qualitative 2

8/13/2019 Qualitative 2

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Qualitative Research Methods


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Qualitative research...

Commonly called interpretive research

its methods rely heavily on thickverbal descriptions of a particularsocial context being studied


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Is useful for describing or answeringquestions about particular, localized

occurrences or contexts and theperspectives of a participant group towardevents, beliefs, or practices

a helpful process for exploring acomplex research area about whichlittle is known


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Illuminates the

invisibility of everyday life

by making the familiar strange, more

examined, and better understood


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Qualitative methods...

historical research

ethnography

case study

ethology

ethnomethodology

grounded theory

phenomenology

symbolic interaction

action research


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historical research

studies available data to study,understand, and interpret past events


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ethnography

studies cultural patterns and perspectivesof participants in their natural settings


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case study

examines the characteristics of aparticular entity, phenomenon, or person


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ethology

compares the origins, characteristics,and culture of different societies


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Ethno-methodology

studies how people make sense of theireveryday activities in order to behave insocially accepted ways


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Grounded theory

investigates how inductively-derivedtheory about phenomenon is grounded inthe data of a particular setting


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Phenomenology

considers how the experience ofparticular participants exhibits a uniqueperspective


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Symbolic interaction

investigates how people constructmeaning and shared perspectives byinteracting with others


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Action research

teacher-initiated, school-based researchused to improve the practitionerspractice by doing or changing something


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Generally speaking, qualitative

researchers.

spend a great deal of time in the

settings being studied (fieldwork)rely on themselves as the main

instrument of data collection

(subjectivity; intersubjectivity)analyze data using interpretative lenses


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employ expressive language and voiceindescriptions and explanations

seek depth of perspective through ongoinganalysis (i.e., waves of data)

judged in terms of believability,trustworthiness, coherence, and the logicunderlying researchers interpretations


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The general characteristics ofqualitative research...

Data are descriptive

Emphasizes a holistic approach(processes and outcomes)

Data sources are real-world situations

Data analysis is inductive

Describes the meaning(s) of researchfinding(s) from the perspective of theresearch participants


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Uses inductive reasoninginvolves developing generalizations from a

limited number of specific observations orexperienceshighly dependent on the number and

representativeness of the specific

observations used to make thegeneralization


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Issues in qualitative research...

b. contacting potential research

participants

a. gaining entry

c. selecting participants

d. enhancing validity and reducingbias

e. leaving the field


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a. gaining entry...

may require considerable negotiationand compromise with a gatekeeper

access is very much dependent upon theresearchers personal characteristics andhow others perceive the researcher

trust is earned, not given


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b. contacting participants...

dealing with gatekeeper(s)

gaining access

issues of building trust and ensuringconfidentiality and anonymity


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c. selecting participants...

requires identifying participants whocan provide information about theparticular topic and setting beingstudied

the goal is to get the deepest possibleunderstanding of the setting beingstudied


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is fraught with difficulties in identifying

and selecting an appropriate number ofparticipants who can provide usefulinformation about the particular topicand setting being studied

utilizes purposive sampling


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types of purposive sampling

maximum variation

homogeneous

critical case

theory-based(dis)confirming case

snowball (chain)


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extreme (deviant) case

typical case

intensity

politically important case

random purposeful


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stratified purposeful

criterion

opportunistic

combination (mixed)

convenience


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two general guidelines: the number ofparticipants is sufficient when

the extent to which the selectedparticipants represent the range ofpotential participants in the setting

the point at which the data gatheredbegins to be redundant (datasaturation)

Th h lidi


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The threats to validityin qualitative studies...

observer bias

observer effects

invalid information resulting from the

perspective the researcher brings to thestudy and imposes upon it

the impact of the observersparticipation on the setting or theparticipants being studied


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extend the time for observing the setting

include more participants to make thestudy more representative

focus upon building participant trust inorder to access more detailed and honestdata

d. strategies to enhance validityand to reduce bias...


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identify biases and preferences, seekthem out by asking others

work with another researcher andcompare field notes and impressionsfrom independent observations

after observations are completed, offerparticipants an opportunity to validateaccuracy of the verbatims


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journalize ones own reflections,concerns, and uncertainties during

the study and refer to them whenexamining the data

carefully examine unusual or

contradictory results for explanations(outliers)


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utilize a variety of data sources toconfirm one another to corroborate

participant information(triangulation)


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e. leaving the field

The question is when and how to exit?

the bonds formed with studyparticipants complicate leavingthe setting

time constraintswhen the amount of accessible data

is sufficient


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1. The qualitative research proposal...

identifies setting or context of study

specifies the kinds of data to be collected

defines area of study

describes methods to be used

provides the researchers rationalefor undertaking the study

identifies the studys potentialcontribution(s)

2 Intensive participation


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2. Intensive participationin a field setting...

approach to participation: overtorcovert

participation: as a participant(participant observer) or nonparticipant

requires experiencing the situation fromthe perspective of both an observer anda participant


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3. Collecting and analyzing data...

multiple data sources are normative

primary tools include observations

and interviews but can also includepersonal and official documents,photographs, recordings, drawings,emails, and informal conversations


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the researcher records descriptive as

well as reflective notes about whatone has seen, heard, experienced, andthought about a during anobservation session


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regardingfield notes

put aside assumptions, experiencecontext first

see phenomena through

participants perspectivewrite up notes immediatelyfollowing an observation


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detail is critical: include date, site,

time, and topic on every set of fieldnotes; leave wide margins forwriting impressions; use only oneside of a page of paper; draw

diagram of site (if necessary)

list key words first, then outlineones observations


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keep the descriptive and reflective

sections separateuse memos to record hunches, question

and insights after each observation

number the lines or paragraphs foreasy access


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regarding interviews

the purpose is to explore and to probe

the interviewees responses in order togather in-depth data

the interviewer inquires into the

interviewees attitudes, interests,feelings, concerns, and values as theserelate to the context being studied


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meaning is jointly constructedbetween the interviewer and the

interviewee; meaning is not just aconstruction on the part of theinterviewee


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be alert for openings in responses toprobe more deeply, starting with

mundane questions and graduallyeasing into more sensitive and morecomplex questions


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interview data collection techniquesinclude taking notes during the

interview, writing notes after theinterview, or tape recording andtranscribing the interview (the

transcript is a verbatim)


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Interview dos and donts...

Do follow up on what is not clear andprobe more deeply into what is revealed

Do listen more and talk less

Dont use leading questions; do use open-

ended questions (probes)Dont interrupt; do wait


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Do ask for concrete details

Do keep interviewee(s) focused

Do tolerate silence and space betweeninterviewees responses; do allow theinterviewee time to think

Dont be judgmental about or react to aninterviewees opinions, views, or beliefs


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Dont engage in debate with aninterviewee

Do record everything the intervieweesays and note impressions ofinterviewees nonverbal behavior

S th i d i t t ti f th


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4. Synthesis and interpretation of themeanings of field data...

a formidable task because data are thickand deep as well as voluminous and

unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative

process of searching, categorizing, and

integrating data (managing data)

understanding emerges as data areintegrated


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Analyzing field data

data pieces

data categories

data patterns

f i i f


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four-step iterative process ofdata management...

a. reading and memoingto becomefamiliar with data and to identify

main themes

b. examining data to develop detaileddescriptions of the setting, participants,

and activities


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c. classifying the data, includingcategorization, coding, and groupinginto thematic units

d. interpreting and synthesizing theorganized data into general

conclusions or understandings


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Involves working with field notes

deconstructing data into pieces

reconstructing the data pieces intocategories

identifying patterns for

understanding, synthesis, andinterpretation

Criteria suitable for


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Criteria suitable forqualitative data analysis...

a. credibility or plausibility

b. transferability

c. including a methods section


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credibility or plausibility

to demonstrate that the study wasconducted in such a manner as toensure that the subject wasaccurately identified and described


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transferability

to demonstrate that the results ofthe study are generalizable toothers in the original researchcontext or to contexts beyond the

original study


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including a methods section

to provide an in-depth descriptionof the processes and methods usedin the study

St t i f


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Strategies foranalyzing qualitative data...

a. constant comparison method

b. negative case and discrepant data

methods

c. analytic induction


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negative case and discrepant data

methods

the search for contradictory,variant, or disconfirming datawithin the body of data collectedthat provides an alternativeperspective on an emergingcategory or pattern


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analytic induction

a process concerned with developingand testing a theory in order togeneralize a studys findings

5 Writing the research report


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5. Writing the research report...

provide a setting where the data werecollected

identify characters who provideinformation

describe the social action in which the

characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what

the social action means to thecharacters


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qualitative 2

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