quality characteristics of corn noodles containing gelatinized starch, transglutaminase and gum

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN NOODLESCONTAINING GELATINIZED STARCH, TRANSGLUTAMINASE

AND GUM

SEDA YALCIN and ARZU BASMAN1

Food Engineering DepartmentFaculty of EngineeringHacettepe University

Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey

Accepted for Publication November 14, 2007

ABSTRACT

Effects of gelatinized corn flour addition level (40, 60 and 80%), gum(locust bean gum or xanthan gum, 3%) and/or transglutaminase (TG, 0.5%)on quality characteristics of corn noodle were investigated. Gelatinized cornflour was used as a binder for remaining untreated corn flour (60, 40 and20%). Corn noodles were evaluated in terms of cooking properties (cookingloss, total organic matter (TOM), water absorption, swelling volume andmaximum force), color, sensory and pasting properties. Noodle sample con-taining gelatinized corn flour at level of 80% exhibited best cooking andsensory properties. Gum and/or TG were added to this noodle formula. Gumimproved noodle quality in terms of some cooking properties. Improving effectof xanthan gum was more obvious. Covalent crosslinks catalyzed by TGcaused significantly lower cooking loss and TOM values. Gums generallycaused increases in Rapid ViscoAnalyzer viscosity values of noodles. Gumand/or TG show great promise in processing of gluten-free corn noodle.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Celiac disease occurs in about one in 300 people in Europe. Lack ofgluten in cereals that are safe for gluten-free food causes major problems indough processing and product quality. Technological difficulties in productionand lack of awareness of number of celiac patients in need of gluten-freeproducts might restrict researches related to gluten-free food. In recent years,

1 Corresponding author. Arzu Basman, Hacettepe University, Faculty of Engineering, Food Engineer-ing Department, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey. TEL: +90-312-297-71-15; FAX: +90-312-299-21-23; EMAIL: [email protected]

Journal of Food Quality 31 (2008) 465–479.© 2008 The Author(s)Journal compilation © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

465

mailto:[email protected]

various approaches to overcome the technological problems are arising.Searching for ingredients that have ability to mimic properties of gluten inproduction of gluten-free food is the most common approach. We report hereinbeneficial effects of gelatinization, gum (locust bean gum, xanthan gum)and/or transglutaminase (TG) in gluten-free corn noodle production. Theyhave major improving effects in noodle quality and show great promise as aprocessing aid in bulk manufacture of gluten-free corn noodle. To the best ofour knowledge, there is no study investigating utilization of TG in gluten-freecorn noodles.

INTRODUCTION

Celiac disease is characterized by immunological damage to the small-intestinal mucosa that results from a permanent intolerance to ingested gluten.This leads to the malabsorption of several important nutrients such as folicacid, iron, calcium and fat-soluble vitamins (Feighery 1999; Inman-Felton1999; Murray 1999; Hamer 2005). Lifelong avoidance of gluten ingestion isthe basic treatment for the celiac disease (Guandalini and Gupta 2002;Gallagher et al. 2004). Wheat, barley, rye and oats are excluded in a gluten-free diet (Feighery 1999; Gallagher et al. 2004). In gluten-free food formula-tions, corn, rice, potato, soy and other legume flours and pseudo-cereals suchas amaranth can be used (Gallagher et al. 2004; Ciclitira et al. 2005). But theseraw materials do not have gluten fraction which provides the essential glutennetwork in cereal products and some problems can be encountered duringdough processing (Gallagher et al. 2004). In the production of gluten-freepasta, the gluten network can be replaced by using a non-cereal originatedgelling agent or by using the gelling properties of heat treated and gelatinizedstarch (Mestres et al. 1993). Mestres et al. (1993) studied the effects of variousheat treatments (drum-drying or extrusion-cooking, pasting with hot water,steaming) on maize pasta. It was reported that the pasta products obtained byusing drum-drying or pasting exhibited better cooking quality characteristics.The cooking losses of pasta products decreased significantly as the incorpo-ration rate of drum-dried flour increased. The lowest cooking loss value wasobserved for the stored drum-dried pasta. Waniska et al. (1999) investigatedthe effects of preheating temperature, maize flour particle size, water andsulfite content on quality of maize noodles. It was reported that maize flourwith smaller particle size gave better noodles than did maize meal. Addition ofsulfite to noodle formula resulted in higher cooking loss. Utilization of morewater in noodle production caused longer cooking time and lower cookingloss.

A protein modifying enzyme, transglutaminase (TG), might also be usedto compensate for the problems related to processing and end product quality.

466 S. YALCIN and A. BASMAN

TG (protein-glutamine g-glutamyl transferase, EC 2.3.2.13) catalyzes the for-mation of non-disulfide covalent crosslinks between peptide-bound glutaminylresidues and e-amino groups of lysine residues in proteins (Motoki and Seguro1998; Larre et al. 2000). TG catalyzes the crosslinking of a number of cerealproteins such as wheat, barley, rice, amaranth and corn (Köksel et al. 2001;Basman et al. 2002a,b, 2003, 2005; Gujral and Rosell 2004). Improvingeffects of TG on Chinese noodles (Sakamoto et al. 1996) and spaghetti(Basman et al. 2006) were reported. Basman et al. (2006) studied the effects ofTG on spaghetti samples including high levels of bran and they found that TGaddition had a significant improving effect on spaghetti quality which wasmore obvious in the weaker durum wheat cultivar and it was possible toovercome the deteriorative effects of bran on spaghetti quality to some extent.To the best of our knowledge, there is no study about the effects of TG onquality characteristics of gluten-free corn noodles. The objective of this studywas to investigate the effects of gelatinization level, gum (locust bean gum,xanthan gum) and/or TG on quality characteristics of gluten-free corn noodles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Commercial corn grits were ground by using a laboratory mill (type274002, Brabender Quadrumat Junior, Duisburg, Germany) and sifted through212 mm sieve. Locust bean gum (Incom A.S., Mersin, Turkey), xanthan gum(Kuzey Kimya, Istanbul, Turkey) and TG enzyme (100 units/g; Ajinomoto,Teaneck, NJ) were used in this study. Moisture, protein and ash contents of thecorn flour were determined by using AACC Approved Methods (1995). Thecolor values of corn flour (<212 mm) were determined by using the CIEL*a*b* color system on Minolta CM-3600d Spectrophotometer (Japan).

Noodle Preparation

Part of the corn flour (40, 60, 80% of total corn flour) was mixed withboiling water (70% of total corn flour) and incubated for 5 min in a boilingwater bath (type 3047, Kottermann Labortechnik, Uetze-Hanigsen, Germany).Then the gelatinized sample was rested at room temperature for 2 h. Thegelatinized corn flour (used as a binder) was mixed with remaining untreatedcorn flour (60, 40, 20% of total corn flour) in a mixer (KitchenAid K45SS, St.Joseph, MF) for 15 min. The dough was rounded and allowed to rest at 35C for30 min. The dough was passed through the reduction rolls of a noodle machine(Ampia 150, Italy). Thickness of dough sheet was 2 mm. The dough sheet was

467GUM AND TRANSGLUTAMINASE IN CORN NOODLE

cut into noodle strips and the strips were dried at 45C for 22 h in an air oven.The dried noodle samples contained a maximum of 10% moisture (wet basis).The noodle samples were stored in plastic bags at ambient temperature for2 weeks. Cooking, textural and pasting properties, sensory characteristics andcolor values of the samples were evaluated in order to select the best noodlesample. Best noodle sample is generally expected to have lower cooking lossand total organic matter (TOM) values, higher water absorption, swellingvolume and sensory properties (Charles et al. 2007).

In the second part of the study, gums (locust bean gum or xanthan gum)and/or TG were added to the best noodle formula at a level of 3.0% (w/w) and0.5% (w/w), respectively. The noodles were prepared according to the sameprocedure. An additional resting period at 40C for 1 or 2 h before drying wasapplied to the samples including TG. This temperature is suitable for TGactivity. In order to prevent drying of the sample, 200 mL of water was placedin a beaker in the oven to provide humidity. Cooking, textural and pastingproperties, sensory characteristics and color values of the noodle samples weredetermined.

Analyses

Cooking time was determined by pressing the noodle strand between twoglass plates and expressed as the time required for disappearance of white core(AACC 1995). Cooking loss of the corn noodle samples was determinedaccording to AACC Method (1995) with slight modifications. Cooking lossis the amount of solid substance lost to cooking water. For cooking lossdetermination, noodle strands were cut into 4 cm long pieces and 25 g noodlesample was cooked in 250 mL boiling water for cooking time. The cookingwater was collected in a tared beaker, dried in an air oven at 98C until dryness.The residue was weighed and reported as percentage of the starting material.Means were based on triplicate analyses. Water absorption was defined as thepercentage difference in weight of noodle before and after cooking divided bythe weight of the noodle before cooking. For the determination of swellingvolume, the cooked noodle sample and 25 g uncooked noodle were put into250 mL of water. The increase in volume was the volume of cooked and drynoodle, respectively. Swelling volume was expressed as the percentage differ-ence in volumes of the cooked and uncooked noodle samples divided by thevolume of the uncooked noodle. Means for water absorption and swellingvolume values were based on duplicate analyses. TOM was determinedaccording to the method of D’Egidio et al. (1982) suggested for pasta productsand is the surface material of 100 g noodle sample, released after cookingduring exhaustive rinsing for 12 min. Means were based on quadruplicateanalyses.


Water absorption %weight of cooked noodle weight of uncooked no

( )

= − oodle

weight of uncooked noodle×100

Swelling volumevolume of cooked noodle volume of uncooked noo

%( )

= − ddle

volume of uncooked noodle×100

Maximum force (N), which is the force required to rupture a cookednoodle strand, was determined on a Texture Analyzer (TAPlus, Lloyd Instru-ments Ltd, U.K.) equipped with a spaghetti-noodle testing fixture (FG/SPAG),at a test speed of 3 mm/s. The noodle strand cooked to optimum was woundtwo times around parallel rollers of the fixture to anchor the ends of the noodlestrand and hinder slippage during the test. Means for maximum force valueswere based on triplicate analyses.

Color values (L*, a*, b*) of the ground noodle samples (<212 mm) weredetermined in duplicate using the CIE L*a*b* color system on MinoltaCM-3600d Spectrophotometer (Japan). L*, a* and b* are expressed as light-ness, redness and yellowness, respectively. Measurement was taken under theconditions of standard illuminant D65 and 10° observer.

Sensory analysis was carried out after cooking the noodle samples for11 min (optimum cooking time) and cooling them at room temperature. Fivepanelists were chosen and instructions were given in full to panelists before-hand. The samples were labeled randomly with 2-digit numbers and evaluatedunder incandescent light in terms of surface properties (wetness, slipperinessand micro roughness), chewing properties (hardness, cohesiveness, the sensa-tion of starch between teeth after each chew), mouthfeel after chewing (chalki-ness and stickiness) and taste. The ballot sheet (not given) was prepared byadapting some of the parameters of Janto et al. (1998). All of the parameterswere evaluated by a score of 1–5. The lower scores for the sensory propertiesindicate inferior noodle quality. Final judgment was obtained by averaging thescores given by all panelists.

Pasting properties of noodle samples were determined using a RapidViscoAnalyzer (RVA-4, Newport Scientific, NSW, Australia). The driednoodle samples were ground to pass through a 212 mm sieve. A 3.5 g (14%moisture basis) ground noodle sample was added to 25.0 g of distilled water(adjusted to correct for sample moisture content) in an aluminum canister. Thepasting profile was obtained in the RVA with a 13 min test that involved aninitial equilibration at 50C for 1 min, heating to 95C for 3 min 42 s, holding at95C for 2 min 30 s, cooling to 50C for 3 min 48 s, and holding at 50C for


2 min. Peak viscosity, trough viscosity and final viscosity values were evalu-ated with the data analysis software (Thermocline, Newport Scientific, NSW,Australia).

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of the cooking properties of the corn noodle samplesprepared at various gelatinization levels were performed by using one-wayanalysis of variance (ANOVA). The cooking properties of the noodle samplescontaining gum and/or TG were statistically evaluated by 2-way and 1-wayANOVA procedures. When significant differences were found, the Least Sig-nificant Difference (LSD) test was used to determine the differences amongmeans. Standard deviations for color values and sensory properties weredetermined by using Microsoft Excel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The protein (Nx6.25, db) and ash (db) contents of the corn flour werefound to be 6.4% and 0.19%, respectively. The L*, a* and b* color values ofthe corn flour were 89.52, 5.84 and 30.77, respectively.

Quality Characteristics of the Corn Noodle Samples ContainingGelatinized Corn Flour at Various Levels

Optimum cooking time was determined as 11 min for all of the cornnoodle samples. Cooking properties of the corn noodle samples prepared atvarious gelatinization levels are shown in Table 1. Gelatinization level used for

TABLE 1.COOKING PROPERTIES OF THE CORN NOODLE SAMPLES INCLUDING GELATINIZED

CORN FLOUR AT VARIOUS LEVELS*

Gelatinized corn flouraddition level (%)

Cookingloss† (%)

Waterabsorption‡ (%)

Swellingvolume‡ (%)

TOM§(%)

Maximumforce† (N)

40 28.3a 97.0c 137c 2.55a 0.6960 27.5b 100.5b 147b 2.45a 0.7480 23.8c 115.5a 150a 2.28b 0.66

* Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.05).† Means are based on triplicate analyses.‡ Means are based on duplicate analyses.§ Means are based on quadruplicate analyses.TOM, total organic matter.


the noodle production caused significant differences in cooking loss, waterabsorption, swelling volume and TOM values of the corn noodle samples(P < 0.05; Table 1). The gelatinization enhanced the cooking quality of thecorn noodles. The noodle sample with a gelatinization level of 80% hadsignificantly lower cooking loss and TOM values as compared to those of thenoodle samples with the gelatinization levels of 40 and 60%. This noodlesample exhibited the highest water absorption and swelling volume valuesamong the noodle samples tested. Hence, the results for the noodle samplewith a gelatinization of 80% indicated the best cooking quality characteristics.The difference among the maximum force values of the corn noodle sampleswith various gelatinization levels was insignificant (P > 0.05). Color valuesand sensory properties of the corn noodle samples containing gelatinized cornflour at various levels are shown in Table 2. Slight changes were observed inL*, a* and b* color values and sensory properties of the corn noodle samples.The noodle sample with a gelatinization level of 80% had slightly highermouthfeel after chewing and taste scores as compared to other samples.

RVA curves of the corn noodle samples containing gelatinized corn flourat various levels (40, 60 and 80%) are given in Fig. 1. Utilization of gelatinizedcorn flour at various levels caused slight changes in viscosity values of thenoodle samples. The noodle sample with a gelatinization level of 80% hadlower viscosity values as compared to those of the noodle sample with agelatinization level of 40 or 60%.

Overall results indicated that the noodle sample containing gelatinizedcorn flour at a level of 80% exhibited the best cooking (cooking loss, waterabsorption, swelling volume and TOM) and sensory properties (mouthfeelafter chewing and taste) among the noodle samples tested. Therefore, thegelatinization level of 80% was used in the second part of the study, in whichthe effects of gum and/or TG on the quality characteristics of corn noodlesamples were investigated.

Quality Characteristics of the Corn Noodle Samples Supplemented withGum and/or TG

Addition of gum and/or TG to noodle formula improved machiningability of the dough and gave a noodle product with smooth surface. Theeffects of gum and/or TG on the cooking properties of the corn noodle samplescontaining gelatinized corn flour at the level of 80% are given in Table 3. Thetwo-factor (gum and TG) ANOVA results indicated that the effects of interac-tion of gum and TG on cooking properties of the corn noodle samples werefound to be insignificant (data not presented). Thus, one-factor ANOVA wasused for statistical evaluation of the data. One-factor (gum) ANOVA resultsshowed that addition of gum to corn noodle formula caused significant


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FIG. 1. RAPID VISCOANALYZER CURVES OF THE CORN NOODLE SAMPLESCONTAINING GELATINIZED CORN FLOUR AT VARIOUS LEVELS

TABLE 3.COOKING PROPERTIES OF THE CORN NOODLE SAMPLES SUPPLEMENTED WITH

GUM AND/OR TG

Gelatinizedcorn flouradditionlevel (%)

Gum (3%) TG(incubationtime)

Cookingloss* (%)

Waterabsorption†(%)

Swellingvolume†(%)

TOM‡(%)

Maximumforce* (N)

80 – – 23.8 115.5 150 2.38 0.66(1 h) 22.4 114.5 163 2.23 0.70(2 h) 22.2 115.5 163 2.13 0.85

80 Locustbeangum

– 21.0 118.5 155 2.03 0.58(1 h) 20.0 119.0 168 1.95 0.88(2 h) 19.8 119.5 168 1.85 0.84

80 Xanthangum

– 20.5 120.5 168 1.93 0.65(1 h) 19.5 121.5 168 1.75 0.83(2 h) 19.2 122.0 168 1.60 0.66

* Means are based on triplicate analyses.† Means are based on duplicate analyses.‡ Means are based on quadruplicate analyses.TOM, total organic matter; TG, transglutaminase.


changes in cooking loss, water absorption, swelling volume and TOM values(P < 0.05) (Table 4). Supplementation of corn noodle with xanthan gum andlocust bean gum improved the noodle quality by causing significant decreasesin cooking loss and TOM values. Water absorption and swelling volume of thegum added noodle samples were significantly higher than those of the controlnoodle sample (without gum), indicating better noodle quality. Among thegum added samples tested, the noodle samples supplemented with xanthangum had significantly lower cooking loss and TOM values and higher waterabsorption values. The change in maximum force values of the gum supple-mented noodle samples was found to be insignificant. One-factor (TG)ANOVA results showed that TG addition followed by a resting period of 1 or2 h prior to drying significantly improved noodle quality in terms of cookingloss, swelling volume, TOM and maximum force values (P < 0.05; Table 5).The cooking loss and TOM values of the TG supplemented noodle sampleswere significantly lower than those of the control noodle (without TG) whereas

TABLE 4.EFFECTS OF GUMS ON COOKING PROPERTIES OF THE CORN NOODLE SAMPLES*

Gum Cookingloss† (%)

Waterabsorption‡ (%)


TOM§(%)

– 22.8a 115.2c 158.7b 2.21aLocust bean gum 20.3b 119.0b 163.7a 1.94bXanthan gum 19.7c 121.3a 168.0a 1.76c

* Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.05).† Means are based on triplicate analyses.‡ Means are based on duplicate analyses.§ Means are based on quadruplicate analyses.TOM, total organic matter.

TABLE 5.EFFECTS OF TG ON COOKING PROPERTIES OF THE CORN NOODLE SAMPLES*

TG(incubation time)

Cookingloss† (%)


TOM§(%)

Maximumforce† (N)

– 21.8a 157.7b 2.08a 0.63b(1 h) 20.6b 166.3a 1.98b 0.80a(2 h) 20.4b 166.3a 1.86c 0.78a

* Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.05).† Means are based on triplicate analyses.‡ Means are based on duplicate analyses.§ Means are based on quadruplicate analyses.TG, transglutaminase.


their swelling volume and maximum force values were higher. Althoughvarious resting periods did not cause any significant differences in cookingloss, swelling volume and maximum force values of the TG supplementedsamples, the samples rested for 1 h and the ones rested for 2 h were signifi-cantly different in terms of TOM values. Basman et al. (2006) also reportedthat TG addition caused significantly lower TOM values in the bran supple-mented spaghetti samples. Significantly lower cooking loss and TOM valuesof the TG supplemented noodle samples can be explained by the formation ofcovalent crosslinks catalyzed by TG probably causing reduced amounts ofsolids released during cooking. Crosslinked proteins might form a networkaround the starch granules and encapsulate them during cooking and restrictthe diffusion of starch. TG-catalyzed crosslinking may also strengthen thestructural integrity of the corn noodle.

Color values and sensory properties of the corn noodle samples supple-mented with gum and/or TG are given in Table 6. Supplementation of noodleformula with gum and/or TG caused slight changes in L*, a* and b* colorvalues. Sensory analysis results indicated that the noodle samples containingxanthan gum generally had the highest sensory scores among the noodlesamples tested. Taste score for the noodle samples containing locust bean gumwere found to be lower than that of the other samples. TG addition causedslight increases in chewing properties of the noodle samples containing locustbean gum. Among the noodle samples containing xanthan gum, the TGsupplemented ones were found to have higher mouthfeel after chewingproperties.

RVA curves of the gum and/or TG supplemented corn noodle samplescontaining gelatinized corn flour at a level of 80% are given in Fig. 2. RVAresults for the noodle samples without gum indicated that the viscosityvalues of the noodle sample without TG were similar to those of theTG-supplemented noodle sample rested for 1 h. However, TG addition fol-lowed by a resting period of 2 h caused slight decreases in peak, trough andfinal viscosity values. Utilization of gums in noodle formula causedincreases in peak and trough viscosity values. The increase was more evidentin the samples supplemented with locust bean gum. The final viscosityvalues of the samples containing locust bean gum were also higher thanthose of the other samples. Final viscosity is the most commonly usedparameter to define the quality of a sample and indicates the ability of thematerial to form a viscous gel after cooking and cooling. Addition of TG togum supplemented noodle samples caused decreases in viscosity values. Thedecreases were more evident in the noodle samples supplemented withlocust bean gum. The peak, trough and final viscosity values of the noodlesamples supplemented with xanthan gum and TG decreased as the restingperiod with TG increased.


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CONCLUSIONS

We report herein beneficial effects of gelatinization, gum (locust beangum, xanthan gum) and/or TG in gluten-free corn noodle production. Noodlesample containing gelatinized corn flour at a level of 80% exhibited the bestcooking and sensory properties. Supplementation of corn noodle with gumimproved the noodle quality in terms of cooking loss, TOM values, waterabsorption and swelling volume. Among the gum added samples tested, thenoodle samples supplemented with xanthan gum had lower cooking loss andTOM values and higher sensory scores and water absorption values. TGaddition followed by a resting period of 1 or 2 h prior to drying significantlyimproved some cooking properties of the noodle quality. Significantly, lowercooking loss and TOM values of the TG supplemented noodle samples can beexplained by the formation of covalent crosslinks catalyzed by TG probablycausing reduced amounts of solids released during cooking. TG-catalyzedcrosslinking may also strengthen the structural integrity of the noodle. Utili-zation of gums in noodle formula caused increases in peak and trough viscos-

FIG. 2. RAPID VISCOANALYZER CURVES OF THE GUM AND/OR TG SUPPLEMENTEDCORN NOODLE SAMPLES CONTAINING GELATINIZED CORN FLOUR AT A LEVEL

OF 80%GCF, gelatinized corn flour; TG, transglutaminase; TG1, incubation with transglutaminase for 1 h;

TG2, incubation with transglutaminase for 2 h.


ity values. The increase was more evident in the samples supplemented withlocust bean gum. Addition of TG to gum supplemented noodle samples causeddecreases in viscosity values.

Gluten-free noodle is a good choice for celiac patients with a long shelflife and ease of transportation from a controlled processing center. Additionalstudies are required to overcome technological problems in production andimprove the quality characteristics of gluten-free corn noodles.

REFERENCES

AACC. 1995. Approved Methods of the American Association of CerealChemists, AACC, St. Paul, MN.

BASMAN, A., KÖKSEL, H. and NG, P.K.W. 2002a. Effects of transglutami-nase on SDS-PAGE patterns of wheat, soy and barley proteins and theirblends. J. Food Sci. 67, 2654–2658.

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quality characteristics of corn noodles containing gelatinized starch, transglutaminase and gum

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