron as follows;

E=hf=mc2 and f=c/Y, thus hc/Y= mc2 resulting in Y=h/mc which for the Electron = 2.43*10-12m.

Fig: 2.3 The Compton Wavelength (Y) of the Electron - While this wavelength isrelated to the actual Wavelength of the Spherical Standing Wave, it is more complex than this.As the Spherical In-Wave flows in towards the Wave-Center, both its Wave-Amplitude andmass-energy density of space increase, thus the velocity and wavelength will also change. (Thusthere is still a substantial amount of mathematical analysis required on how the Wavelength ofthe Electron changes with distance from the Wave-Center.)

Intro: Physics: Quantum Theory / Mechanics - Principle One: What Exists - Principle Two:Necessary Connection - Planck / Quantum Theory - de Broglie / Quantum Theory -ComptonWavelength - Schrodinger Wave Equations - Force / Charge - Resonant Coupling / Light-


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1.4 Quantum Wave Mechanics: The Schrodinger Wave Equations / StandingWave Interactions (1928)

Quantum theory was thus essentially founded on the experimental observations of frequency andwavelength for both light and matter. These empirical facts are obviously consistent with the

Spherical Standing Wave structure of matter.1. Planck's discovery that energy is related to frequency in the equation E=hf2. The Equivalence of Energy, Frequency and Mass E=hf=mc2, which deduces the ComptonWavelength Y=h/mc3. The de Broglie wavelength y=h/mv

It was Erwin Schrodinger who discovered that when frequency fand de Broglie wavelength ywere substituted into general wave equations it becomes possible to express energy E andmomentum mv (from the above equations) as wave functions - thus a confined particle (e.g. an


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electron in an atom/molecule) with known energy and momentum functions could be describedwith a certain wave function.

From this it was further found that only certain frequency wave functions, like frequencies onmusical strings, were allowed to exist. These allowed functions and their frequencies dependedon the confining structure (atom or molecule) that the electron was bound to (analogous to how

strings are bound to a violin, and only then can they resonate at certain frequencies).Significantly, these allowed frequencies corresponded to the observed discrete frequencies oflight emitted and absorbed by electrons bound in atoms/molecules. This further confirmed thestanding wave properties of matter, and thus that only certain standing wave frequencies couldexist which corresponded to certain energy states. The agreement of observed frequencies andSchrodinger's Wave Equations further established the fundamental importance of QuantumTheory and thus the Wave properties of both light and matter. As Albert Einstein explains;

How can one assign a discrete succession of energy values E to a system specified in the sense ofclassical mechanics (the energy function is a given function of the co-ordinates x and thecorresponding momenta mv)? Planck's constant h relates the frequency f =E/h to the energyvalues E. It is therefore sufficient to assign to the system a succession of discrete frequency f

values. This reminds us of the fact that in acoustics a series of discrete frequency values iscoordinated to a linear partial differential equation (for given boundary conditions) namely thesinusoidal periodic solutions. In corresponding manner, Schrodinger set himself the task ofcoordinating a partial differential equation for a scalar wave function to the given energyfunction E (x, mv), where the position x and time t are independent variables. (Albert Einstein,1936)

And here we have a final piece of the puzzle in a sense, for it was Schrodinger who discoveredthat the standing waves are scalar waves rather than vector electromagnetic waves. This is amost important difference. Electromagnetic waves are vector waves - at each point in Space thewave equations yield a vector quantity which describes both a direction and an amplitude (size offorce) of the wave, and this relates to the original construction of the e-m field by Faraday which

described both a force and a direction of how this force acted on other matter.Spherical Wave Motions of Space are Scalar waves - at each point in Space the wave equationsyield a single quantity which simply describes the wave amplitude (there is no directionalcomponent). For example, sound waves are scalar waves where the wave amplitude describes theMotion (or compression) of the wave medium (air). Likewise Space is a nearly rigid Wave-Medium which propagates Wave-Motions.

With de Broglie's introduction of the concept ofstanding waves to explain the discrete energystates of atoms and molecules, and the introduction ofscalar waves by Schrodinger, they hadintuitively grasped important truths of nature as Albert Einstein confirms;

Experiments on interference made with particle rays have given brilliant proof that the wave

character of the phenomena of motion as assumed by the theory does, really, correspond to thefacts.The de Broglie-Schrodinger method, which has in a certain sense the character of a field theory,does indeed deduce the existence of only discrete states, in surprising agreement with empiricalfacts. It does so on the basis of differential equations applying a kind ofresonance argument.(Albert Einstein, 1927)

So let us now explain in more detail this phenomena of Light energy being emitted and absorbedin discrete amounts (photons) due to Resonant Standing Wave interactions. Firstly, we must


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understand Principle Two and realise that the velocity of wave Motions in Space is not constant,and in fact depends upon both the Wave-Amplitude and the mass-energy density of space(square of Wave-Amplitude). These are simply the properties of Space as a Wave-medium.

Intro: Physics: Quantum Theory / Mechanics - Principle One: What Exists - Principle Two:

Necessary Connection - Planck / Quantum Theory - de Broglie / Quantum Theory -ComptonWavelength - Schrodinger Wave Equations - Force / Charge - Resonant Coupling / Light-Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle - Born's Probability Waves -Feynman's Quantum


1.4.1 Quantum Physics: On the Forces of Charge and Light

It is the nature of Principles that they are stated rather than deduced. Thus we must state theProperties of Space, as Principles, and then demonstrate that logical deductions from thesePrinciples do in fact correspond to observation. What we have found is that if Space behaves inthe following way, then it gives rise to deductions which correspond to observation and

experiment.The Wave Velocity (velocity of light c) varies with both the Wave-Amplitude and the mass-energy density of space (the square of the Wave-Amplitude).i) The greater the Wave-Amplitude the greater the Wave-Velocity.ii) The greater the mass-energy density of space the slower the Wave-Velocity.We do not know why Space, as a Wave-Medium, behaves this way, other than to say that theseare simply the properties of Space. What we do discover though, is that from these foundationswe get a simple explanation of both Charge/Light and Mass/Gravity.

As gravity is explained in the article on Relativity, the general idea is only briefly summarisedhere. When In-Waves travel in through other Matter / Wave-Motions of Space, they slightly slowdown due to the increased mass-energy density of space, and this causes the Wave-Centers to

naturally move together, which we observe as Gravitational attraction. As mass-energy densityof space is always positive (squares are always positive), this always causes a slowing of the In-Waves, thus explaining why gravity is always attractive.

On the other hand, Wave-Amplitude is both positive and negative, thus interacting Wave-Amplitudes can either increase or decrease (i.e. combine or cancel out), causing either anincrease or decrease in the velocity of the In-Waves, and a consequent moving together, ormoving apart of the Wave-Centers.It is this property of Space that causes Charge / Electromagnetic Fields and in a slightly morecomplex manner, Light.

Thus when we place two electrons near one another in Space, then the Wave-Amplitude of Spacebetween them increases because the Waves are in phase and the Wave-Amplitudes combine andincrease, thus the Wave-Velocity increases (opposite to gravity's slowing of In-Waves) and thiscauses the Wave-Centers to move apart. This explains the electrical repulsion of like charges.

Conversely, if we place an electron and a positron (anti-matter being the opposite phase Wave-Motion to Matter, thus a positron is the opposite phase to an electron) then the Wave-Amplitudebetween the two Wave-Centers tends to cancel out and become smaller, thus the Wave-Velocitybetween the two Wave-Centers decreases (like gravity) and thus causes the Wave-Centers tomove together.
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In fact this also explains the electron / positron (matter / antimatter) annihilation, as the Wave-Centers will eventually overlap one-another and the Wave-Amplitudes will completely cancelout (due to their equal and opposite phase) and thus disappear.This explains Charge, but does not explain Light, which is slightly more complex, though it isstill caused by the same fundamental properties of Space.




1.4.2 Quantum Physics: On Resonant Coupling as the Cause of Light

What we must further realise is that Light is only emitted and absorbed by electrons bound inatoms or molecules, and these electrons have some complex repeating Standing Wave-Motion

about the nucleus. Thus the electrons behave as 'oscillating resonators' and it is commonknowledge to electrical engineers and physicists that two interconnected resonators can undergoresonant coupling, where one resonator decreases in frequency and the other one increases acorresponding amount.

Thus two bound resonating electrons (oscillators) exchange energy much like classical coupledoscillators, such as electric circuits or joined pendulums. The coupling provided by the non-linear centers of the resonances (high Wave-Amplitude Wave-Centers where the Wave-Velocities change ) causes them to change velocity, frequency, and wavelength, due to theinteraction (modulation) of each other's waves. Since significant coupling can only occurbetween two oscillators which possess the same resonant elements, the frequency (energy)changes are equal and opposite. This we observe as the law of conservation of energy.

When opposite changes of frequency (energy ) takes place between two resonances, energyseems to be transported from the center of one resonance to another. We observe a loss of energywhere frequency decreases and added energy where it increases. The exchange appears to travelwith the speed of the IN waves of the receiving resonance which is c, the velocity of light. Whenlarge numbers of changes occur together, so we can sample part of it, we see a beam of light.When single exchanges occur we see photons as discrete energy exchanges. The transitorymodulated waves traveling between two resonances (as the Electrons/Wave-Centers move fromone standing wave pattern to another) create the illusion of the photon. An exchange may require108 to 1015 cycles to complete, depending on the degree of coupling and species of resonance.

For example, if one oscillator were an electron, its frequency mc2/h is about 1023 hertz, and if thetransition time were 10-8 seconds, the frequency change requires about 1015 cycles to complete.

Such a large number of cycles implies, in engineering slang, a large Q value, which indicatesgreat precision of the equal and opposite changes in oscillator frequency, and the conservation ofenergy

Fig: 1.4.2 Light is Caused by the Resonant Coupling of two bound Wave-Centers ofSpherical Standing Waves (Electrons) with oscillating wave functions. This diagram is onlyan approximation, but it gives you some idea of the 'secondary' wavelength (the 'electromagnetic'wavelength of light) caused by the interactions of the In and Out-Waves of the twoElectrons/Wave-Centers.


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Thus we realise that these different standing Wave patterns cause a cyclical oscillation in theShape of the In and Out-Waves which describes a wave function that is ultimately the cause ofthe 'electromagnetic' wavelength and frequency of light. As only certain discrete 'orbits'(standing wave functions) exist for the Wave-Center of the Spherical Standing Wave, then it canonly exchange frequencies in discrete levels which correspond to discrete energy exchanges oflight 'photons'. i.e. E=hf where only discrete frequencies (f) area resonantly stable and thus'allowed'. (There are no separate light 'particles / photons' or collapsing wave functions, bothbeing mathematical existents only!)

Most importantly, these standing wave interactions and resonant coupling are the reason forSchrodinger's Standing Wave Equations and their obvious success at explaining the allowedenergy states for electrons in atoms, and thus the discrete photon effect of light as these electronsmove from one resonant standing wave pattern (quantum state) to another.


Wavelength - Schrodinger Wave Equations - Force / Charge - Resonant Coupling / Light-

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle - Born's Probability Waves -Feynman's QuantumElectrodynamics- Wolff / EPR Experiment- Physics Summary: Quantum Theory / Mechanics -Top of Page

1.5.1 Quantum Theory: Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

On Chance and Probability in a Necessarily Interconnected finite spherical Universe within aNon-Determined Infinite Space

At the same time that the wave properties of matter were discovered, two further discoverieswere made that also profoundly influenced (and confused) the future evolution of modernphysics.

Firstly, Werner Heisenberg developed the uncertainty principle which tells us that we (theobserver) can never exactly know both the position and momentum of a particle. As everyobservation requires an energy exchange (photon) to create the observed 'data', some energy(wave) state of the observed object has to be altered. Thus the observation has a discrete effecton what we measure. i.e. We change the experiment by observing it! (A large part of theirproblem though was to continue to assume the existence of discrete particles and thus to try toexactly locate both their position and motion, which is impossible as there is no discreteparticle!)Further, because both the observed position and momentum of the particle can never be exactlyknown, theorists were left trying to determine the probability of where, for example, the 'particle'would be observed.





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1.5.2 Quantum Mechanics: Born's 'Probability Waves' Interpretation of QT(1928)

Born (1928) was the first to discover (by chance and with no theoretical foundation) that thesquare of the quantum wave equations (which is actually the mass-energy density of space) couldbe used to predict the probability of where the particle would be found. Since it was impossible

for both the waves and the particles to be real entities, it became customary to regard the wavesas unreal probability waves and to maintain the belief in the 'real' particle. Unfortunately(profoundly) this maintained the belief in the particle/wave duality, in a new form where the'quantum' scalar standing waves had become 'probability waves' for the 'real' particle.Albert Einstein unfortunately agreed with this probability wave interpretation, as he believed incontinuous force fields (not in waves or particles) thus to him it was sensible that the waves werenot real, and were mere descriptions of probabilities. He writes;

On the basis of quantum theory there was obtained a surprisingly good representation of animmense variety of facts which otherwise appeared entirely incomprehensible. But on one point,curiously enough, there was failure: it proved impossible to associate with these Schrodingerwaves definite motions of the mass points - and that, after all, had been the original purpose of

the whole construction. The difficulty appeared insurmountable until it was overcome by Born ina way as simple as it was unexpected. The de Broglie-Schrodinger wave fields were not to beinterpreted as a mathematical description of how an event actually takes place in time and space,though, of course, they have reference to such an event. Rather they are a mathematicaldescription of what we can actually know about the system. They serve only to make statisticalstatements and predictions of the results of all measurements which we can carry out upon thesystem. (Albert Einstein, 1940)

It seems to be clear, therefore, that Born's statistical interpretation of quantum theory is the onlypossible one. The wave function does not in any way describe a state which could be that of asingle system; it relates rather to many systems, to an 'ensemble of systems' in the sense ofstatistical mechanics. (Albert Einstein, 1936)

Albert Einstein is correct in one sense, mistaken in another. It is true that matter is intimatelyinterconnected to all the other matter in the universe by the Spherical In and Out-Waves,something quantum theory discovered but never correctly understood.This has become known as quantum entanglement and relates to the famous experiment posed byAlbert Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) (see Section 1.7 for an explanation of thisexperiment) and when later technology allowed its experimental testing, it confirmed quantumtheory's entanglement. Albert Einstein assumed this interconnectedness was due to the sphericalspatially extended field structure of matter, instead, it is due to the interaction of the sphericalspatially extended Standing Waves of matter with other matter's Wave-Centers distant in Space.Explaining this Standing Wave interaction of matter with other matter in the Space around it(action-at-a-distance) is largely the purpose of this Article and is one of the great powers of the

Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Spherical Wave Structure of Matter.Nonetheless, Albert Einstein was very close to the truth. He realised that because matter isspherically spatially extended we must give up the idea of complete localization and knowledgeof the 'particle' in a theoretical model. For the particle is nothing but the Wave-Center of aSpherical Standing Wave, and thus can never be isolated as an entity in itself, but is dependenton its interactions with all the other Matter in the Universe. And it is this lack of knowledge ofthe system as a whole that is the ultimate cause of the uncertainty and resultant probabilityinherent in Quantum Theory.


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Thus the last and most successful creation of theoretical physics, namely quantum mechanics(QM), differs fundamentally from both Newton's mechanics, and Maxwell's e-m field. For thequantities which figure in QM's laws make no claim to describe physical reality itself, but onlyprobabilities of the occurrence of a physical reality that we have in view. (Albert Einstein, 1931)I cannot but confess that I attach only a transitory importance to this interpretation. I still believein the possibility of a model of reality - that is to say, of a theory which represents thingsthemselves and not merely the probability of their occurrence. On the other hand, it seems to mecertain that we must give up the idea of complete localization of the particle in a theoreticalmodel. This seems to me the permanent upshot of Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty. (AlbertEinstein, 1934)

Albert Einstein believed that Reality could be represented by spherical force fields, that realitywas not founded on chance (as Bohr and Heisenberg argued) but on necessary connectionsbetween things (thus his comment 'God does not play dice'!). He was largely correct, Matter isnecessarily connected due to the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter, but due to lack ofknowledge of the system as a whole (the Universe), and the fact that it is impossible to determinean Infinite system (of which our finite spherical universe is a part - see Article on Cosmology),then this gives rise to the chance and uncertainty found in Quantum Theory.




1.6 Quantum Physics: A Brief Analysis of Feynman's Quantum Electrodynamics(QED, 1945)

QED is founded on the assumption that charged 'particles' somehow generate sphericalelectromagnetic (vector) In and Out Waves (a dynamic version of Lorentz's Theory of theElectron, as Feynman uses spherical electromagnetic Waves, rather than static force fields). It isimportant to realise though, that like most post-modern physicists, Richard Feynman was aLogical Positivist. Thus he did not believe in the existence of either particles or waves, he simplyused this conceptual language as a way of representing how matter behaves in a logical way. Ashe says;

.. some things that satisfy the rules of algebra can be interesting to mathematicians even thoughthey don't always represent a real situation. (Feynman)

This explains why he had such success and such failure at the same time, as he had the correctspherical wave structure of Matter, but he continued with two further errors, the existence of the

particle, and the use of vector 'electromagnetic' waves (mathematical waves of force), rather thanusing the correct scalar 'quantum' waves. It is this error of Feynman's that ultimately led Wolff tomake his remarkable discoveries of the WSM.

The problem for QED is twofold;

Firstly, there is the Problem of 'Renormalisation' - Feynman must assume finite dimensions forthe particle, else the spherical electromagnetic waves would reach infinite fields strengths whenthe radius of the spherical electromagnetic waves tends to zero. There must be some non-zero


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cut-off that is arbitrarily introduced by having a 'particle' of a certain finite size. Effectively,Feynman gets infinities in his equations, and then he subtract infinity from infinity and puts inthe correct empirical answer (which is not good mathematics, but it does then workextraordinarily well!)

Secondly, it is a mathematical fact that there are no vector wave solutions of the Maxwell

Equations (which found electromagnetic fields) in spherical co-ordinates!These are profound problems that have caused contradiction and paradox within QuantumTheory to the present day, and have led to the self fulfilling belief that we can never correctlydescribe and understand Reality.

... the more you see how strangely Nature behaves, the harder it is to make a model that explainshow even the simplest phenomena actually work. So theoretical physics has given up on that.(Feynman)

In fact Nature behaves in a very sensible and logical way (which explains why mathematicalphysics exists as a subject and can describe so many phenomena, and also explains how we'humans' have been able to evolve a logical aspect to our minds!). That it is not Nature which isstrange, but our incorrect conceptions of Nature! Most importantly, the simple sensible solutions

to these problems can be easily understood once we know the correct Wave Structure of Matter.

1.6.1 The Solution to the Problem of 'Renormalisation'.

Richard Feynman's PhD thesis (with J. A. Wheeler, 1945) used Spherical IN (Advanced) andOUT (Retarded) e-m waves to investigate this spherical e-m field effect around the electron andhow accelerated electrons could emit light (e-m radiation) to be absorbed by other electrons at-a-distant in space.One vexing problem of this e-m field theory was that it led to infinitely high fields (singularities)at the center of the point particle electron. This was avoided with a mathematical process called

renormalisation whereby infinity was subtracted from infinity and the correct experimental resultwas substituted into the equation. It was Dirac who pointed out that this is not good mathematics- and Feynman was well aware of this!In 1937 Paul Dirac wrote;

I must say that I am very dissatisfied with the situation, because this so called good theory doesinvolve neglecting infinities which appear in its equations, neglecting them in an arbitrary way.This is just not sensible mathematics. Sensible mathematics involves neglecting a quantity whenit turns out to be small - not neglecting it just because it is infinitely great and you do not want it!(Dirac, 1937)

Richard Feynman was obviously also aware of this problem, and had this to say aboutrenormalisation.

But no matter how clever the word, it is what I call a dippy process! Having to resort to suchhocus pocus has prevented us from proving that the theory of quantum electrodynamics ismathematically self consistent. ... I suspect that renormalisation is not mathematically legitimate.(Feynman, 1985)

Albert Einstein was also aware of this problem as he explains in his critique of Lorentz'selectromagnetic field theory for electrons (as it is still the same fundamental problem of theparticle / electromagnetic field duality).


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The inadequacy of this point of view manifested itself in the necessity of assuming finitedimensions for the particles in order to prevent the electromagnetic field existing at their surfacesfrom becoming infinitely large. (Albert Einstein, 1936)

Feynman's Spherical IN OUT wave theory is largely correct (and of course explains his success)but his error of using vector e-m waves resulted in infinities at the point particle as the radius

tended to zero, and this led to the errors of renormalisation. In reality, Matter, as a structure ofscalar spherical quantum waves, has a finite wave amplitude at the Wave-Center (as observed)and thus eliminates the infinities and the problems of renormalisation found in Feynman'sQuantum Electrodynamics (QED).(See the Work of Wolff atQuantumMatter.com for acomplete explanation.)

1.6.2 The Solution to the Problem of there being NO Vector Wave Solutions ofMaxwell's Equations in Spherical Co-ordinates

James Maxwell (1876) used the experimental (empirical) results of Faraday, Coulomb, etc. todevelop four equations, now famous, whose solutions described an electromagnetic (e-m) wavewhich correctly deduced the velocity of light c. Maxwell was correct that light is a wavetraveling with velocity c - but it is a wave developed from the interaction of the IN and OUTwaves of two spherical standing waves whose Wave-Centers are bound in resonant standingwave patterns. (Thus it is the interaction of four waves which probably explains why there arefour Maxwell Equations.)

The Maxwell's Equations (M.E.), which describe the formation of electric fields E by a chargedistribution q and changing magnetic fields H, as well as the formation of the H field by achanging E and electric currents i, cannot describe a spherical electromagnetic wave! It is amathematical fact that there are no wave solutions of the M.E.s in spherical co-ordinates! Onlythe scalar 'quantum' wave equation has spherical wave solutions. Similarly, there are noimaginable M.E. solutions for a 'photon particle'. It is clear that the M.E.s are not fundamentaland the photon is only a mathematical construction.

The failure of the M.E. in spherical co-ordinates can be imagined by saying, You cannot combthe hair on a tennis ball. This means that if you attempt to comb down an E field (the hairrepresenting the electric vector) everywhere flat onto a tennis ball (a spherical surface), you mustcreate a 'cowlick' somewhere on the ball which frustrates your attempt to comb it.

The questions arise, Why did theorists continue to favour the e-m field, the photon, and M.E. for70 years in spite of the well-known flagrant failure of the mathematical description to agree withobservation? Why were alternative descriptions of nature not sought? We suspect the answer isbecause it worked once the errors were removed with a bit of 'hocus pocus' mathematics and theaid of empirical data.Unfortunately, this logical positivist view to retain the point particle and vector force fields hasbeen the root cause of the many paradoxes and mysteries surrounding quantum theory. Theresulting confusion has been increasingly exploited in the popular press. Instead of searching forthe simple behaviour of nature, the physics community found that 'wave-particle duality' was anexciting launching pad for more complex proposals that found support from government fundingagencies. The search for truth was put into limbo and wave-particle duality reigned.

Once we understand though, that the particle theory of matter is a mathematical (logicalpositivist) description of nature, then it becomes less confusing. Essentially the particle is amathematical construction to describe energy exchange. It says nothing about the energyexchange mechanism and thus makes no comment about how the particle exists, how it moves
http://www.quantummatter.com/http://www.quantummatter.com/http://www.quantummatter.com/


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through Space, what the Space around the particle is made of, and how matter particles 'emit' and'absorb' photon particles with other matter particles distant in Space.

Let us then consider one fundamentally important argument of Feynman's that light must be aparticle.

For many years after Newton, partial reflection by two surfaces was happily explained by a

theory of waves,* but when experiments were made with very weak light hittingphotomultipliers, the wave theory collapsed: as the light got dimmer and dimmer, thephotomultipliers kept making full sized clicks - there were just fewer of them. Light behaves asparticles.* This idea made use of the fact that waves can combine or cancel out, and the calculations basedon this model matched the results of Newton's experiments, as well as those done for hundreds ofyears afterwards. But when experiments were developed that were sensitive enough to detect asingle photon, the wave theory predicted that the clicks of a photomultiplier would get softer andsofter, whereas they stayed at full strength - they just occurred less and less often. No reasonablemodel could explain this fact.This state of confusion was called the wave - particle duality of light. (Feynman, 1985)

Feynman though is incorrect in two ways;Firstly, he is making unjustified assumptions beyond what is observed. It is true that light energyis emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts between two electrons. But we DO NOT OBSERVEany 'Particles' - we only observe discrete energy exchanges!Secondly, the solution is to realize that the Spherical Standing Wave Structure of Matter actuallydemands that all energy exchanges for light be of discrete amounts because this is what occursfor 'Resonant Coupling', and for standing Wave interactions in general.

It is also interesting to see how simply Feynman summarizes QED;

So now, I present to you the three basic actions, from which all the phenomena of light andelectrons arise.-Action #1: A photon goes from place to place.-Action #2: An electron goes from place to place.-Action #3: An electron emits or absorbs a photon.

This can now be simplified to two actions with the WSM;Action #1: An Electron, as the Wave-Center of a Spherical Standing Wave, goes from place toplace in Space (as determined by the spherical In-Waves.)Action #2: An Electron resonantly couples with another Electron (emits or absorbs a photon)

Once we realise that there are no separate electron or photon particles, thus we remove theproblem as to how an electron particle can interact with a separate photon particle! Thus thissolution is actually more consistent (and simpler) than Feynman's QED, particularly when weconsider Feynman's further explanation of a positron being an electron which goes backwards in

Time.The backwards-moving electron when viewed with time moving forwards appears the same asan ordinary electron, except that it is attracted to normal electrons - we say it has a positivecharge. For this reason it's called a positron. The positron is a sister particle to the electron, and isan example of an anti-particle. ..This phenomena is general. Every particle in Nature has anamplitude to move backwards in time, and therefore has an anti-particle. (Feynman, 1985)

As Wolff explains this is simply a mathematical truth caused by the fact that a negative time inthe wave equations changes the phase of the standing waves to be equal and opposite, which


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corresponds to antimatter. (Antimatter does no move 'backwards in time'!)Further, notice what Feynman says about photons, which are treated as particles in QED, andthus by Feynman's logic there should also be anti-photons, whereas the WSM is clear on thispoint - there are anti-electrons (positrons) which are opposite phase Spherical Standing Waves,but there are no separate photon particles, thus no anti-photons!

And what about photons? Photons look exactly the same in all respects when they travelbackwards in time, so they are their own anti-particles. You see how clever we are at making anexception part of the rule! (Feynman, 1985)

While it may be clever, it is not good philosophy, and it has led to a very confused and absurdmodern physics. Surely it is time for physicists to start considering the fundamental theoreticalproblems of the existing theories and to appreciate that the Metaphysics of Space and Motionand the Spherical Wave Structure of Matter is a simple, sensible, and obvious way to solve theseproblems!Finally, let us explain how we can experimentally confirm the Spherical Wave Structure ofMatter (which would obviously be very convincing to the skeptics!)




1.7 Quantum Theory: Wolff's Explanation of the Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen(EPR) Experiment & Further Predictions

'The Ultimate Paradox - Bell's Theorem' by Milo Wolff, Exploring the Physics of the UnknownUniverse, 1994

In l935, Albert Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) put forward a gedanken (thought)experiment whose outcome they thought was certain to show that there existed naturalphenomena that quantum theory could not account for. The experiment was based on the conceptthat two events cannot influence each other if the distance between them is greater than thedistance light could travel in the time available. In other words, only local events inside the lightsphere can influence one another.Their experimental concept was later used by John Bell (1964) to frame a theorem which showedthat either the statistical predictions of quantum theory or the Principle of Local Events isincorrect. It did not say which one was false but only that both cannot be true, although it wasclear that Albert Einstein expected The Principle to be affirmed.

When later experiments (Clauser & Freedman 1972; Aspect, Dalibard, and Roger, 1982; andothers) confirmed that quantum theory was correct, the conclusion was startling. The Principle ofLocal Events failed, forcing us to recognize that the world is not the way it appears. What then isthe real nature of our world?The important impact of Bell's Theorem and the experiments is that they clearly thrust, aformerly only philosophical dilemma of quantum theory, into the real world. They show thatpost-modern physics' ideas about the world are somehow profoundly deficient. No oneunderstood these results and only scant scientific attention has been paid to them.


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Figure 1.7.1 Experiment to test Bell's theorem Polarized photons are emitted at the center,pass through the adjustable polarization filters on the left and right, and enter detectors on eachside. Coincidences (simultaneous detection) are recorded and plotted as a function of the angulardifference between the two settings of the polarization filters.

The Essence of Bell's Theorem

His theorem relates to the results of an experiment like the one shown in Figure 1.7.1 (seeabove): A source of two paired photons, obtained from the simultaneous decay of two excitedatomic states, is at the center. At opposite sides, are located two detectors of polarized photons.The polarization filters of each detector can be set parallel to each other, or at some other angle,freely chosen. It is known that polarizations of paired photons are always parallel to each other,but random with respect to their surroundings. So, if the detector filters are set parallel, bothphotons will be detected simultaneously. If the filters are at right angles, the two photons willnever be detected together. The detection pattern for settings at intermediate angles is the subjectof the theorem.

Bell (and Albert Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen) assumed that the photons arriving at eachdetector could have no knowledge of the setting of the other detector. This is because theyassumed that such information would have to travel faster than the speed of light - prohibited byAlbert Einstein's Special Relativity. Their assumption reflects the Principle of Local Causes, that

is, only events local to each detector can affect its behaviour.Based on this assumption, Bell deduced that the relationship between the angular differencebetween detector settings and the detected coincidences of photon pairs was linear, like line L inFigure 1.7.2. His deduction comes from the symmetry and independence of the two detectors, asfollows: A setting difference of X, at one detector has the same effect as a difference X, at theother detector. Hence if both are moved X, the total angular difference is 2X and the total effectis twice as much, which is a linear relationship.


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Figure 1.7.2 The result of an experiment to test Bell's theorem Data points R of theexperiments are shown with black dots. They agree with the line QM, predicted by the quantummechanics, and do not agree with the line L, predicted by Albert Einstein's concept of causality.

This was a big surprise, because the failure of causality suggests that the communication istaking place at speeds greater than the velocity of light.

The curved line is the calculation obtained from standard quantum theory.Bell, Albert Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, or anyone who does not believe in superluminalspeeds, would expect to find line L.In fact, the experiments yielded points R, which agreed with line QM. The predictions ofquantum theory had destroyed the assumptions of Albert Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen!The results of these experiments were so disbelieved that they were repeated by other persons,using different photon sources, as well as particles with paired spins. The most recent experimentby Aspect, Dalibard, and Roger, used acousto-optical switches at a frequency of 50MHz whichshifted the settings of the polarizers during the flight of the photons, to completely eliminate anypossibility of local effects of one detector on the other. Nevertheless, they reported that the EPRassumption was violated by five standard deviations, whereas quantum theory was verifiedwithin experimental error (about 2%).

Do Non-local Influences Exist?

Bell's Theorem and the experimental results imply that parts of the universe are connected in anintimate way (i.e. not obvious to us) and these connections are fundamental (quantum theory isfundamental). How can we understand them? The problem has been analysed in depth (Wheeler& Zurek 1983, d'Espagnat 1983, Herbert 1985, Stapp 1982, Bohm & Hiley 1984, Pagels 1982,and others) without resolution. Those authors tend to agree on the following description of thenon-local connections:1. They link events at separate locations without known fields or matter.2. They do not diminish with distance; a million miles is the same as an inch.3. They appear to act with speed greater than light.

Clearly, within the framework of science, this is a perplexing phenomenon. In some mysteriousquantum way, communication does appear to take place faster than light between the twodetectors of the apparatus. These results showed that our understanding of the physical world isprofoundly deficient.

Explaining the EPR-Bell 'Instant' Communication

The Spherical Wave Structure of Matter, particularly the behaviour of the In and Out Waves, isable to resolve this puzzle so that the appearance of instant communication is understood and yetneither Albert Einstein nor QM need be wrong. In order to show this, it is necessary to carefullylook at the detailed process of exchanging energy between two atoms, by the action of theIN/OUT waves of both atoms. Remember that for resonant coupling it is necessary for the In andOut Waves of both electrons to interact with one another. The passage of both In-Waves through

both Wave-Centers precedes the actual frequency shifts of the source and detector. A means todetect this first passage event is not a capability of the usual photo-detector apparatus andremains totally unnoticed. But the In-Waves are symmetrical counterparts of the Out-Waves andcarry the information of their polarization state between parts of the experimental apparatusbefore the Out-Waves cause a departing photon event. The IN-waves travel with the speed oflight so there is no violation of relativity.At this point you may be inclined to disbelieve the reality of the In-Wave. But there is otherevidence for it. Remember, it explains the de Broglie wavelength and thereby QM. It is


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necessary to explain the relativistic mass increase of a moving object or the symmetry in itsdirection of motion. It is responsible for the finite force of the SR electron at its center. Are all ofthese merely coincidence? Especially, it is the combination of In and Out Waves which explainsthese laws, not just the In-Waves. If you believe in one you are forced to believe in the other.(Note added by Haselhurst - In fact without In-Waves there can be no Out-Waves, as the Out-Waves are simply the In-Waves after they have propagated In and Out through the Wave-Center.Thus effectively Wolff is saying that the electrons in the experiment are already interconnectedwith one another, and hence are already 'aware' of one another's resonant state and polarization,before the paired photons are emitted. It is this subtle interconnection of Matter that explains theapparent conflict of the EPR experiment.)

Can Proof of the In-Waves be Found?

For someone to really believe a new theory, an experiment to show the existence of newphenomena not previously known is most persuasive. To prove the existence of the In-Waves(and thus the pre-existing interconnection of the electrons with the rest of the apparatus) wouldbe just such a critical experiment. This can likely be accomplished with an apparatus of the typeused by Aspect, Dalibard, and Rogers (1982) except that instead of making a random filter

setting during a photon's passage time, the filter setting should occur during the time periodpreceding photon departure. The purpose is to frustrate communication by the In-Waves. Asthe In-Waves are necessary to the energy exchange process, then the result of the experimentwould be a linear relation between the angular difference of the two filters. This would be theresult originally expected by Albert Einstein for the EPR experiment.(End of Section from Milo Wolff.)

The Wave Structure of Matter is a profound new way of looking at how Matter exists andinteracts with other matter in Space. Wolff has explained a very simple change to a very famousexperiment that currently causes Quantum Theory, and Human intellectual knowledge ingeneral, profound problems and paradoxes. Thus it seems to us absolutely essential that thisexperiment be re-done as suggested above. We sincerely hope that this work on the Metaphysics

of Space and Motion and the Spherical Wave Structure of Matter will ultimately lead to this new'Paradigm' being taken seriously, and that this experiment will be performed sooner rather thanlater!




SummaryQuantum Theory (1900-1930) discovered four main things;a) Both matter and light sometimes behave as particles and sometimes behave as waves. (Planck,de Broglie)b) Schrodinger's Standing Wave equations can be used to describe the allowed discrete energystates for electrons (Wave-Centers) in atoms or molecules.c) It is impossible to know both the location and momentum of a particle and this inherentuncertainty can be calculated using the square of the Wave equation to determine the probability


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of where the particle will be found. (Heisenberg, Born)d) Matter seems to be subtly interconnected with other matter in the Universe. (EPR Experiment)

With the Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Wave Structure of Matter we can nowsensibly explain these phenomena;a) The solution of the particle/wave duality of matter is obvious - Matter is a Spherical Standing

Wave which creates a 'particle effect' at the Wave-Center'. The solution to the particle/waveduality of light is more complex (though it is still obvious once known) and is a consequence ofthe standing wave structure of matter and that only discrete standing wave interactions can occurduring 'Resonant Coupling' of two bound electrons.b) Schrodinger's Wave equations confirm this discrete standing wave interaction, that onlycertain discrete standing wave frequencies between matter are resonantly stable which causesfrequency (and thus energy) exchanges to be in discrete 'quanta' which can be mathematicallyexplained as 'particle/photon' interactions.c) Because Spherical Standing Waves are the size of the Universe, their In-Waves are interactingwith all the other matter in the Universe. As we exist as complex arrangements of Wave-Centershere on earth, we do not have immediate knowledge of how these In-Waves are interacting withthis other matter in the universe, and must simply wait until the In-Waves arrive at the Wave-Center where we observe these changes in motion and position of the Wave-Center. This lack ofknowledge causes the uncertainty as to how a Wave-Center will move about over time and thusqualitatively explains why probability based upon wave equations can describe this uncertainty.d) The Albert Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen (EPR) experiment performed by Aspect in 1972famously and controversially confirmed the apparent instant interconnection of particles andcontradicted Albert Einstein's Relativity which requires that all matter to matter interactions belimited by the velocity of light. Albert Einstein is in fact correct, the error of the experiment wasto assume matter was a particle rather than the Wave-Center of a Spherical Standing Wave. Oncethis is understood then it explains how matter is subtly interconnected with other matter in theSpace around it (by the In and Out-Waves) and leads to a minor change in the experiment whichwill confirm the Metaphysics of Space and Motion and the Spherical Wave Structure of Matter

as a sensible and obvious solution to the problems and paradoxes of not only Quantum Theory,but also of Albert Einstein's Relativity and Cosmology.

Thank you for reading our work. Please feel free to write to us if you wish to discuss any of thisarticle, or if you are able to help in getting this experiment performed.

Geoff Haselhurst,Milo Wolff
http://www.spaceandmotion.com/contact-email.htmhttp://www.spaceandmotion.com/contact-email.htmmailto:[email protected]://www.spaceandmotion.com/contact-email.htmmailto:[email protected]

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