pxrf and place names: painting a narrative on squamish ...second to analyze the pigments in the...
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PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on
Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art
by
Elizabeth C. Velliky
B.A. (Anthropology), Michigan State University, 2009
Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
in the
Department of Archaeology
Faculty of Environment
Elizabeth Catherine Velliky 2013
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
Fall 2013
ii
Approval
Name: Elizabeth Catherine Velliky
Degree: Master of Arts in Archaeology
Title of Thesis: PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art.
Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Ross Jaimeson Associate Professor
Rudy Reimer Senior Supervisor Assistant Professor
Dana Lepofsky Supervisor Professor
Stan Copp Examiner Professor, Anthropology Langara College
Date Defended/Approved:
September 13, 2013
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Partial Copyright Licence
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Abstract
There are two major known sources of red ochre in the Squamish Valley, BC,
and utilized in the creation of several rock art sites. These sources vary in that one is an
easily accessible along Pilchuck Creek; the other, located 1660m above sea level on
Paul Ridge. This source is considerably more difficult to access and likely imbued with
greater ritual significance. Both ochre sources are associated with Squamish Nation
place-names. In addition to the ochre sources, five pictograph sites contain depictions
intimately related to Squamish oral history.
The aim of this thesis is to first geochemically analyze ochre sources in the
Squamish region and other locations from within and outside of British Columbia, and
second to analyze the pigments in the Squamish Nation pictographs using portable X-
ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF). These elemental analyses are compared to
determine if pXRF can satisfy the provenance postulate for ochres, which states that
inter-source variation must outweigh intra-source variation (Wiegand et al. 1977). The
analyses on the pictographs provided qualitative and semi-quantitaive information on the
elemental make-up of the pigments, and contributed towards establishing a methodology
for analyzing pictographs with pXRF. Comparing this data determined if the ochre
pigments used to create the pictographs came from geologically distinct sources based
on signature elements, and if the rock art sites were re-visited and re-painted. Formal
methods coupled with informed perspectives on the ochre and rock art uses information
from oral history, place names, ethnographies and archaeology. The total summation of
the data provides insight into the cultural background on the acquisition of ochres for
pigments, and what geochemical complexities in minerals can reveal about the nature of
ochre selection and the creation of pictographs in Squamish Nation territory.
Keywords: Rock art, Geoarchaeology, Northwest Coast Archaeology, Ochre studies, pXRF, Raw Materials, Provenance Postulate.
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Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, John Velliky and Michele Velliky, who were
amazing enough to always foster my interest in archaeology and continue to do so.
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Acknowledgements
The completion of my MA research and thesis would not have been possible
without the help and support of numerous people. First and foremost, I would like to that
Dr. Rudy Reimer, who provided me with a great research project and thesis, a lot of
patience and guidance, and who was generous enough to share part of Squamish
culture and archaeology with me. Thanks to Dr. Dana Lepofsky for help and comments
on the later part of my thesis, as well as all of her advice in formulating how to approach
my project and research. Thank to my external examiner, Dr. Stan Copp, for his
suggestions and sharing his knowledge on rock art, and thanks to dr. annie ross for
being there in the beginning and our conversations on rock art. Thanks to Peter Locher
for providing me with a lot of the ochre samples, and to Chris Arnett for sharing
knowledge on rock art in British Columbia. Special thanks to my partner, Owen
Batchelor, for being with me during the frustration, exhaustion, and excitement of this
project.
For all of the help during the fieldwork of my thesis, which mostly involved
carrying the large and cumbersome pXRF case up to rock shelters, I would like to thank
Chris Arnett, Travis Freeland, Craig Rust, Tyrone Hamilton, and Michelle Lynch and
Misha Puckett whom made a valiant effort with me to access one of the sites. A big
thanks to Melissa Roth for her help in fieldwork, editing, and taking such wonderful
photos of the rock art sites in this study. Thanks to Bob Muir for all of his extremely last-
minute help on the statistics portion of my thesis. Special thanks to Michelle Lynch, Shea
Henry and Emily Benson for helping me during the editing portion of my thesis and
helping me with numerous powerpoints. I would also like to thank all of my fellow
graduate students in the department of Archaeology at SFU, for all of their advice,
discussions, and friendships.
I must extend a very large thank you to the American Rock Art Research
Association (ARARA) and International Federation of Rock Art Organizations (IFRAO)
organizing committees for being so extremely supportive of young researchers in the
field of rock art. A big thanks to Carolynne Merrell, who was so welcoming, friendly, and
contributed a great deal of advice. Also thank you to all of the other young students in
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the International Rock Art Student Association (IRASA) for sharing their wonderful
research.
My thesis project would not have been possible without the help and support of
the Archaeology Department at SFU, specifically for their financial support in the
Graduate Fellowship and several Travel and Minor Research Awards. Special thanks
the donors of the Roy L. Carlson Graduate Scholarship in Prehistoric British Columbian
Archaeology.
Lastly, I would like to thank the Squamish Nation for allowing me to experience a
part of their history and culture. This thesis research was definitely an unforgettable
experience.
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Table of Contents
Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii Partial Copyright Licence ............................................................................................... iii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iv Dedication ....................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vi Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x List of Figures................................................................................................................. xi List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................ xiii
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1.1. Ochre: an overview ..................................................................................... 7 1.1.2. Rock art: a brief summary ........................................................................... 9 1.1.3. Ochre use in British Columbia ................................................................... 10 1.1.4. Rock art in British Columbia ...................................................................... 11
1.2. Squamish ethnography: place-names, stories, and the active landscape ............ 13 1.2.1. Cultural background of ochre sources in Squamish .................................. 15 1.2.2. Cultural background of rock art sites in Squamish ..................................... 17 1.2.3. Sources of ochre in Squamish, B.C. .......................................................... 18 1.2.4. Pictographs and rock art sites in Squamish Nation territory ....................... 20
2. Research methods: informed and formal perspectives .................................. 30 2.1. Informed perspectives .......................................................................................... 30 2.2. Formal approaches............................................................................................... 31
2.2.1. D-stretch™: seeing beyond the aesthetic .................................................. 34 2.3. Data collection and analysis ................................................................................. 35
2.3.1. Field methods: ochre sample collection ..................................................... 35 2.3.2. Lab methods: pXRF analysis of ochres ..................................................... 36 2.3.3. PXRF analysis of pictographs ................................................................... 39
3. Results ................................................................................................................ 43 3.1. Qualitative analysis of ochre samples and source locations ................................. 43 3.2. Qualitative analysis of pictographs and rock art sites ............................................ 44 3.3. PXRF results of ochre analysis ............................................................................. 45 3.4. PXRF results of pictograph analysis ..................................................................... 50
3.4.1. D-Stretch™ and pXRF .............................................................................. 60
4. Discussion and Interpretation ........................................................................... 61 4.1. Discussion of formal results for ochres ................................................................. 61 4.2. Discussion of formal results for pictographs ......................................................... 62 4.3. Informed interpretation of Squamish ochre sources .............................................. 63 4.4. Informed interpretation of pictographs and rock art sites ...................................... 66
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4.5. Landscape and location: discussion of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish, B.C. ................................................................................................. 67
5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 71 5.1. A researcher’s to-do list: a guide on analyzing rock art pigments with pXRF ........ 74 5.2. Future research .................................................................................................... 81 5.3. Significance .......................................................................................................... 82
References ................................................................................................................... 84
Appendices .................................................................................................................. 97 Appendix A. Qualitative Tables for Ochre and Rock Art ........................................ 98 Appendix B. Raw pXRF spectra for ochre and rock art sites. .............................. 101 Appendix C. Eigenvalues and Correlations of Principal Component Analyses. ........... 107 Appendix D. Means and Standard Deviations for Elemental Concentrations of
Ochre Samples and Pictograph Sites. ................................................................ 123 Appendix E. ANOVA test results ................................................................................ 126 Appendix F Tukey’s HSD test results ......................................................................... 136
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List of Tables
Table 1. Details of pXRF analysis on ochre samples. ................................................ 38
Table 2. Methods table for pXRF analysis on pictographs. ........................................ 39
Table 3. Rock Art site attribute table for sites in Squamish. ....................................... 45
Table 4. Comparison of elements in pictograph images at all sites. Boldface values are not significant (α=0.05, N=210). Sample sizes: DjRt 2 (n=6), DjRt 10 (n=4), EaRu 9a (n=5), EaRu 9b (n=6). .................................. 58
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Satellite image showing locations of all rock art sites in Squamish traditional territory. ......................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: View of the south bank of Pilchuck Creek. ...................................................... 19
Figure 3: Paul Ridge ochre source showing exposed ochre outcrops. ........................... 20
Figure 4: Locations of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish core research area. ............................................................................................. 22
Figure 5: Panel at Furry Creek site (DjRt 2). .................................................................. 23
Figure 6: Second panel at Furry Creek (DjRt 2). ............................................................ 24
Figure 7: Pictograph at Murrin Provincial Park (DjRt 10). .............................................. 25
Figure 8: Murrin pictograph location on a Granidiorite rock wall. ................................... 25
Figure 9: Panel at EaRu 9 with three probable Thunderbird images. Thunderbirds analyzed indicated with arrows (EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b. .............................. 27
Figure 10: Second panel at EaRu 9. .............................................................................. 28
Figure 11: EaRu 9a showing a stylized Thunderbird image. .......................................... 29
Figure 12: EaRu 9b, Thunderbird in a similar style to EaRu 9a. .................................... 29
Figure 13: Pilchuck Creek Ochre Collection. ................................................................. 36
Figure 14: Paul Ridge Ochre Collection ......................................................................... 36
Figure 15: Pigment data points for DjRt 2. ..................................................................... 40
Figure 16: Control data points DjRt 2. ........................................................................... 41
Figure 17: Pigment data points DjRt 10. ........................................................................ 41
Figure 18: Control data points DjRt 10........................................................................... 41
Figure 19: Pigment data points EaRu 9a. ...................................................................... 42
Figure 20: Control data points EaRu 9a. ........................................................................ 42
Figure 21: Pigment data points EaRu 9b. ...................................................................... 42
Figure 22: Control data points EaRu 9b. ........................................................................ 42
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Figure 23: PCA score plot and biplot with rays showing all ochre samples. ................... 47
Figure 24: Biplot of all ochre samples with first 1-4 principal component. ...................... 48
Figure 25: Canonical DFA plot of ochres converted to log10 Fe ratios. ......................... 49
Figure 26: PCA biplot of PR and PC ochres. ................................................................. 50
Figure 27: PCA biplot of pigment and control data points. ............................................. 51
Figure 28: PCA biplot of pigment data points. ............................................................... 51
Figure 29: PCA biplot of control data points. ............................................................ 52
Figure 30: Net amounts of Rubidium (Rb) in site DjRt 2 pigment and control (n=6 for control, n=6 for pigment, p=0.0251). ....................................................... 53
Figure 31: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site DjRt 10 pigment and control (n=4 for pigment, n=4 for control, p=0.0438). ............................................................ 53
Figure 32: Net amounts of Vanadium (V) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0043). ............................................... 54
Figure 33: Net amounts of Cobalt (Co) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0001). ....................................................... 54
Figure 34: Net amounts of Manganese (Mn) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0354). ............................................... 55
Figure 35: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0073). ............................................................ 55
Figure 36: Biplot of pigment readings for EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b. .................................. 59
Figure 37: Biplot of pigment data points for DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b. .................................. 60
Figure 38: Difficult access to some rock art sites may limit the length and type of research (photo is access EaRu 9). ............................................................. 78
Figure 39: At EaRu 9, a larger floor space allows for easy manoeuvring of equipment and analysis. .............................................................................. 79
Figure 40: PXRF on pictograph EaRu 9a with use of a tripod. ....................................... 80
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List of Acronyms
B.C. British Columbia
DFA Discriminant Function Analysis
INAA Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PIXE Particle Induced X-ray Emission
pXRF Portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
XRD X-ray Diffraction
XRF X-ray fluorescence
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1. Introduction
Ochre is present in material culture collections throughout the globe.
Archaeologists consider it one of the oldest forms of color manipulation and symbolic
expressions, and it has been a major compound in paint mixtures since the Upper
Palaeolithic period in Europe (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Schmandt-Besserat 1980; Velo
and Kehoe 1990; Wreschner 1982, 1985). This thesis explores the scientific and cultural
perspectives of ochre and rock art on the southern Northwest Coast of British Columbia.
Academic research on ochre and rock art is under investigated on the Northwest Coast,
even though both are significant to First Nations and archaeologists. Furthermore, ochre
research and its use in the creation of rock art even more limited. Thus, this research is
important in that it is one of the few projects currently to investigate the relationship
between ochre sources and pictographs.
The ethnographic record of coastal and interior regions of British Columbia
indicates that ochre was a common cultural material used in potlatches, ceremonies,
and functional contexts. As such, it was traded extensively (cf. Corner 1968; MacDonald
2008; MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012). Archaeological research however, suggests that
local sources of ochre were often preferred (MacDonald 2008:53). Expanding on
previous local research (MacDonald 2008; MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; Reimer 2008,
2013), my goal is to analyze ochre sources and their use at rock art sites in Squamish
Nation territory using both scientific methods and ethnographic data (cf. Chippindale and
Taçon 1998:6).
The study area of this thesis project is located within Squamish Nation territory
(Skwxwú7mesh Úxwumixw) in the “Lower mainland region” of southwestern British
Columbia. Other First Nations bordering or sharing lands with the Squamish include the
Sechelt and Mt. Currie to the north, the Musqueam to the south, and the Tsleil-Waututh
and Katzie to the east. Squamish territory reaches as far south as English Bay in
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Vancouver and east along Burrard Inlet (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout
1978:28; Reimer and MacDonald 2008). At the time of European contact in 1792, there
were reportedly thousands of Squamish people (Hill-Tout 1978:28). According to the
Squamish Nation website (www.squamish.net), as of 2008, there were ca. 3,500 official
Squamish band members, 2,000 of whom live on Squamish Nation reserves. Members
belong to 16 different bands that amalgamated in 1923 in order to establish a just
government with equal rights for the Squamish people (www.squamish.net).
Among the Squamish, there are at least three known sources of ochre; I focus on
two of these in this study. The first is a tributary of the Squamish River, currently called
Pilchuck Creek. The second is 1660m above sea level, approximately 13km south of
Mount Garibaldi along a high elevation landform currently called Paul Ridge. These
locations physically differ from each other, as do their descriptions in Squamish
ethnographic sources (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986, Matthews 1955).
Rock art, as used in this thesis refers to pictographs (painted images) and
petroglyphs (rock engravings). Areas containing such are “rock art sites”. In addition to
the ochre sources in Squamish, there are seven recorded rock art sites in the research
areas, three of which are the focus of this research project. All of these sites are
pictographs; there are no known petroglyphs (rock engraving) sites. The spatial focus of
the rock art and ochre sources is in a “core” area on Howe Sound and the Squamish
River Valley, surrounding the traditional large village site of St’ames. Of the rock art
sites, two are located south of Squamish, on or near Howe Sound. The others are
located in the Squamish River Valley. One in particular is located in the Upper Squamish
and used in this study. Figure 1 shows all of the rock art sites located in Squamish
traditional territory.
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Figure 1: Satellite image showing locations of all rock art sites in Squamish traditional territory.
(Image Courtesy Google Earth 2013, site data from RAAD, used with permission)
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The main goal of this thesis is to explore the cultural landscape of Squamish rock
art sites and ochre sources using a research approach combining informed and formal
methods. The goals within the formal research methodological framework are to assess
the reliability of pXRF for semi-quantitative analysis of ochres and pictograph pigments.
More specifically, I want to determine if pXRF can identify elements characteristic of
ochres and satisfy the provenance postulate, and if it is possible isolate pigment
chemistry semi-quantitatively. I will also work towards determining whether the photo
enhancement software program D-stretch can help identify optimal data points for pXRF.
The contributions of these formal goals will work towards establishing a methodology for
in situ analysis with pXRF, as well as establishing a methodology for inter- and intra- site
pictograph comparison.
Incorporating informed, or ethnographical, perspectives in my project will
allow me to explore the nature of ochre selection and procurement in Squamish.
Namely, it will help determine if there was a preference for a specific ochre quarry and
why this was so. I will work towards a determination if whether one or several artists
produced the rock art sites, and if the pictographs contain different recipes of ochre
paint. Using this information gathered from informed perspectives, I will explore the
relationship of the rock art sites and ochre sources in Squamish within the cultural
landscape. Specifically, I will work towards outlining how oral history and ethnographies
recognized these places, and what part they may have played in Squamish culture over
time.
1.1. Background
Due to its geological nature, ochre has only recently become a topic of interest in
geochemical analysis. Ochre is highly heterogeneous, which makes it more troublesome
when appropriating it from different regions into distinct geological groups (MacDonald
2008; MacDonald et al. 2011; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). Previous research
illustrates source variation exists in ochre deposits and is discernible through specific
sets of elements, such as trace and rare earth elements (Eiselt et al. 2011; Iriarte et al.
2009; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). Thus, it is possible to discern elemental
fingerprints of ochre sources that are geographically distinct and satisfy the provenance
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postulate. The provenance postulate states that mineral sources that are geographically
different must have more geochemical variability than minerals from within the same
source (Wiegand et al. 1977:24). Simply put, inter-source variation must outweigh the
intra-source variation.
The majority of recent studies of ochre characterization use diagnostic lab-based
instruments (MacDonald 2008; MacDonald et al. 2011; MacDonald et al. 2012; Popelka-
Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). These techniques, such as instrumental neutron activation
analysis (INAA) and bench-top X-ray fluorescence (XRF), provide higher detection limits
and a greater number of elements than portable XRF. However, with increased
instrumental sensitivity comes strict preparation procedures and partial destruction of the
sample (such as grinding and pulverizing to make a homogenous sample) (Eiselt et al.
2011; Iriarte et al. 2009; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008; MacDonald 2008; MacDonald
et al. 2011). Furthermore, the results from such research; though informative on the
specific chemical relationships in different ochres, tend to fall short on providing
perspectives into cultural and ethnographic implications of the study. Researchers often
do not explore the range of human-mineral interactions and experiences and instead
focus on technological and functional frameworks surrounding mineral acquisition and
uses (Boivin 2004:2). In addition to focusing on technical aspects, previous articles on
scientific approaches in mineral studies tend to mention the overall culture history of the
research area, but avoid discussion oral traditions, ethnography, or place-names (Eiselt
et al. 2011; MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008; Scott et al.
2002). These projects mostly incorporate perspectives on trade, migration, and mineral
acquisition, but fail to take into account the non-technological or functional relationships
that people had with certain minerals (Boivin 2004:16). Only recently have perspectives
shifted to incorporate the finished materials and the symbolic processes behind their
selection and acquisition (Boivin 2004; Reimer 2012; Taçon 2004).
Until recently, stylistic classification, rough chronological building and modern
interpretation constituted the majority of rock art research (Chippindale and Taçon
1998). Yet, technological revolutions opened doors to new insights on the way we
approach rock art. One avenue is pXRF. Previous analysis of rock art included
instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE),
X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and portable X-ray fluorescence
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(pXRF). All of these methods, excluding pXRF, are desktop-based instruments and in
most cases require a destructive sample from the site. Removing pigment particles from
the rock-wall surface compromises the context of the pictographs, is aesthetically
detrimental, speeds up weathering of the images, and is often not allowed by
descendent communities. One of the greatest advantages of pXRF is in the field of rock
art research is it does not destroy the images and can provide information of the
chemical composition of rock art pigments (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012; Newman
and Loendorf 2005; Nuevo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011). Additionally, pXRF requires
minimal sample preparation and allows for rapid acquisition of elemental data (Forster et
al. 2011; Huntley et al, 2011; Huntley 2012; Shackley 2010a).
Recent research with pXRF on rock art has provided qualitative and semi-
quantitative information on pigment analysis (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012;
Newman and Loendorf 2005; Nuevo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011), through the
identification of the presence or absence of certain elemental compounds in mineral
pigments. Understanding pigment chemistry provides information on how paint was
prepared and applied, the types of minerals used for the paint, the number of “artists” or
revisitations, access and acquisition of pigment sources, and cultural conventions
regarding minerals and rock art (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012). However, there
remain several issues, the largest being sample thickness. Emitted X-rays penetrate at
depths of 2-4mm, whereas rock art pigment layers are tens of microns thick (ca 7-
50 m) (Cesareo et al. 2008:209). Pigments and paint from frescoes, pottery, and rock
art are what analysts refer to as “infinitely thin”; when the incoming X-rays completely
penetrate the material (Cesareo et al. 2008:209). Therefore, the background rockwall will
affect any subsequent analysis with pXRF. This “background effect” is unavoidable when
analyzing pictographs with pXRF, which makes it exceptionally difficult to compare
pictographs from different geographical locations and even pictographs on the same
rock wall. Furthermore, pictographs may contain multiple pigment layers due to
repainting, which results in further complications when working to distinguish separate
paint mixtures.
In rock art studies, styles, classification schemes, and their subsequent
typologies are often the subjects of research, as well as the hidden and ever elusive
“meaning” behind the images. In North America, little research includes information from
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ethnographic sources, or of modern-day cultural descendants of indigenous groups who
painted the rock art images. The lack of informed perspectives is largely due to the
discontinuity of traditional cultures with modern day descendants as the result of
relocation and colonialization. Even informed perspectives are far removed from the
original creation of the rock art, as few rock art traditions have persisted from the past
into the present (Chippindale and Taçon 1998:7); this is less the case in British
Columbia, as occurrences of rock art extend into the late 19th century (Teit 1896). The
aim of this project is to expose the benefits of using informed and formal together to form
a scientific research project supplemented by First Nation oral traditions and culture.
Overall, the importance of studying the interaction of humans with rock art and minerals
is crucial. Rock art is one of the most direct forms of material culture as the images
cannot be transported. Rock art is a statement of place, as described in a quote from
“The Archaeology of Rock Art”:
“...Human beings have increasingly marked landscapes in symbolic ways. A characteristically human trait, this is one of the ways we socialize landscapes. The result is a great and a scattered array of visually striking imagery as time and chance have let it survive to us at sites or within regions over vast periods of time.”(Chippindale and Taçon 1998:1)
1.1.1. Ochre: an overview
Ochre is any clay, sediment, or rock containing varying amounts of iron oxide
minerals (Cornell and Schwertmann 2003). Ochre is not unique to a specific geological
context as it appears across the globe in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous
environments (Chandra et al. 1991). Ochre is composed of two primary forms of iron
oxide--2Fe2O3 and FeO (Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007), and the colors expressed in them
vary from yellow to red to brown to purple. The lighter shades can heated and changed
into deeper hues, increasing the range of colors available by the process of calcination,
a thermal treatment process that decomposes the mineral (Schmandt-Besserat
1980:129). This is why in hearth features and natural fires, a layer of red sediment is
often found beneath burnt layers. Ochre is associated with both functional and non-
8
functional attributes extending back from 380,000 BP1 to present, whether in western
society or customary indigenous forms (Wreschner 1980).
Studying the uses of ochre provides avenues into a number of archaeological,
ethnographic, historical, and geological research areas. More recently, chemical
characterization studies use ochre with the aim of explaining aspects of cultural
interaction, trade/exchange, and perceptions of landscape (Henshilwood et al. 2009;
Hovers et al. 2003). These interpretations are circumstantial and dependant on related
artifacts, data, environment, and perseveration, and much debate has arisen over the
original intended uses of ochre in function and non-functional contexts (Marshack 1981).
Regardless, it is undeniable that ochre is abundant in archaeological contexts spatially
and temporally.
Globally, ochre had a variety of technical uses, including hide tanning (Bahn and
Vertut 1988; Wadley 2005), as an adhesive for tools or weapons (Wadley 2005; Watts
2012; Wreschner 1983), for grinding and polishing objects (Marshack 1981; White
1997), as a preservative or drying agent (Marshack 1981; Bahn and Vertut 1988), and
for various medicinal and other practices (Velo 1984; Veloe and Kehoe 1990). Red
ochre is an excellent hide-tanning agent as it preserves organic tissues, protects them
from putrefaction and decomposition, reduces collagenase, and produces superior
leather as opposed to treatment with yellow ochre (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Wadley
2005). It is also a polish and adhesive for weapon maintenance and can suit a variety of
purposes for different types of weaponry and hunting (Wadley 2005).
Non-technical uses of ochre are more difficult to observe in the archaeological
record, as much of its uses tied into ceremonial, social, and ritual practices (Bahn and
Vertut 1988; Boivin 2004; Marshack 1981, 1991; Matthews 1955; Sagona 1994; Taçon
2004; Williams 2001; Wreschner 1976, 1980, 1982, 1983). Even so, rock art sites,
ceramics, and lumps of ochre pigment are found in numerous contexts across the globe
(Bahn and Vertut 1988; McIlwraith 1948; MacDonald 2008; MacDonald et al. 2011,
2012; Marshack 1981, 1991; Matthews 1955; Roper 1991; Sagona 1994; Schmandt-
Besserat 1980; Taçon 2004; Velo 1984; Watts 2009; Williams 2001; Wreschner 1976,
1 BP indicates years before present and is used through this thesis to denote large spans of time.
9
1980, 1982, 1983; York et al. 1993). Records of ritual and ceremonial accounts of ochre
use exist in ethnographic sources (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Knight 1985, 1991, Lev
2010; McIlwraith 1948; Matthews 1955; Sagona 1994; Taçon 2004; York et al. 1993) as
a body adornment to identify and to distinguish oneself as belonging to certain societal
groups (clans, families, tribes), or to indicate certain roles or social status (hunter,
shaman) (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Boivin 2004; Marshack 1981, 1991; Matthews 1955;
Sagona 1994; Taçon 2004; Williams 2001; Wreschner 1976, 1980, 1982, 1983). Ochre
has also played a role in mortuary practices since the Palaeolithic (ca. 200,000 – 10,000
BP) (Ames 2005; Marshack 1981; Roper 1991; Schmandt-Besserat 1980).
Perhaps the most recognizable use of ochre in the archaeological record is as
paint for parietal and portable art objects dating from the Palaeolithic to Mesolithic. Red
ochre is the most widely used art pigment throughout these periods, second to only
black, and is in art contexts throughout Europe and Africa (Bahn and Vertut 1988, Velo
and Kehoe 1990). Aside from its popularity in European Palaeolithic cave art, it has been
used in a variety of symbolic contexts across the globe. Research on the symbolic and
artistic aspects of ochre has taken place in Australia (Taçon 1991, 2004; Sagona 1994),
the American Southwest (Ellis et al. 1997; Eiselt et al. 2011; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007,
2008; Stafford et al. 2003), Africa (Henshilwood et al. 2004; Wadley 2005), South
America (Knight 1991), and the Pacific Northwest (Ames 1999, 2005; MacDonald 2008;
MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; York et al. 1993).
1.1.2. Rock art: a brief summary
The term “rock art” describes petroglyphs, pictographs, geoglyphs, and
petroforms, and is one of the oldest forms of symbolic expression (Chippindale & Taçon
1998:6). It occurs on all inhabited continents of the world (1998:6). No other
archaeological artistic or symbolic tradition is as widespread. It is the most direct form of
material culture preserved in the archaeological record, as it is located in the exact
location of its original creation and is not subject to movement by human or geological
processes (Chippindale & Taçon 1998:2-3).
In rock art research, technical methods are popular as they give precise
qualitative and semi-quantitaive information about the geochemical makeup of pigments,
10
while avoiding the problems of stylistic classification (Bednarik 1995) and scientific
dating (Bednarik 2002; Zilhao 1995). Even though there is debate regarding the
application of certain research methods (Bednarik 1995, 2002, 2009; Zilhao 1995;
Whitley 2001), it is worthwhile to explore these new avenues of research as technology
is constantly being improved and updated. Additionally, the emic social meaning of most
rock art has been lost, due to cultural discontinuity and displacement (Chippindale &
Taçon 1998:7), so research regarding etic interpretation and meaning is often avoided.
However, in places like British Columbia and Australia, many descendant communities
recognize the social and historical importance of rock art to their ancestry and often
explore emic interpretations pertinent to their culture and oral history (Sagona 1994;
Taçon 2004; York et al. 1993).
1.1.3. Ochre use in British Columbia
Though First Nation groups are known to have traded ochre in the British
Columbian interior, information about such trade is rare in ethnographic sources (Corner
1968:22; MacDonald 2008:55; McIlwraith 1948; Mitchell and Donald 1988:327). Existing
information indicates that ochre deposits occur throughout British Columbia (Keyser
1992; Grant 1967; York et al. 1993), and that ancient people are thought to have utilized
local ochre sources over extended periods, with limited or no trade from outside sources
(MacDonald 2008:55). Furthermore, previous research has shown that people traded
ochre along ancient exchange routes, and that “…particular sources of ochre were
sought after for specific characteristics,” (MacDonald 2008:17). Specific ethnographic
data on ochre trade and procurement is scant, though Mitchell and Donald (1998:327)
refer to ochre trade between the Tsimshian and Carrier groups, where the Tsimshian
traded ochre and eulachon oil for furs.
In addition to being a trade item, ochre was used in ceremonial practices, kinship
networks, events such as the potlatch and weddings, as paint on ceremonial objects,
and for male and female burials (Ames 1999, 2005; McIlwraith 1948; Matthews 1955,
Olson 1955). It was almost always used to create red paint, as opposed to tree sap or
other organics (Leechman 1937). For some coastal and interior Salish groups, red
pigments were usually used for artistic objects because it generally signified “good”, and
11
it “…also expressed life, existence, blood, heat, fire, light, day. Some say it also meant
the earth. It appears also to have had the meaning self, friendship, success,” (Teit
1930:418). Annie York (1993:4) described the colour red as being symbolic of life, and
“...the protection of your life, to protect yourself from other peoples casting sins
[witchcraft], too.”
1.1.4. Rock art in British Columbia
In British Columbia, coastal and interior Salish rock paintings (pictographs) were
painted in red, black, yellow, and white pigments, with rare accounts of green and blue
have recorded (Corner 1968). The vast majority of images are monochrome and painted
in various red colors, and more than 99% of pictographs in the British Columbian interior
are this way (Keyser 1992). Scientific dating has not been conducted on most of the rock
art in British Columbia, though accelerated mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating was
conducted on faunal remains associated with pictographs in the south Okanagan Valley
(Copp 1979). These were found to be from 2,050 ± 100 years BP (1979:170).
Ethnographic accounts from British Columbia indicate that rock art depicts
spiritual experiences, ceremonies, children experiencing puberty rites, legends and
traditions, hunting magic, activity/migration markers, and maps (Corner 1968; Grant
1967; Keyser 1992; Lundy 1974; Matthews 1955; Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930; York et
al. 1993). Much of the early ethnographic research on rock art derives from James Teit,
who lived with the Nlaka'pamux of the interior for a number of years and worked with
Franz Boas recording ethnographic information (Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930). Teit
(1896:228-30) claimed that young men and women created paintings during puberty
rituals and that some images are from older men who painted dreams on rock cliffs. He
stated that many of the rock art sites were training places for young shamans, who
would paint significant experiences or dreams they had during training (1930:194). He
recorded the rock art as being:
“Besides being records of dreams, objects seem in dreams, guardian spirits, battles, and exploits; they were supposed to transmit power from the object depicted to the person making the pictures.” (1930:194)
12
One of the most extensive accounts of emic interpretations on British
Columbian rock art comes from Annie York, a distinguished elder of the Nlaka’pamux
(Spuzzum Band). She provided interpretations of many sites in the coauthored volume
“They Write their Dreams on the Rock Forever”, an extensive collection of oral history
regarding rock art in the Stein Valley (York et al. 1993). She learned about the rock art
from male elders who she claimed created the images, but she herself had never
created them though she was an elder and participated in her own vision quests. She
stated that pictographs were produced from spiritual ceremonies and are embedded with
immense spiritual power (York et al. 1993:165). She also said that rock art was a
tradition passed on from older to younger generations, as a way of teaching lessons of
spiritual protection and how to live (1993:4-6). She stated that older teachers would give
younger people paint and take then to the mountains, to paint images using a buckskin
brush or finger as a paintbrush and saliva as a binder. The darker the image painted, the
stronger the spiritual power (1993:165). She tied the interpretations of the rock art to
Christianity (1993:68), and it is apparent that her stories are based solely on her own
interpretations. Regardless, the volume is an example of interpreting rock art using a
combination of Salish worldviews, oral history, direct interviews from elders, and
ethnographic information.
Aside from ceremonial or ritualistic pictographs are functions thought to be
associated with seasonal migration routes, fishing spots, and trail markers, as explained
by John Corner (1968:4-5) during his ethnographic work in the northern interior of British
Columbia. He deduced that many of the rock art sites are located near rock and boulder
shelters that provided protection from the elements (1968:4-5). These were often located
next to well-travelled routes and trails, and prominent geological features (1968:4). He
stated that the correlation of rock art sites and travel routes, seasonal hunting areas,
fishing areas, and campsites is obvious (1968:6). It is clear that rock art served a
number of purposes and was used in a variety of ways in British Columbia, especially in
the interior where the majority of ethnographic work has taken place.
Rock art research in British Columbia has often been limited to cataloguing
images (Lundy 1974), informed interpretation (Matthews 1955; Teit 1896, 1906, 1918,
1930; York et al. 1993), and general description of the images, their site/location, and
their attributes (Arnett 2012; Copp 2006; Corner 1968; Grant 1967; Keyser 1992). Little
13
is known about the exact nature of when, who, and how many individuals created rock
art at one given space in time. Jim Keyser (1992), using a combination of his own
personal interpretation and indigenous informants, stated that of Columbian Plateau rock
art, panels were probably repeatedly visited by numerous artists (1992:50). This
contradicts York et al. (1993) who claim that many rock art sites are products of private
spiritual journeys and were meant to be left alone.
Though Keyser (1992) and York et al. (1993) described different scenarios for
the creation of rock art, both could have occurred simultaneously in one region.
Determining if a rock art site is a product of a public or private event would depend on
the types of images present, the location of the site, and the symbolism of known and
existing images common throughout Salish rock art. Some rock paintings may be
intended for private use or purposes, such as a record of a personal spiritual journey, or
recording of important dreams. Others intended for public use, like the images that may
signal tides or watermarks, trailheads, and fishing, hunting, or camping areas. Public
images would not be located in hidden or hard to access areas, would be moderately
visible, and well known amongst people in the surrounding area. Conversely, hidden,
difficult to access, or “secret” areas would probably contain private pictographs. Only the
creator of the images would know of these pictographs, and their location shared only for
teaching purposes or as a way to share oral histories.
1.2. Squamish ethnography: place-names, stories, and the active landscape
There is an extensive body of ethnographic data about the Squamish in the form
of interviews about stories, place-names, and day-to-day interactions (Matthews1955;
Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900, 1978). Accounts date
from the late 19th century (Boas 1888; Hill-Tout 1897; Teit 1896) to the late 20th century
(Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986). Hill-Tout (1897, 1900) admitted that his
recorded accounts might be somewhat blurred by translation, yet regardless of any
inaccuracies; there are numerous place-names recorded in Squamish Territory. Many of
these place-names coincide with recently discovered archaeological sites (cf. ARCAS
1999; Reimer 2000, 2005, 2012; Reimer and MacDonald 2008).
14
Two Squamish place names are relevant to sites researched in this study.
Mount Garibaldi (Nch’kaỳ, meaning “dirty place”), is well known as the place where the
Squamish people brought their canoes to during a mythical “Great Flood” (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986:370-371). The story recounts a powerful medicine man, or shaman, who
could predict the future and used ochre paint to heal people. The shaman tried to stop
rising floodwaters by painting a cedar stick with ochre, then painting ochre streaks on the
side of Nch’kaỳ. Neither of these worked and the waters rose and eventually decimated
the Squamish people.
Ochre also features in the Squamish origin story associated with the Stawamus
Chief. The Stawamus Chief is a granite batholith (Reimer and MacDonald 2008) and is
prominent landmark in many Squamish stories and legends. In this story, ochre was as a
marker of how high the waters rose during the Great Flood (Bouchard and Kennedy
1986:312).
One of the most prominent stories in Squamish oral history takes place at
St’áḿes. St’áḿes is a place-name for the large Squamish village at the mouth of the
Squamish River. It was the main winter village in Squamish territory and was an
excellent place for fishing, especially for eulachon (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986).
St’áḿes is associated with a legend involving the great warrior Xwech’tál (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986). The legend states that Xwech’tál was sent by his father to slay Sinotlkai,
the two-headed serpent. Forced to leave his newlywed wife, he was gone for many
years while he purified himself. He dreamt of how to kill the serpent, and he created a
raft and four spears with which he stabbed each of the heads when they surfaced from
the waters of Howe Sound (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986).
The events in the story involve the Stawamus Chief, where Sinotlkai was first
seen slithering down and up the mountain. The serpent’s track is a long black streak
down the front of the mountain. Squamish landmarks associated with this story are the
Stawamus Chief, Browning Lake, and Howe Sound. The events and places in the stories
all tie into the cultural landscape of Squamish, where the prominent landmarks of Mount
Garibaldi and The Stawamus Chief are seen today.
15
1.2.1. Cultural background of ochre sources in Squamish
Much of the existing ethnographic information concerning red ochre comes from
interviews with Chief August Jack Khahtsahlano of the Squamish Nation, who worked
extensively with early European settlers for recording Squamish legends, oral history,
and place names. Most notably is his work with Major Matthews (Matthews 1955), who
published a volume containing numerous recorded interviews with Chief Khahtsahlano.
In this volume, Chief Khahtsahlano mentioned “tumbth”, or “red paint for faces”
(1955:423). He described a potlatch ceremony amongst the Howe Sound Indians where
the host of the Potlatch uses red ochre as face paint. In this sense, the red ochre face
paint is used as a ceremonial dress to ascribe importance, which was used specifically
by Chiefs. At one potlatch, Chief George, adorned with red paint, was seen as looking
“...might important and pompous” (1955:266). Chief Khahtsahlano also described how
people acquired ochre directly from mineral sources. He stated:
“This bit rock is tumbth; it’s been lying in creek where the red paint comes from, and got a coating of tumbth. Indian find tumbth in soft ground… Tumbth means the red paint which warriors and maidens adorned their faces for war, ceremonies, dances...” (Matthews 1955:62)
Matthews’ (1955) interviews with Chief Khahtsahlano discussed important places
in and around traditional Squamish territory. Chief Khahtsahlano referred to three distinct
ochre sources in Squamish where people acquired Tumbth. One source was two and
half miles north of Horseshoe Bay. Another is at the mouth of a creek near Howe
Sound, which are possibly part of the same source. However, he specifically mentions
another source near Mount Garibaldi, where the ochre is in soft ground up to six inches
thick (Matthews 1955:62). This source was geographically near the Paul Ridge ochre
source, which may be what Chief Khahtsahlano was referencing.
The Paul Ridge ochre source does not have a specific place-name recorded in
any of the ethnographic sources consulted (Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b,
1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900, 1978; Matthews 1955). Even so, the contemporary
Squamish know of Paul Ridge and it was examined in other analytical studies involving
ochre provenance research in B.C. (MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012). It is likely associated
with Mount Garibaldi (Nch’kaỳ) as it is located less than 13km south of it. Both places
16
are located at a high elevation, with Nch’kaỳ at 2,678m and Paul Ridge at 1,660m above
sea level. Upper elevation areas are powerful places amongst coastal and Interior Salish
groups, as they are part of the “upper-world” of a tri-level world scheme and associated
with powerful “mythical beings” (Reimer 2000, 2012; Teit 1930; Schaepe 2007). Paul
Ridge’s elevation is important when considering the reasons why ancient peoples may
have chosen to acquire ochre from such a difficult place to access. In some instances,
the acquisition of certain minerals in of themselves is a symbolic process (Boivin 2004).
Traveling to certain far away or difficult to access places required intense physical and
spiritual training, and was reserved for individuals who were able to interact with
powerful entities that reside in such places (Bradley 2000; Boivin 2004; Reimer 2012;
Taçon 2004). Mineral sources were powerful places; this “spiritual potency” resides in
the minerals themselves, and subsequently the uses made of them (Boivin 2004:11).
Pilchuck Creek is recorded by Bouchard and Kennedy (1986:393) as a place
name (Nch’aḿáy) transcribed as “to bite” (1986:393-395). The English name “Pilchuck”
derives from Chinook jargon words meaning “blood water”, referring to the red of the
creek’s water. This is most likely due to the large ochre veins along the muddy creek
embankment. According to Bouchard and Kennedy (1986:394) Nch’aḿáỳ was a village
site with about 20 residents. Louis Miranda stated in an interview that his mother used to
go to Nch’aḿáỳ to look for red ochre paint, though he does not provide details. The
exact location of the village is unknown; however, village sites are often near waterways
and confluences of smaller tributaries (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:394). A story
associated with Nch’aḿáỳ involves a woman who was bathing somewhere in Pilchuck
Creek, when she was changed into a stump by the Transformers. The Transformers
were powerful beings who came to the world to set things rights (Reimer 2012:47). In a
similar story, a woman was gathering cedar bark near the river for herself and was
reluctant to share her bark with anyone else. The Transformers came and changed her
into a large boulder near Pilchuck Creek. The cedar bark strips became the ochre veins
found along the creek walls (Reimer, personal communication, 2011).
17
1.2.2. Cultural background of rock art sites in Squamish
Squamish ethnographic sources described rock paintings as markers
representing natural events, such as marking water levels of the Great Flood, and/or as
spiritual aids, such as the shaman trying to prevent the rising floodwaters (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout 1900; Matthews 1955). There are four accounts of place-names
so described, two being paintings of streaks at Nch’kaỳ and also at the Stawamus Chief.
The other sites are Khul-Kalos and an unidentified mountain in the Upper Squamish river
valley called Sxeltakwu7, or “marked rock” (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:412). During
the Great Flood, people fled to Sxeltakwu7, where they tied their canoes to the
mountain. The people believed a shaman could stop the floodwaters by using red ochre
paint to draw a mark across the face of this mountain, but the doctor’s power did not
work and the water rose until the people fled to Nch’kaỳ, a higher mountain (1986:412).
Chief Khahtsahlano (Matthews 1955:426) described another rock art site, Khul-
Kalos, meaning, “Painted with streaks”. Khul-Kalos was located near Sy-its, or the mouth
of Furry Creek, on a perpendicular rock bluff on Howe Sound (1955:426). He stated that
this place had four streaks of tumbth, painted to indicate the level of the rising tide. Major
S. Matthews (1955:426) speculated that they might relate to the Great Flood story,
stating “The Squamish have a legend of a flood,” and “...it is conceivable that the waters
of a tidal wave might have reached this rock.” This description is similar to the existing
four parallel lines at DjRt 2 (Figure 3), although many other images surround it.
The only other rock art site referenced in the ethnographic sources is the
Cloudburst Mountain pictograph site Xwmitl’m (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:395), or
DlRt 1. The image depicts a human figure transforming into a crane, relating to the oral
history of the Transformer Brothers, sent by the Creator “to set the world right” (Reimer
2005). The last rock art site in the Squamish river valley is DlRt-9, or Nepti’tl. This site
contains powerful images related to the Great Flood story. One such image, an upside
down bear paw, is associated with shamans were used to cease the rising floodwaters
(Reimer and MacDonald 2008:10).
The ethnographic accounts of pictographs in Squamish territory relate directly to
events and oral histories in the landscape. The most common description of pictographs
18
in the ethnographic sources are as ochre streaks and lines. These are thought to be
powerful images relating to a mythical Great Flood. However, not all of the known
pictograph sites in Squamish territory fit this description. In the Great Flood story,
pictographs were tools to prevent natural events and invoke strength and power. They
are not necessarily depictions of specific images or aspects of these stories. The
pictographs in this study do not fit the descriptions of ochre paintings in the Squamish
ethnographic record in that they contain more detail and representations of figures and
beings. However, they are still reminiscent of events and aspects of Squamish oral
history, as outlined in the discussion chapter of this thesis.
1.2.3. Sources of ochre in Squamish, B.C.
This study focuses on two sources of red ochre in the Squamish Valley, BC. The
Squamish people know of these sources and they are in both the archaeological and
ethnographic literature. There is another known ochre source in Squamish located in
Inuksuk Meadows; it was not included in this study due to access and time constraints. I
visited Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge and my observations made in the field are the
basis of their descriptions in this section. It is likely that ancient people used ochre from
either of these sources to create rock paintings in the area.
Pilchuck Creek ochre source
Pilchuck Creek is a small, slow-flowing creek with dense vegetation and steep
embankments located in the alluvial floodplain of the Squamish River. It is located
approximately 12km north along the Squamish River Road, on the east side of the road
before the bridge. Here, the sediment is gray alluvial silt, rich in iron grey in colour, with
discrete veins of iron oxides along a 20-25 meter section of the creek (MacDonald et al.
2012:3). These veins occur from water level to three feet above water level in the wet
muddy embankment of the creek. The ochre here is not openly visible, and requires
knowledge of where to find it.
19
Figure 2: View of the south bank of Pilchuck Creek.
(Photo by Rudy Reimer, used with permission)
Paul Ridge ochre source
Paul Ridge is located 1660m above sea level, and is part of the Pacific Mountain Range.
The Pacific Mountain Range topography in Squamish is largely a result of the
Quaternary-age Mt Garibaldi volcanic complex, characterized by andesite, rhyodacite,
and basalt deposits (Hickson 1994; Matthews 1958). Here, the ochre is more abundant
and visible; it is found amongst the patches of red soil showing through the alpine
meadows (Figure 3). The ochre deposit here is “...a discontinuous outcrop of oxidized
basalt that runs along a mid-elevation ridge approximately 12km south of the peak of Mt.
Garibaldi,” (MacDonald et al. 2012:3). The ochre occurs throughout the length of the
ridge, which is at least 50m. The total length of the exposure is difficult to measure, as
much of the source may not be exposed.
20
Figure 3: Paul Ridge ochre source showing exposed ochre outcrops.
1.2.4. Pictographs and rock art sites in Squamish Nation territory
Three of the five rock art sites within the cultural core of Squamish Nation territory (DjRt-
2, DjRt-10, and EaRu-9) are the focus of this analysis. Ease of access determined
inclusion of sites for study, specifically regarding the logistics of pXRF analysis.
Preservation variables and exposure of the pictographs were also considered. With site
DlRt-1, there was an issue of access as the pictograph is located on private property.
There is one pictograph here, which is significantly weathered and faded. DlRt-9, was
not included due to weathering and fading. All of the other rock art sites in Squamish are
less faded and the specific imagery is visible. I personally was able to access all of the
rock art sites for this research. All of five of the rock art sites in Squamish contain
pictographs; there are no known petroglyph sites.
21
Each of the rock art sites exhibits different qualities of location, accessibility, and type of
imagery. Aside from basic descriptions, the pictographs were not interpreted regarding
“meaning”. The modern etic interpretation of the meaning in rock art images is highly
speculative and criticized (Chippindale 1999, 2001; Chippindale and Taçon 1998;
Conkey 1987; Conkey et al. 1997). However, the majority of this criticism rests on etic
perspectives on ancient cultures. This thesis uses information from informed sources to
shed light on possible connections between imagery in the pictographs and oral history,
and does not incorporate modern etic perspectives on meaning.
DjRt-2: Furry Creek pictographs (Khul-Kalos)
DjRt 2 is located north of Furry Creek, B.C., on the eastern shore of Howe
Sound, where two panels are visible from Howe Sound. Access is via the Sea to Sky
highway or by water on Howe Sound, the latter being the easiest and most easy to sight
the panels. This site was recorded by the BC Archaeology Branch in 1968, but was first
mentioned in Conversations with Khahtsahlano by August Jack Khahtsahlano in 1955
(Matthews 1955). The panels are located on granite rock walls, the southeast portion
openly facing Howe Sound with dense vegetation on a steep slope located behind the
panels. The first and smaller panel contains one large image (Figure 5),
22
Figure 4: Locations of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish core research area.
(Image Courtesy Google Earth 2013, site data from RAAD, used with permission)
23
thought to depict the face of Sinotlkai, the two-headed sea serpent of Squamish
mythology (Arnett, personal communication, 2012). The other pictograph panel (Figure
6) is larger and contains 10 monochrome images containing depictions of a large
anthropomorphs, celestial images (two geometric sun figures with rays), a large central
canid, and abstract/representational designs (lines, human figures, curves). Two images
are separate and located above this main panel. One is an anthropomorph with three
figures surrounding it and one cross-marked figured below. These might be
representative of fish, branches, or trail markers (cf. Lundy 1974). The highest image is
a thick dark line, possibly representing a canoe or other water vessel. Collectively, the
pictographs could be representations of a vision quest, dream, or related oral history.
Figure 5: Panel at Furry Creek site (DjRt 2).
24
Figure 6: Second panel at Furry Creek (DjRt 2).
DjRt-10: Murrin Provincial Park (Sts’i’ts’a7kin)
DjRt 10 is located on a steep granidiorite rock wall popular amongst rock-
climbers. There is no other rock art located near this image or at the site. The pictograph
contains two circular images, a central “body” portion with a line coming through the
bottom (Figure 7). The image in monochrome and appears to be painted by one person
at one event. Some of the rock surface on the bottom left of the image has broken off. It
is possible that this surface contained more pictographs related to the central image, or
that this pictograph was larger at one time.
The pictograph at DjRt-10 is unique among images examined in this study in that
its imagery is not directly representational. One must rely on informed perspectives to
gain insight as to what it might represent. Nevertheless, the shape and orientation of the
25
image seem to depict an upright standing figure, possibly holding two large circular
objects. The imagery may represent a Squamish legend involving Xwech’tál, a warrior
who battled with the two-headed serpent Sinotlkai (Reimer 2005). The location of DjRt
10 is open and exposed (Figure 8) part of the rockwall has fallen and removed the
bottom right portion of the pictograph. The pigment is weathered and faint, though the
paint is still present on the rockwall.
Figure 7: Pictograph at Murrin Provincial Park (DjRt 10).
Figure 8: Murrin pictograph location on a Granidiorite rock wall.
(Photo courtesy Melissa Roth, used with permission)
EaRu-9: Upper Squamish rock shelter (P’uỳáḿ)
EaRu 9 is a rock shelter site located 65km northwest of Squamish along
the Squamish Valley road. The site is 1km east of the confluence of the Elaho and
26
Squamish rivers, 20-30m up a trail along the rock face. Near the site is a rope for
recreational rock climbing, these activities have not to date had a negative impact on the
pictographs. ARCAS archaeological consulting initially recorded the site in 1998, when a
forestry contractor found it (ARCAS 1998). This shelter contains the largest number of
individual pictographs of sites examined in this study. There are three different
pictograph panels of images, as well as several separate images located on surrounding
rock faces near the central panels. The concentration of images in specific spots could
be indicative of an overall composition, with surrounding “outlier” images on other
panels. Overall, there are at least 30 separate monochrome images located at this site,
including depictions of humans, anthropomorphs, celestial images, animals, and
“geometric” motifs (groups of dots and lines), and four apparent depictions of
Thunderbird (Figures 9 and 10).
Two pictographs there were analyzed with pXRF (Figure 9). Both of the
pictographs are probable depictions of Thunderbird (In'inyáxa7n) painted with simple
lines, but in different styles. The smaller and fainter image is more simplistic, with one
straight line representing the wings, perpendicular lines coming downwards for feathers,
a thick central line for the bottom with a large circle at the bottom, and on the lower left
side of the image are a group of dots (Figure 12). The darker and larger Thunderbird
image contains more detail: the wings are curved, emphasis is more on the body, and
there are tail feathers and lines that appear to be feet or claws (Figure 11). It displays
evidence of repainting, as the paint is very dark compared to the surrounding images. A
human figure stands to the left of the image, while another Thunderbird image is drawn
directly above. Thunderbird is a powerful “mythical being” prominent in Squamish oral
history (Reimer 2012). It could flap its wings to create great storms, shoot lightning from
its eyes, and created many of the rock shelters in Squamish by moving large boulders
across the landscape (2012:80). Access to this site is difficult as it is located in a high
rock shelter and requires scrambling and climbing up loose rock to reach the site. The
site itself is somewhat hidden and requires intimate knowledge of its location to reach.
27
Figure 9: Panel at EaRu 9 with three probable Thunderbird images. Thunderbirds analyzed indicated with arrows (EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b.
28
Figure 10: Second panel at EaRu 9.
29
Figure 11: EaRu 9a showing a stylized Thunderbird image.
Figure 12: EaRu 9b, Thunderbird in a similar style to EaRu 9a.
30
2. Research methods: informed and formal perspectives
The methodological framework in this study follows an informed and formal
research approach (Chippendale and Taçon 1998:6). Informed methods incorporate an
emic perspective, and use insights passed on directly or indirectly within cultural groups
who consider rock art sites as links to their ancestry and place. For anthropologists, this
knowledge typically comes in the form of ethnography, ethnohistory, historical records,
oral history and traditions, or direct interviews containing modern interpretations
(Chippendale and Taçon 1998:6). In most cases, indigenous peoples are no longer
creating rock art, but perceive it as an integral part of their history (Chippendale and
Taçon 1998:6). Formal methods incorporate an etic perspective and are scientific in
nature, relying on physical observations on the rock art (typologies) and its location
(Chippendale and Taçon 1998:7). They also include the use of scientific techniques,
such as pXRF. Formal methods are ideal in rock art research as they provide
quantifiable information about the geochemical makeup of pigments while avoiding the
issues of stylistic classification and interpretation (Bednarik 2002; Zilhao 1995).
Furthermore, many rock art sites are regarded as spiritually important places, which can
lead to issues arising from outside researchers, such as archaeologists conducting
research on these sites.
2.1. Informed perspectives
Squamish Nation culture and territory possesses a wealth of ethnographic,
enthnohistorical and archaeological information (ARCAS 1998; Bouchard and Kennedy
1976a, 1976b, 1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900; Lundy 1974; Matthews 1955; Smith 1923;
Reimer 2000, 2005, 2012; Reimer and MacDonald 2008; Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930).
In this study, informed methods outlined the research area of Squamish and provided
some cultural context. Ethnographic sources about the Squamish contain information
31
from direct interviews and oral traditions (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout 1897,
1900; Matthews 1955). These works provided basic information concerning Squamish
Nation history, resource gathering, societal structures, knowledge of place-names, and
cultural and religious beliefs about their territory, and allow for nuanced interpretations
regarding ochre sources and rock art sites. However, the majority of ethnographic
information incorporates the viewpoint of the interviewers, namely western researchers
(Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900; Lundy 1974;
Matthews 1955; Smith 1923; Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930). Though they provide
extensive information on Squamish culture and history and gather this information with
direct interviews, the overall voice is from an etic perspective.
Review of ethnographic data was gathered with special attention to the places
and areas of focus in this study. This information sheds light on cultural and spatial
interactions and events that structured the landscape. For instance, direct interviews
show that there was knowledge of ochre sources in Squamish Nation territory, and that
people utilized this ochre for specific purposes (Matthews 1955:73, 277). They also shed
light on the nature of rock paintings and the perspectives that these people held on rock
paintings at the time (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Matthews 1955). The informed
perspectives will help to orient formal data spatially, temporally, and culturally.
2.2. Formal approaches
The scientific aspects of this study use portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
(pXRF), an instrument that has been in existence for the past decade but only recently
gained much attention for its portability and ease of use (Shackely 2010a). The
applicability of this technology is ideal for non-destructive field analysis of rock paintings.
It provides qualitative and semi-quantitative data on the elemental make-up of mineral
compounds that constitute rock art pigments (Murphy 2006:iii). Another scientific
technique used in this research project is D-stretch™, a photo enhancement program
that I used for finding optimum data points on the pictographs and substrata. This is the
first research project in BC that uses D-stretch for more than aesthetic or recording
purposes. In addition to pictographs, I analysed samples from two ochre sources in
32
Squamish Nation territory (Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge) as well as other ochre
samples from locations within and outside of British Columbia.
I conducted all of the pXRF analyses with a Bruker Tracer III-V+ portable X-ray
fluorescence instrument. At the atomic scale, incoming x-rays bombard a substance and
excite electrons, causing ejection of electrons from the innermost shells (K and L shells).
The ejected electrons leave vacancies which are replaced by outer shell electrons (M
and above). This process of outer shell electron replacement releases a specific amount
of energy in the form of a characteristic x-ray, otherwise known as fluorescence (Murphy
2006: iii). The instrument used in this study allows for analyses with the use of different
beam filters designed to highlight a specific ratio of elements (Newman and Loendorf
2005).
All pXRF analyses reported here used two instrument configurations. In the first
configuration, the instrument was set to operate at 40 KeV and 12 μA with a “green” filter
(.06 Cu .01 Ti .12 Al). This allows the instrument to detect heavier elements, arsenic
(As), rubidium (Rb), antimony (Sb), strontium (Sr), iron (Fe), uranium (U), and thorium
(Th). The second configuration uses a titanium (Ti) beam filter, or “blue” filter, set to
operate at 15 KeV and 12 μA. This setting allows the detection of low atomic weight
elements that are the primary constituents of lithic materials (Newman and Loendorf
2005) such as cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and vanadium (V). The total range of
elements used in this study for both the ochre samples and pictographs are V, Mn, Co,
As, Rb, Fe, Sr, Sb, U, and Th.
S1PXRF software developed by Bruker processed the raw X-ray count data. This
program is loaded onto a laptop computer from which it is used to view spectra during
data collection. The data appear as spectra “peaks” which correspond to the
concentration of target elements in the sample. This spectral data is stored within the
program as multichannel memories. Each of the channels gathers elemental spectral
counts over timed assays. This is the amount of time the detector window accumulates
fluoresced X-ray pulses.
ARTAX™ is a software program that processes, smoothes, and converts raw
spectral data into elemental net counts. The net count is a measurement of the total area
33
beneath each specific element peak representing concentrations in the material
analyzed. ARTAX converts these net counts into numeric values and exports the
information into a spreadsheet. These numeric values are transferable into most
statistical software. JMP 8 (and later JMP 9) was the statistical software used in this
study. JMP 9 provides options for numerous statistical analyses.
To identify relationships and variability amongst the ochre pXRF data, I ran a
series of multivariate statistical tests. Multivariate statistics are particularly useful when
working with a large number of observed variables (e.g. elemental concentrations on
ochre samples). When there are many measured variables, basic graphs and charts are
not capable of illustrating trends and relationships among the data sufficiently for this
study. Moreover, much of the data in sets are redundant, meaning the variables are too
similar. This makes it difficult to identify relevant trends and relationships.
Multivariate statistics can reduce these variables and focus in on important
information in the data. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is one such method. It
shrinks the observed variables into a smaller number of “principal components” that
account for most of the variance in the data set (Lehman et al. 2005:418). Although
examination of element content different ochres based solely on net value is informative
for specific elements, with multivariate analysis it is possible to observe the data from a
multitude of dimensions (Eiselt et al. 2011; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2008).
In addition to semi-quantitaive methods, I qualitatively described the ochre
samples and rock art sites by their visual and physical characteristics in order to identify
if there were any trends or relationships among the descriptive variables. I analyzed all
of the extracted ochre samples from two of the three ochre quarries in Squamish.
Additional samples from outside the study area supplemented analysis and include
material from France, Cuba, Oregon, Namu, Kootenay, and the Similkameen Valley of
BC. Several of these acquired samples were in powdered form: Cuba, France, and
Oregon. The other ochre samples from Namu, Kootenay, and the Similkameen were
already in curated SFU archaeological collections.
Samples from the two ochre sources in the Squamish Valley were qualitatively
analyzed based on a variety of attributes. Only the samples from Squamish were subject
34
to these analyses as they are directly relevant to the informed aspect of this project. The
attributes used to describe the ochres included: the color of the ochres as identified by
the Munsell color scale, homogeneity, heterogeneity, grain size, and texture. Site
location also played an important role in qualitative analysis, as location type likely
played a role in ochre source selection and procurement. The variables for analysis
were: location, terrain, ease of access, elevation, seasonal restriction, type of exposure,
and size of site. In addition to the ochre sources, the pictographs and pictograph sites
underwent a qualitative analysis based on similar attributes. Attributes for examined
pictographs included: type of image (zoomorphic, anthropomorphic, geometric, animal,
human, celestial, directional), and associated activities (mundane vs. ritual). Rock art
sites were compared by location and accessibility of panel (on a scale of easy to difficult
access), visibility (private or public), and number of images and panels located at the
site. I did not take a Munsell color reading on any of the pictographs because different
weather and daylight conditions can greatly alter the visible colors.
2.2.1. D-stretch™: seeing beyond the aesthetic
Whenever possible, I established a substrata control data point in the closest
proximity of a pigment pXRF reading. A control point in this case is a spot on a rock wall
with rock art that appeared to contain no paint or pigment; essentially, a bare rock face
located adjacent to a pictograph. As with any experiment, a control is necessary in order
to evaluate the independent (pigment) results by establishing a baseline for comparison.
Since the independent (pigment) variable is located on top of a rockwall, it is necessary
to have control readings of the substrata in order to establish the chemical make-up of
the rock wall as this can influence the chemistry of the pigment.
The location of the control was not only dependent on surface morphology, but
also the presence of light applications of pigment. Many of the individual pictographs at
some sites in this study were faint and weathered due to weathering, age, fading, or
runoff. In most cases, the faint pigments are almost invisible, but enhancing photos of
the pictographs with with D-stretch™ can highlight them. I took all of the photos in this
study with a digital Nikon Coolpix L18 prior to analysis. This camera is a compact digital
camera with an ISO sensitivity of 60-1600, 5.7-17.1mm lens, 3x optical zoom, and has a
35
resolution of 8.29million total pixels. The photos of pictographs of interest were
converted to JPEG format (i.e.: larger images, images with visually limited runoff) then
underwent a default LAB stretch in the D-Stretch program. The LAB stretch, or one of
the “L” enhancements, are less affected by noise, and work well for enhancing red colors
with JPEG formats. The LAB enhancement also can give sharper looking results without
enhancing cooler colors, such as blue or purple.
2.3. Data collection and analysis
2.3.1. Field methods: ochre sample collection
Personal visits of both Ochre sources in the Squamish Valley and manually
collected samples from each were conducted. Twenty samples in total were collected;
12 from Pilchuck Creek and eight from Paul Ridge. For sample extraction a 6-inch trowel
was employed with sample materials placed into separate plastic or paper bags. The
extraction locations at each source were determined in the field based on accessibility.
At Pilchuck Creek, samples from three areas were taken along its bank (Sample
Area [SA] 1-3), at three different vertical levels (Upper Level: UL, Mid-Level: ML, Creek-
Level: CL). Six samples derived from SA1, four from SA2, and two from SA3. Sample
locations were small ochre lenses occurring as scattered deposits along the creek bank.
This ochre source requires pedestrian access 15m northeast from Squamish Valley
Road, along the creek, through dense vegetation. All of the samples were extracted
during one visit.
At Paul Ridge, ochre samples were taken from the open ground surface
exposures at the top of the ridge, approximately 5m southeast from the trail. This source
is located along a trail next to a small mountain lake in view of the Coast Mountain
Range and Mount Garibaldi. Here, ochre occurs as open loamy sand deposits scattered
across the top of the ridge, with an approximate length of 200 meters east-west and 150
meters north-south. The spots of exposed ochre are at least 10cm thick. Seven of the
ochre samples were extracted from one 15m ochre exposure. Extraction areas were
chosen at random to be at least 1-5m apart from each other and at depths of 7-10cm.
36
PR8, the last sample, was taken from an exposure on the side of the ridge
approximately 200m southwest from the main sample area.
Figure 13: Pilchuck Creek Ochre Collection.
Figure 14: Paul Ridge Ochre Collection
(Photo courtesy Rudy Reimer, used with permission)
All ochre samples acquired from Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge were air dried
for several days. Some Pilchuck Creek samples contained clay from the riverbank,
which required manual separation from the ochre using a clean steel dental pick. It was
not necessary to grind ochre from both Paul Ridge and Pilchuck Creek into a powder,
since most of the ochre contained some fine-grained particles after drying. This type of
processing is ideal when preparing ochres for analysis as it renders the material
homogenous, resulting in a more accurate reading (Forster et al. 2011; Popelka-Filcoff
et al. 2007). The Namu ochre sample came from Burial FS 4.H excavated in 1969-1970
by James Hester (SFU) and dated to 3800-2880 BP. Dr. Rudy Reimer acquired both
Similkameen ochre samples during a visit to the source; the samples were extracted
randomly in the easily accessible lower deposits.
2.3.2. Lab methods: pXRF analysis of ochres
The ochre samples were prepared and analysed within labs at Simon Fraser
University. For all pXRF analysis, samples were at least one gram of ochre powder set
37
in plastic cupules provided by Bruker Elemental Inc. A plastic mount held the instrument
facing upwards with a metal sample tray positioned around the X-ray window. A safety
shield covered the sample to limit X-ray exposure to the user. Analysis employed both
instrument configurations (KeV and 12 μA for the green filter, 15 KeV and 12 μA for the
blue filter) for 300 second timed assays. Table 1 lists the labels for samples according to
original source location.
38
Table 1. Details of pXRF analysis on ochre samples.
Source Paul Ridge Pilchuck
Creek Similkameen Namu Kootenay Oregon France Cuba
Label PR PC SM NM KT OR FR CU
General Location
Squas Mountain
Squamish Creek
Exposed cliff, different
layers
Arch. deposit
Exposed surface outcrop
Tourist Material
Tourist Material
Exposed surface outcrop
Acquisition Source Visit Source Visit In Collection In
Collection
Source Visit (not by author)
Bought in Country (by author)
Bought in Country
(not by author)
Source Visit (not by author)
Analysis 8 12 2 1 1 1 1 1
Filters Blue, Green Blue, Green Blue, Green Blue, Green
Blue, Green Blue, Green Blue, Green Blue, Green
Readings 16 24 4 2 2 2 2 2
Timed Assays
300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec. 300 sec.
Weight (g) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
39
2.3.3. PXRF analysis of pictographs
Sampling locations on pictographs and the rock walls depended on suitability for
pXRF analysis, rather than pattern or layout. Surface morphology was a factor that
influenced the location of the data points for both pigment and control readings. Surface
irregularities, heterogeneous matrices, grain size, and surface coating (Forster et al.
2011:10) alter analysis for pXRF. Table 2 illustrates specific control and independent
reading counts for each site, along with the general location, number of pictographs
analyzed (analysis), style of pictograph (pictograph), the filters applied (filters), number
of independent and control readings, and whether or not a tripod was used for analysis.
Table 2. Methods table for pXRF analysis on pictographs.
Site # DjRt 2 DjRt 10 EaRu 9
Abbreviation FC MU US
General Location Howe Sound Browning Lake Upper Squamish River
Analysis 1 1 2
Pictographs Stylized serpent
face Geometric/directional
anthropomorph
EaRu 9a: Largest Thunderbird EaRu 9b: Smaller Thunderbird
right of EaRu 9a.
Filters Blue, Green Blue, Green Blue, Green
Controls 12 8 EaRu 9a: 10 EaRu 9b: 12
Independents 12 8 EaRu 9a: 10 EaRu 9b: 12
Tripod no yes EaRu 9a: Yes EaRu 9b: No
Timed Assays 150 second 300 second EaRu 9a: 300
EaRu 9b: 150
Control readings identify the chemistry of the rock wall on which the painting is
located. Separating out the chemical signature of the rock wall from the pigment is
essential for determining the elemental readings of the pigment itself. Since the X-ray
beam penetrates to depths of 2mm-4mm and pictograph paints are ca. ca 7-50 m
thick, it often completely penetrates through the pigment layer and accesses the rockwall
40
behind it. Thus, the control readings help to sort out the “background effect” by
identifying the elements that are specific to the rock wall (Newman and Loendorf 2005).
During analysis, the X-ray window was oriented parallel to the grooves in the rock
surface to optimize the intensity yield of the emitted X-rays (Forster et al. 2011). The
analysis of the pictographs was non-destructive and completed without any adverse
affects to the rock paintings.
Figure 15: Pigment data points for DjRt 2.
41
Figure 17: Pigment data points DjRt 10.
Figure 18: Control data points DjRt 10.
Figure 16: Control data points DjRt 2.
42
Figure 19: Pigment data points EaRu 9a.
Figure 20: Control data points EaRu 9a.
Figure 21: Pigment data points EaRu 9b.
Figure 22: Control data points EaRu 9b.
43
3. Results
It is important to note that the statistical analyses of the pictograph data is
experimental and exploratory in nature. That is, the methods stem from previous work
conducted on pictograph data gathered with pXRF (Newman and Loendorf 2005;
Huntley 2013) and explore the ways to observe variances in the data. It is not my any
means exhaustive of this discipline and intends to provide a base upon which to build
further research. These methods involved first looking at the raw data using an analysis
of variance test (ANOVA), followed by a post-hoc analysis using Tukey’s HSD (honestly
significant differences). Following these tests, the data were examined using principal
components analysis (PCA). These methods are outlined in more detail throughout this
section.
3.1. Qualitative analysis of ochre samples and source locations
This section reports the results of the qualitative analyses conducted on the
ochre samples and their source locations (Appendix A.1). A table illustrating attributes of
the individual ochre samples from Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge is in Appendix A.2.
Both sources relate to the informed methodology and discussion section of this thesis,
as the focus is Squamish cultural and oral history.
For the Pilchuck Creek ochre source, three ochre samples originated from the
upper level on the embankment, about 0.5 meters above the water level. These
constitute samples 1-3. Samples 4-6 came from mid-level on the creek wall, about .25m
above water level, and samples 7-9 at the current water level. Samples 10-12 derive
from a different section 10m NE from the original extraction spot, all taken at water level.
44
Based on the visual characteristics of the samples from Pilchuck Creek
(Appendix A.2), there is more consistency in color and texture amongst the ochre
samples extracted closer to creek level. The ochre from the upper levels is coarser,
which may be due to the type of exposure. Ochre closer to the water would undergo a
greater amount of oxidization or mixture with organic sediments than ochre higher up on
the bank wall. The ochre samples from Pilchuck Creek generally have finer-grained
particles than those of Paul Ridge that contain more coarse fragments. They range from
yellowish red to dark red. Ochre from Pilchuck Creek also had more silt and clay
particles, little if any coarse fragments, and exhibited more yellowish red to brown color
hues. The ochre from Paul Ridge is richer in color, specifically in the dark reds, but has
larger grains and would require more time grinding down to finer grains.
In addition to visual attributes of the samples, the physical locations of all sites
were recorded (Appendix A.1). Pilchuck Creek is easy to access and is accessible
throughout the entire year. During the winter months, if the water was high enough and
froze, ice would block access to the ochre deposits. Since the water level is relatively
high during the summer/fall and the deposits are accessible, it is unlikely that the source
is blocked during the winter. Paul Ridge is inaccessible during the winter due to snow
cover. This greatly limits the amount of time that ochre is accessible at this source.
The qualitative analyses on the ochre sources and their samples show that the
Pilchuck Creek ochre source is easier to access and is accessible for a greater amount
of time during the year. The ochre from this source is finer-grained and is likely easier to
process into paints and pigments. However, even though the Paul Ridge ochre source is
harder to access, covered with snow for extended amounts of time, and is more difficult
to process into a fine powder, it is a high elevation area and near Nch’kaỳ, the landing
place of Thunderbird. These attributes would make the ochre from Paul Ridge more
desirable for spiritually important uses, such as for ceremonies and rock art.
3.2. Qualitative analysis of pictographs and rock art sites
I qualitatively analyzed all of the pictographs used in this study based on their
physical and visual attributes. Table 3 shows the described attributes, which include both
45
aspects of the site location and the images located at the site. I personally visited all of
the rock art sites for this study, and measured all of the parameters for accessing the
sites (location, type of location), the panels and pictograph numbers at the sites, and the
attributes of the pictographs myself.
Table 3. Rock Art site attribute table for sites in Squamish.
Category DjRt 2 DjRt 10 EaRu 9
Associated place name Khul-Kalos Sts’i’ts’a7kin P’uỳáḿ
Location Rock bluff on edge of water, side of small hill
Rock bluff in forest, 50m NE from Browning Lake
Rock shelter on Upper Squamish River, steep
Visibility Private Public Private
Accessibility Moderate Easy Difficult
Panels 2 1 4
Images/Panel 1, 11 1 15, 31, 7, 12
Image Types Anthropomorphs, celestial, zoomorphs,
stylistic
Directional/anthropomorphic Anthropomorphs, celestial, geometric,
zoomorphic, amorphous
Probable Visitation Multiple Single Multiple
A qualitative analysis of the rock art sites shows both similarities and differences
in the sites and the pictographs. Only two sites with more than one pictograph contain
similar image styles (anthropomorphs, celestial, zoomorphs). Furthermore, they are both
in secluded places and are not easy to access, as is DjRt 10. However, all three of the
sites are located close to water sources (DjRt 2 and 10 near salt water, EaRu 9 near
fresh water) and on rock walls as opposed to boulders.
3.3. PXRF results of ochre analysis
The principal components analysis (PCA) of ochres presented in this study
displays the variation between the first two components; these account for 54.5% of the
total variation in the data set (Figure 23). Certain elements are notably present in certain
ochres, such as uranium in the Similkameen ochres and rubidium and vanadium in the
Cuban ochre. These elements distinguish these ochres from the other samples.
46
Since the first two components account for only 54.5% of the total variation
among the ochre samples, biplots of components 1-4 (Figure 24), which account for
79.76% of the total variation, were examined. The samples from Paul Ridge (PR) usually
group closely together and separate from the other ochre samples by the same
elements (Sr, U). This is also the case for the ochres from Pilchuck Creek (PC), where
the elements driving the variation between PC and the other samples are rubidium (Rb)
uranium (U), and vanadium (V). Most of these elements are transition metals or rare
earth elements. Transition metals are a group of thirty-eight elements in groups three
through twelve of the periodic table. These elements are malleable, can conduct
electricity and heat, and often exhibit several common oxidation states (Rapp and Hill
2006). Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of seventeen elements consisting of
fifteen lanthanides, scandium and yttrium (Rapp and Hill 2006). Popelka-Filcoff et al.
(2007, 2008) noted that geochemical variation in ochre tends to occur in the transition
metals or rare earth elements. She stated that this may be because these elements
relate to the iron-oxide chemical signature as many are similar to iron, especially in
oxidization and reduction trends (Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007:25).
47
Fig
ure
23:
PC
A s
co
re p
lot
an
d b
iplo
t w
ith
ra
ys s
ho
win
g a
ll o
ch
re s
am
ple
s.
48
Figure 24: Biplot of all ochre samples with first 1-4 principal component.
Further statistical analysis employed Canonical discriminate function analysis, or
DFA, to project the furthest difference among known geochemical groups (Figure 25;
Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2008). Before DFA, the elemental values underwent a conversion
as a ratio of Fe, known as Fe-normalization (MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; Popelka-
Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). The Fe content in ochres can vary greatly, and this range can
possibly overshadow the presence of characteristic elements (MacDonald et al. 2012:6).
A log10 transformation of the Fe-normalized ratios accounted for the wide range in
49
variability within the data set (MacDonald et al. 2012:6). These conversions simplify the
data to highlight specific elements that contribute to the variance in the ochre samples.
The DFA plot in Figure 25 displays the variation between different ochre sources, and
the similarity amongst the samples from Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge.
Figure 25: Canonical DFA plot of ochres converted to log10 Fe ratios.
In addition to examining all of the ochre samples with PCA and DFA, the
Squamish samples were more intensively examined (Figure 26). This was conducted in
order to determine the variation in the Squamish samples without influence from other
sources. This analysis shows that even though there is internal variation within each
source, there is greater between the two separate sources.
50
Figure 26: PCA biplot of PR and PC ochres.
3.4. PXRF results of pictograph analysis
The PCA of elements from pictograph sites displays a distinct separation
between DjRt 10 pictograph from EaRu 9a and b Thunderbirds, and a less distinct
separation between image DjRt 2 and EaRu 9a and b (Figure 27). This separation is
likely due to the differences in the granite rock walls that underlie the pictographs. The
Thunderbird pictographs from EaRu 9a and b are on the same granite panel, whereas
the DjRt 10 and DjRt 2 pictographs are located on different rock walls in separate
locations. To account for differences that may be due to the minerals in the different
geological features, the pigment readings and the control readings were compared
(Figures 28 and 29).
51
Figure 28: PCA biplot of pigment data points.
Figure 27: PCA biplot of pigment and control data points.
52
Figure 29: PCA biplot of control data points.
This more specific analysis shows the marked differences in the pigment and
control elements. Even so, much of the chemical variation within the pigment readings is
likely due to the elements in the rock wall. To observe differences between the pigment
values without the influence of the control readings, the specific raw net counts (area
beneath the spectra) for individual elements were compared (Figures 30-35). These
figures show the different values in the control and pigments readings. To further this
analysis, the means between the pigment and control elements were compared using an
analysis of variance (ANOVA test) to obtain a p-value (α = 0.05). Even though the
chemical make-up of the pigment readings lie closely to the control, it should be possible
to observe which elements are unique to the pigment, assuming that the null hypothesis
is rejected (p < 0.05).
53
Figure 30: Net amounts of Rubidium (Rb) in site DjRt 2 pigment and control (n=6 for control, n=6 for pigment, p=0.0251).
Figure 31: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site DjRt 10 pigment and control (n=4 for pigment, n=4 for control, p=0.0438).
54
Figure 32: Net amounts of Vanadium (V) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0043).
Figure 33: Net amounts of Cobalt (Co) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0001).
55
Figure 34: Net amounts of Manganese (Mn) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0354).
Figure 35: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0073).
56
Rubidium is the only element with a significant difference between the means in
DjRt 2, where it is higher in the control (Figure 30; p<0.0251). Other elements that are
prominent, but not significantly different in the control means are Mn and U (Figures 34
and 35). Iron is the only element that is significantly more abundant in the pigments of
the DjRt 10 pictograph than in the rock wall control, (p=0.0438; Figure 31). This is not
surprising, given that ochres are known to have high iron content (Cornell and
Schwertmann 2003).
Several elements are significantly more (or less) abundant in the controls versus
pigments at EaRu 9a. These are V, Mn, Co, and Fe (Figures 32-35), all of which are
transition metals (Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). For EaRu 9b, two elements, Co and
Fe are more abundant in the pigment than the controls, at slightly less stringent
significant levels (Co p=0.0591; Fe p=0.0621). The means of some of the net counts
between the pigment and control are not significantly different (p > 0.05) for many of the
elements. However, there are still differences between the control and pigment
elemental counts. Certain elements are characteristic of certain pictographs, such as Mn
or V for EaRu 9a. Furthermore, Figure 30 of the Rb count for DjRt 2 shows the control
values for this element are significantly higher than the pigment values. This is an
indication that the pigment is in effect “blocking” the control element from showing in the
net counts. The results of the raw net counts for each element in the pictographs show
that there are marked differences in certain elements between the pictograph and rock
wall readings.
When examining the total data set of the rock art sites, Figure 27 illustrates the
variation between pictographs. To compare the pigments without influence from the rock
wall, one would need to isolate the pigment chemistry. The only feasible way of doing so
is to negate the background effect, or minimize the pull of the control chemistry on the
pigment values. One way to do this is to compare the control data between two
pictograph sites to assess whether the chemical make-up of the two rock walls is
statistically significantly different. To do so, I conducted an ANOVA test to compare the
net counts of each element in the controls. If the net values between the two data sets
are shown to be significantly variant (α=0.05, p<0.05), then the pigment data is not
comparable as the controls are significantly different. If the values are not significantly
57
variant (α=0.05, p>0.05), then any differences between the pigment data of the two sites
can be attributed to the make-up of the pigments.
Table 4 shows the p values for control element values among DjRt 2, DjRt 10,
EaRu 9a and b. The p-values in boldface are not statistically significant, meaning that
the null hypothesis is accepted (H0 = the means of the groups are equal). These
elements are comparable with pigment net counts. If there is a significant difference in
these elements on the pigments means, then most of this variation will be due to
differences in the pigment means and not the control means, as these were shown to be
statistically non-significant (α=0.05, p>0.05). Using this methodology, some pigments are
comparable among rock art sites based on specific elements. A table showing the
means of the control elements for each pictograph site is presented in Appendix D.3.
After ANOVA tests, the data set for the controls underwent a Tukey’s HSD test.
Tukey’s HSD (honestly significant difference) is a post-hoc ANOVA test to find if the
means are significantly different from each other. It compares all of the mean pairs
based on studentized range distribution (q), which is similar to the distribution of t from a
t-test (Hayter 1984). The results of the Tukey’s HSD are consistent with the ANOVA
tests; in that the means between many of the controls are not significantly different (H0 is
accepted). The results from the Tukey’s HSD are presented in Appendix F.
Since the two pictographs at EaRu 9 are located on the same panel and have
similar control readings (Table 4) it is possible to compare their pigment chemistry. The
pictographs DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b are located on different rock walls, but since the rock
walls at the sites share similar chemistry on seven elements (V, Mn, Co, Fe, As, U, Th),
their pigment elements are comparable as well.
58
Table 4. Comparison of elements in pictograph images at all sites. Boldface values are not significant (α=0.05, N=210). Sample sizes: DjRt 2 (n=6), DjRt 10 (n=4), EaRu 9a (n=5), EaRu 9b (n=6).
Element DjRt 2
/EaRu 9a DjRt 2
/EaRu 9b EaRu 9a /EaRu 9b
DjRt 10 /EaRu 9a
DjRt 10 /EaRu 9b
DjRt 10 /DjRt 2
V p> 0.0305 p> 0.2770 p> 0.0722 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.0001
Mn p> 0.0109 p> 0.1137 p> 0.5740 p>0.2181 p>0.5994 p>0.2656
Co p> 0.0027 p> 0.3309 p> 0.1194 p>0.0160 p>0.0046 p>0.0008
Fe p> 0.1518 p> 0.0996 p> 0.5696 p>0.1286 p>0.0357 p>0.3614
As p> 0.8111 p> 0.1083 p> 0.5150 p>0.5253 p>0.0398 p>0.3859
Rb p> 0.0108 p> 0.0065 p> 0.8655 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p>0.0006
Sr p> 0.0051 p<0.0001 p> 0.3269 p>0.0174 p<0.0001 p>0.3426
Sb p> 0.0078 p< 0.0001 p> 0.8370 p>0.1388 p>0.0003 p<0.0001
U p> 0.3826 p> 0.3079 p> 0.1806 p>0.2930 p>0.0018 p>0.0061
Th p> 0.4638 p> 0.3170 p> 0.1751 p>0.0066 p<0.0001 p>0.0001
There is chemical variation between the pigment readings of EaRu 9a and EaRu
9b (Figure 36), and between DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b (Figure 37). Since the controls at both
sites are not significantly different from each other, much of the variation between these
pictograph readings must be due to the pigment alone. Different elements are pulling
data points into opposite directions: V, As, and Th for the DjRt 2 pictograph, and Mn, Co,
Fe, and U for the EaRu 9b pictograph. Pictographs elements at EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b
separate out into two groups (Figure 36), and there is more variance within EaRu 9a
than within EaRu 9b. Visibly, EaRu 9a appears to have different ochre paints, different
paint binders, and/or was repainted recently since the pigment is darker in comparison to
the paint of EaRu 9b. This repainting could account for its wider variance in elements.
59
Figure 36: Biplot of pigment readings for EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b.
60
Figure 37: Biplot of pigment data points for DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b.
3.4.1. D-Stretch™ and pXRF
By enhancing the images, D-stretch allowed identification of areas on rock walls
that were suitable for control data point analysis. This way, areas around the pictographs
where there was significant runoff or smudging from the pigments could be avoided. D-
stretch™ is also useful for identifying areas on the pictograph with limited weathering
and fading effects. If the pigment is more intact, it allows for better analysis with pXRF,
as there is more of the sample to analyze and limits the effect of the background
rockwall on the pigment readings.
61
4. Discussion and Interpretation
In this chapter, I discuss the formal analyses and couple these with an informed
perspective involving cultural interpretations from ethnographic sources. Firstly, I discuss
the results from the formal analyses of the ochre from both sources in Squamish, the
ochres from other geographical locations, and the results from the pictograph sites in
Squamish are in their contributions to archaeology, geoarchaeology, and archaeometry.
Following this, I discuss the results of the formal analyses of the pictograph sites in
Squamish. A detailed interpretation of the ethnographic information regarding the ochre
sources and pictographs sites follows the discussion. Using my interpretations from the
ethnographies, I elaborate on the cultural significance of the landscape. I tie the formal
and informed discussions together in the last section of this chapter with an
interpretation of the landscape surrounding the ochre sources and pictographs in
Squamish.
4.1. Discussion of formal results for ochres
PXRF analysis of ochres demonstrated that all of the ochre samples in this study
are chemically different from one another, with the ochres from Squamish being more
similar to each other than ochres from other locations. When the independently
compared using the same statistical analyses, ochre samples from within a single
source were more similar than samples from the other source. This satisfies the
provenance postulate, which states that inter-source variation must be greater than intra-
source variation in order for minerals to be chemically distinct (MacDonald 2008;
Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008; Shackley 2008; Wiegand et al. 1977). Ochre is widely
regarded as being a heterogeneous material as it occurs in a variety of geological
contexts, from soil, clay, or rocks containing a high concentration of iron oxide (Cornell
and Schwertmann 2003; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007, 2008). Because of this, researchers
tend to avoid geochemical analysis of ochres, even though it occurs in archaeological
62
and cultural contexts across the globe (Schmandt-Besserat 1980). The discovery that
pXRF can satisfy the provenance postulate for ochres is significant in that pXRF analysis
need not be limited to homogenous materials such as obsidian and basalt.
4.2. Discussion of formal results for pictographs
Similar to the ochre sources, there is a high degree of chemical variation among
the pictographs themselves. However, much of this variation is due to control readings.
While the background rock wall will always have an effect on the pigment readings,
pigments contain certain characteristic elements that are distinguishable from the control
chemistry. Instead of thinking of these results as the control affecting the pigment, it is
likely that the pigment is blocking or altering control elements. For instance, in
comparing the pigment and control for Rb in DjRt 2, the Rb concentration is much higher
in the control than the pigment (Figure 30). This is due to the pigment blocking the
intrusive X-rays from reaching these elements in the rock wall and limits the effect of
fluorescence. The pigments and rock walls are often similar, yet the pigment stands in
the way of reaching the full range of elements in the control. Incorporating this
perspective is essential in approaching how to independently observe the chemistry of
the pictograph readings.
In addition to the issues with the background effect, the use of paint binders or
color enhancement might also play a minor role in altering the overall pigment
composition. However, since the use of pXRF for analyzing rock art pigments is
relatively new and under explored, there is no research on whether pXRF can detect the
presence of organic binders. Because pXRF is emits X-rays at lower power levels than it
XRF or XRD, it is unlikely that the chemistry of organic compounds would register in the
spectra peaks. Another concern is the patina, or mineral varnish that often accumulates
on rock surfaces due to mineral leaching. This mineral build up will register in the pXRF
spectra, and could alter the pigment chemistry. The patina does not present a large
problem in my thesis as I took control readings as well as pigment readings; however, it
could be a problem in future applications working towards obtaining an isolated sample
of pictograph paint.
63
In this study, it was not possible to isolate the pigment elemental composition
using pXRF data. The methods I used in this study allowed me to observe similarities
and differences on specific elements and compare pictograph paints. To go further and
work towards comparing pigments to actual source material would require a sample of
the pigment and stronger geochemical analysis, such as NAA or XRF. Taking a sample
of a pictograph pigment is destructive to the rock art, which is counter-intuitive to this
research project in establishing a methodology for non-destructively analyzing rock art
with pXRF, and also for preserving heritage and culture. The best option is to establish a
viable methodology to look at semi-quantitative data of rock art with pXRF, specifically to
isolate pigment elemental chemistry. My research provides a base upon which to build
this methodology.
4.3. Informed interpretation of Squamish ochre sources
Both ochre sources in Squamish are associated with place-names. Pilchuck
Creek is known as Nch’aḿáỳ, and Paul Ridge is associated with the Mount Garibaldi
place-name Nch’kay. Nch’aḿáỳ was and is a publically known place with red ochre, and
people were accessing this area to acquire it. This information is essential when
considering the nature of ochre preference and selection. As a local source, easily
accessible, and well known amongst the community, its importance resides in the
cultural knowledge of its location and the sharing of this information over time. This
coincides with the conclusions found by MacDonald (2008:55), who stated that ochre
acquisition on the central coast of B.C. had a localized pattern, with some small-scale or
kinship based trade occurring between villages. She also stated that since these
behaviors remained consistent over extended periods, they were likely community-
based traditions (MacDonald 2008:55).
It is likely that minerals from Nch’kaỳ were preferred over other ochre sources
based on the legends and symbolism associated with the site. Nch’kaỳ is associated
with the “mythical being” Thunderbird (In7in'a'xe7en) (Reimer 2012:80-83). Any lithic
materials from this site would contain spiritual power and subsequently used for
specialized tool production (Reimer 2012:189). Access to Nch’kaỳ is very difficult and
possible only during the later summer. In addition to the difficulty of physical access, one
64
must be prepared spiritually as well. In an associated legend, a man tried to climb up to
a mountain peak known as T’ak’t’ak’muyin tl’a In7in’a’xe7en (Black Tusk) in Squamish.
The young man climbed to a mountain meadow where he found feathers belonging to
Thunderbird and picked them up. Thunderbird came, shot lightning bolts at the man
through its eyes, and flapped its wings, creating strong winds and a storm. The man ran
from the mountain; only when he dropped the feathers did Thunderbird cease (Bouchard
and Kennedy 1986:181). This legend displays the necessity of being spiritually prepared
for going into such places associated with powerful “mythical beings”. The man was not
ready and was chased from the mountain.
In many cultures, the value of a mineral is often associated with the journey
made to acquire it, sometimes even more so the mineral itself (Boivin 2004:10). Minerals
from sacred or symbolic places, such as Nch’kaỳ, were important because of the
processes surrounding its acquisition and the association of “mythical beings” to the site
(Reimer 2012:80-83). Furthermore, Nch’kaỳ is the highest elevation point in Squamish
territory. Amongst Salish groups, high elevation areas are powerful places, with the
power perceived as embedded within the place as opposed to inscribed on the place
(Bierwart 1999:39). If the Paul Ridge ochre source was known to ancient Squamish
people, it is likely that ochre from this source was preferred based on its association with
Nch’kaỳ. Ochre from this site would be more than red soil, but as Bradley (2000:88)
describes it, a “piece of place”. It is also likely that acquiring this ochre may have been
part of a larger process of ceremonial acquisition and spirituality. The spiritual
association with the “mythical being” Thunderbird would have made ochre from this
place particularly special and preferred for specific purposes in the community. These
purposes were most likely not mundane (Reimer 2012:189), and instead associated with
important or ritual activities, such as face paint for ceremonies, or as paint for
pictographs. Given the association of Paul Ridge with Thunderbirds, and the presence of
three Thunderbird pictographs at EaRu 9, a reasonable inference is that that Paul Ridge
ochre is the paint in the Thunderbird images. Furthermore, it is possible that it the power
associated with the ochre paint transferred onto the rock surface and into the image of
Thunderbird.
It cannot be determined from the ethnographic evidence and the extant analyzed
data whether ancient people preferred one particular source for creating pictographs.
65
Pilchuck Creek is a local, easy to access source that was located near a village site.
This ochre source was public knowledge and used extensively, or was “owned” by the
small village located nearby (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:394-395). Paul Ridge, on the
other hand, is located almost 1660m above sea level near the tallest peak in Squamish
Nation territory and it is near an obsidian source. Archaeological excavations across the
southern Northwest Coast have recovered obsidian flakes and lithics from this source. It
is likely that people were acquiring other minerals from around Nch’kaỳ, such as ochre,
used locally or included in the trade networks.
Mineral studies often focus solely on functional aspects and the economic web of
production, trade, and wealth. Technological processes remain in a separate realm from
the “symbolic” or “ritual” processes. Even so, much of the technology involved in
acquiring, preparing, and using these materials could have held ritual or symbolic
components (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Wadley 2005). Even though there are distinct
differences in the way minerals are used and interacted with, the processes involved in
acquisition and preparation would be remarkably similar if not the same. Regardless of
the subsequent uses, a certain amount of processing and preparation must take place.
Of Squamish Nation materials, Reimer (2012) states that their acquisition, processing,
and preparation can vary greatly if it is acquired from a powerful place that is associated
with “mythical beings” (Reimer 2012:189-194). Squamish people used ochre in
potlatches, rock art, and ceremonies (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Matthews 1955)
and it is likely that people sought ochre from special places for their spiritual potency and
as a “piece of place”.
Both Paul Ridge (Nch’kaỳ) and Pilchuck Creek (Nch’aḿáỳ) are culturally
significant places in Squamish. Nch’aḿáỳ is a place-name associated with oral history
and was an area where ochre was known to be found. Paul Ridge is near Nch’kaỳ, was
likely known and accessed, and was likely associated with “mythical beings” due to its
proximity to Nch’kaỳ. These ochre sources are also different geologically, and their
element signatures are different enough to state that they are chemically different
sources and are distinguishable from ochres from different geographic locations. The
formal data show these differences between the sources in Squamish, while the
ethnographies show the different roles they played in Squamish culture.
66
4.4. Informed interpretation of pictographs and rock art sites
The pictographs in the Squamish Valley contain figures that feature in the
legends and stories associated with place-names in the area. The pictograph at DjRt 2
(Furry Creek) is likely an image of Sinotlkai, the two-headed serpent who was slain by
the great warrior Xwech’tál. The same story is associated with the pictograph at DjRt 10
or Sts’i’ts’a7kin. DjRt 10 has not only been interpreted as a stylized depiction of
Xwech’tál, but also as a map containing two circles representing Howe Sound and
Browning Lake. The central line represents an underground passage that connects the
two, or the route that Sinotlkai took to escape the lake into Howe Sound (Reimer 2005).
Even though these two pictographs are spatially distant, they likely relate to each other
by the nature of their images. They are both different representations of a central legend
that is associated with many natural and cultural features in Squamish Nation territory.
Squamish ethnographic records tie ochre to rock paintings. The place names and
stories within them show that the natural features of the landscape are not singular or
isolated in their importance or significance, but weave together with various threads of
legends, the landscape, and oral history. Most of the known rock art sites in Squamish
display prominent figures and events in these stories, such as Thunderbird
(In7in'a'xe7en), the two-headed serpent (Sinotlkai), or the great warrior of St’ames
(Xwech’tál). This continuity shows that rock art sites in and of themselves are not
singular sites or occurrences, but are part of the cultural landscape (Chippindale and
Taçon 1998:4-9).
The rock paintings researched in this study coincide with the oral history of
Squamish. Aside from the paintings that are known and discernible figures, there are
“abstract” images, such as groups of dots, lines, and smudges. Some researchers refer
to such markings in rock art as “entopic phenomena”, originating from shamanic rituals,
trances, and spiritual journeys (cf. Hayden 2003; Lewis-Williams 1986, 2002). Shamans
and Healers reportedly may have created a large number of rock paintings in B.C.,
largely as records of dreams and spiritual journeys undertaken while in trance (Grant
1967; Keyser 1992; York et al. 1993). Of the rock art sites in this study, EaRu 9 is the
only site of the three that contain numerous images fitting the description for entopic
67
phenomena. Some of the panels at the site contain groupings of dots, smudges, and
lines that do not form a discernible “image” by western standards. Reimer (2008; 2012)
discusses the role of Smáỳlilh, or wild people -- “mythical beings” who can change shape
and form and would often retreat into the elements for extended periods of time (Reimer
2012:79-80). The Smáỳlilh may be responsible the creation of shamanic rock art in
seemingly private, secluded, and difficult to access places.
In the Squamish ethnographies, there are no accounts of pictograph place-
names depicting specific legendary figures (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986). Most of the
rock art described in the ethnographic sources occur as streaks of ochre that are
associated with supernatural powers, meant to stop rising floodwaters. The ethnographic
sources do not directly reference the pictographs analyzed in this study (cf. Bouchard
and Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900; Matthews 1955), but the pictographs do
closely resemble many events described in some of the legends. Perhaps some of these
sites were not meant to be known to their entire community and recorded in oral history
as a place-name, but instead may have been a private space.
Many of the pictographs and the two ochre sources in this study reflect the oral
history embedded in the landscape. Access to Pilchuck Creek was likely less restricted
based on its ease of access; however, the village located there or clan association may
have restricted access. Paul Ridge may have been more restricted based on spiritual
preparation and physical preparedness. It may have been the case that certain ochre
was saved for specific purposes, such as for potlatches, ceremonies, body paint, or rock
art paint. Even so, the specific uses at this point cannot be determined to one particular
source. Regardless, it is no surprise that in Squamish Nation territory, knowledge of
these sources existed and persisted throughout time.
4.5. Landscape and location: discussion of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish, B.C.
All of the pictograph sites in Squamish (5) are located close to water, as is
Pilchuck Creek. This is not surprising when considering that the Squamish relied
primarily on marine resources and the majority of their village sites were located on or
68
near a waterway (Bouchard and Kennedy 1976b, 1986). Other rock art sites in the
Squamish River Valley not included in this study are also near the Squamish River or its
tributaries (e.g., DlRt 1 and DlRt 9). All of the core rock art sites in the Squamish River
valley are relatively close to the Pilchuck Creek ochre source (~5-30km). The Paul Ridge
ochre source is harder to access, and is about 20km southeast of Pilchuck Creek.
Because of this distance, the Pilchuck Creek ochre source is a “local” location when
compared to the proximity of the pictographs. The Squamish River valley has three
separate pictograph sites; none is located near Mount Garibaldi or Paul Ridge. This
could be due to the lack of suitable rock shelters or outcrops, or possibly a place of
“mythical beings” should be left alone and not have rock paintings nearby.
Other archaeological sites in the areas surrounding pictograph sites shed
light on the interactions with the landscape. Sites DjRt 2 and 10 are located in northern
Howe Sound. Of the 16 registered archaeological sites in this area, three are shell
middens, two are habitation sites (rock-shelters), and ten are lithic scatters. The
abundance of stone tool debitage along with temporary habitation and shell middens
suggest that this area was set aside for coastal fishing and resource gathering. St’ames
(DkRs 6) is the permanent village site that used these places on a seasonal basis
(ARCAS 1998; Bouchard and Kennedy 1986). It is likely that the ancient artists who
created the pictographs at DjRt 2 and 10 were from St’ames.
The area around EaRu 9 has only nine registered archaeological sites. The
majority of these sites are groups of culturally modified trees (CMT’s), two rock shelters
or habitation sites and one human remains burial site. The ethnographic information
from Bouchard and Kennedy (1986) concerning this area show only four place names
this far up the Squamish River. Even though this area was relatively uninhabited, the
Squamish River served as a major waterway for fishing and transport. Squamish people
traveled this far north to collect cedar bark and fish for salmon. EaRu 9 is located quite
high up and allows for a vista of the mountains west of the Squamish River, which would
have included Sxeltakwú7, a mountain allegedly marked with ochre during the Great
Flood. None of the rock art sites are located close to major villages, but are still in areas
where marine and terrestrial resources were gathered. It is possible that the selection of
these sites was this way for a reason, which they would be relatively secluded yet still
close to areas where Squamish people were familiar.
69
Research on predicting the locations of rock art sites is scarce at best. Copp
(2006) claims that more work in this area needs to be conducted, but is difficult due to
the many idiosyncratic variables that are at play when a site is selected by an artist for
creating rock art. Copp’s own research in the Similkameen Valley shows that many of
the rock art sites occur in areas 300 to 500m within the Similkameen River (Copp
2006:406). A similar trend exists amongst Squamish rock art, where the majority of the
known rock art sites (9 in total) in the core Squamish area are near a large water source
(Squamish River, Howe Sound, Browning Lake, Green Lake, Cheakamus River, Elaho
River). In attempts to “predict” locations for rock art sites, many locations that would
seem to be ideal for painting conditions are untouched. Trying to establish such factors
for prediction is problematic and the selection criteria for artists was most likely personal,
subjectively based on the present time and conditions. Factors that are unknown to
modern-day researchers may have been integral for selection to ancient peoples, such
as places used for personal or public ceremonies or rituals, places to avoid due to
disagreements between villages, places embedded with significant power, places
restricted by the elite class or “rights”, or places reserved for different functions or
purposes in the landscape.
Though there seem to be trends in the locations of rock art sites in Squamish,
this does not necessarily signify strict selection variables that ancient artists used when
choosing a site. The entire process of location selection is entirely unknown to modern
researchers. This could be because many rock art sites were personal, private spaces
and not shared with other people (Corner 1968; Teit 1930; York et al. 1993). The only
trends in pictograph locations in Squamish that seem to be concrete are that the sites
are often located near a major water source, within proximity of a major hunting, fishing,
or village site, and that they are in relatively secluded places, sometimes difficult to
access (DjRt 2, EaRu 9). However, the rock art sites in Squamish are relatively few
compared to other places, such as the Stein River Valley (York et al. 1993) or the
Similkameen Valley (Copp 2006).
Missing from the locations containing rock art sites in Squamish are high
elevation areas. This contrasts the description of rock art sites in the ethnographies,
which are said to occur on top of mountains, specifically during the Great Flood story
(Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:370-371). Rock art, and specifically ochre, play significant
70
roles in these stories; yet, no rock art sites have been found in such areas in Squamish.
It is likely that there are many sites still to be discovered, located in secluded or private
areas meant to be left alone, created by Smáỳlilh during a spiritual quest or journey.
71
5. Conclusion
This research provides combines informed and formal approaches and provides
insightful and beneficial contributions to rock art studies. Formally, ochre data analysis
indicates that pXRF is sensitive enough to identify inter- and intra-source variation,
satisfying the provenance postulate. This opens doors for research institutions who
cannot afford large expensive and resource-intensive geochemical lab instruments, such
as bench top X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and instrumental
neutron activation analysis (INAA). PXRF requires little lab space compared to INAA,
where nuclear radiation is a risk, samples take weeks to process and become
radioactive after exposure. The ability to take a pXRF instrument into the field is also
unparalleled by any other analytical instrument, as pXRF is portable, light weight, non-
destructive and hand-held, which makes it ideal for in-situ analysis of rock art. PXRF can
provide qualitative and semi-quantitaive results with heterogeneous materials and
compounds; this conclusion in of itself is a step forward in the field of geochemical
analysis in archaeology.
In addition of pXRFs ability to gather data on ochre, it is able to gather similar
data directly on rock art. The results show that even though rock art pigments are
“infinitely thin” (Cesareo et al. 2008:209), weathered, and always affected by the
background rockwall, pXRF still provides reliable semi-quantitaive and qualitative data
on pigment composition. It is possible to identify characteristic elements that can
differentiate the paint amongst pictographs on the same rockwall and potentially
Conclusions
This research combines informed and formal approaches and provides insightful
and beneficial contributions to rock art studies. Formally, ochre data analysis indicates
that pXRF is sensitive enough to identify inter- and intra-source variation, satisfying the
provenance postulate. This opens doors for research institutions who cannot afford large
expensive and resource-intensive geochemical lab instruments, such as bench top X-ray
72
fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA). PXRF requires little lab space compared to INAA, where nuclear radiation is a
risk, samples take weeks to process and become radioactive after exposure. The ability
to take a pXRF instrument into the field is also unparalleled by any other analytical
instrument, as pXRF is portable, light weight, non-destructive and hand-held, which
makes it ideal for in-situ analysis of rock art. PXRF can provide qualitative and semi-
quantitaive results with heterogeneous materials and compounds; this conclusion in of
itself is a step forward in the field of geochemical analysis in archaeology.
In addition to pXRF’s ability to gather data on ochre, it is able to gather similar
data directly on rock art. The results show that even though rock art pigments are
“infinitely thin”, weathered, and always affected by the background rockwall, pXRF still
provides reliable semi-quantitaive and qualitative data on pigment composition. It is
possible to identify characteristic elements that can differentiate the paint amongst
pictographs on the same rock wall and potentially pictographs on other rock walls,
depending on the control. These observations can show how many types of paint exist
amongst pictographs at a rock art site. This leads to further speculations on the social
context surrounding the creation of pictographs, such as mineral preferences and
selection, the number of artists, and number of visits to the site.
In this study, pXRF analysis demonstrated that artists used different ochres to
create paint for the pictograph images at site EaRu 9 (a and b), and the pictograph at
DjRt 2. Specifically, the two pictographs at EaRu 9 contain ochre paint acquired from
sources on two separate occasions. This conclusion leads to a number of potential
interpretations about the nature of pictograph creation and the use of rock art sites in
Squamish Nation territory. It is possible that different artists using different ochres
created each of the Thunderbird pictographs, or the same artist revisited the site but
painted the images with different ochres. This acquisition and use of different ochres
was either intentional or circumstantial based on whatever ochre pigment was nearby or
available at the time. Furthermore, more than one artist could have revisited the site on
several occasions to paint or repaint the pictographs. The latter scenario is more likely,
as the site is quite large, contains numerous pictographs with potentially different ochre
paints, and may have been a teaching place for younger generations or to aid in the
passing of knowledge. This interpretation, however, does not take into account the
73
temporal progression of site EaRu 9. It is possible that the site was at one time a private,
sacred and powerful space, the product of a spiritual journey that was meant for one
person alone. In time, the site may have been re-discovered or re-visited and
transformed into a public place, used as a teaching space and revisited by several
people over the course of time. As for the general region of the Squamish River Valley
and overall territory, perhaps both of these scenarios were occurring simultaneously;
with certain, large sites meant for teaching and sharing oral history, and smaller, more
isolated sites as the products of personal spiritual journeys.
The existence of several known rock art sites in Squamish is a testament to the
role of rock art in oral history. For many First Nations and Indigenous groups, oral history
is the primary way to perpetuate cultural traditions, creation stories, life-skills,
connections to the landscape, traditional knowledge, and spirituality. Oral histories and
subsequently, the traditions made from them, are integral to cultural identities of groups
and provide the base on which society is built (Bierwart 1999). The importance of
passing on traditional knowledge from one generation to the next is vital. The histories,
stories, and messages embedded in the pictographs would have provided a major
avenue to share oral traditions with younger generations. Whether the rock art sites in
Squamish Nation territory were likely the products of individual spiritual journeys or ways
to pass on oral tradition does not diminish the fact that these sites would have been an
integral part of the cultural web of history, spirituality, and tradition.
The formal data show that ancient people gathered ochre from two different
sources on two separate occasions, or possibly the same source on two separate
occasions. Furthermore, the internal variability within the Squamish Nation ochre
sources is quite high, especially for Paul Ridge, since it is an open source and in
constant exposure of the elements. Paul Ridge is a high elevation area and likely
associated with the “mythical being” Thunderbird. It would make sense that people
acquired ochre from this location specifically to paint such an image as Thunderbird.
Because minerals are pieces of place in Squamish culture (Reimer 2012), any uses of
ochre acquired from this location contain the spiritual potency of its acquisition place. If
ochre from Paul Ridge is the paint from the Thunderbird images at site EaRu 9, the
power from the site would transfer to the images, imbuing them with the symbolism
associated with Thunderbird. Materials from special areas are not for mundane activities,
74
which further supports the conclusion that ochre from such a place as Paul Ridge would
be an ideal substance to create such rock art images.
5.1. A researcher’s to-do list: a guide on analyzing rock art pigments with pXRF
The use of pXRF for analysing rock art pigments is still relatively new, with the
majority of academic articles published within the last two years (Huntley 2012; Huntley
et al. 2011; Newman and Loendorf 2005; Neuvo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011). Aside
from the field of rock art, most research conducted with pXRF is lab-based, focuses on
discussing the validity of pXRF, and compares pXRF data to data from desktop methods
such as XRF, XRD, and INAA (Forster et al. 2011; Frahm and Doonan 2013). Very few
research articles discuss results of using pXRF for in-situ analysis of field samples
(Bastos et al. 2012; Davis et al. 2012), let alone for rock art (Huntley 2012; Huntley et al.
2011; Newman and Loendorf 2005; Neuvo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011). Because of
this, there is little in the way of a proper methodology for analyzing rock art pigments,
save for Huntley’s (2012) article concerning Australian pigments. One purpose of this
project is to rectify this, to create a checklist of how researchers can use pXRF to
analyze rock art pigments, with some thoughts and warnings and tricks of the trade. This
list is by no means exhaustive and all-inclusive; rather, it is starting point where
researchers can add to based on their own field experiences.
Some of the essential factors when choosing which rock art to analyze are as
follows: surface roughness, pigment thickness, layering, control readings, ease of
access, size of pictograph, and surrounding pictographs. Surface roughness pertains to
the background rockwall where images are painted. PXRF is highly sensitive to rough
surfaces, and these can lead to inaccuracies in the results as grooves alter the
orientation of the incoming X-rays (Forster et al. 2011:393; Lirtzis and Zacharias
2011:132). Rough surfaces also increase inaccuracies in analysis because of water
accumulation and air pockets, both of which can alter the orientation of X-rays and
subsequently the elemental readings of the sample (Liangquan et al. 2005:30). A
smooth matrix is essential to have optimal readings. In my personal experience, there is
a point where the surface matrix is too rough for the instrument to register a reading.
75
This is due to the X-ray window not reading the reflected X-rays because the rough,
uneven surface causes the beams to scatter. This occurred at the Furry Creek (DjRt 2)
pictograph site with the large central wolf image. The instrument could not register any
X-ray spectra because of the amount of weathering on the rockwall; the roughness and
unevenness of the surface scattered the X-rays to such an extent that the window could
not receive any characteristic fluorescence.
Pigment thickness can also greatly influence pXRF results. As previously
mentioned, pictograph pigments are regarded as being “infinitely thin”, meaning that any
incoming X-rays will penetrate through the pigment and into the background rockwall
(Cesareo et al. 2008:209). Furthermore, background rock walls affect the chemistry of
the pigment readings. Thick areas of pigment can help minimize this affect, though it is
not possible to eliminate. To help identify areas of thicker pigment application, the photo
enhancement program D-stretch is particularly useful. Before conducting pXRF analysis
on the pictographs, the researcher should take photos and enhance them with D-stretch.
Areas of thicker pigment will appear darker on D-stretch enhanced photos, which are
normally undetectable by the naked eye. Doing so allows for proper selection of optimal
pXRF data points prior to analysis.
Control readings are an essential component for gathering elemental data on
pictographs. Because the background rockwall has an effect on the pigment chemistry,
control readings are essential to help isolate the pigment data. Any surrounding rock
surface that is bare (no pigment) and relatively near to the pictograph is a suitable
control. Proximity to the pictographs can directly affect the results, as the chemistry of
the rock wall behind the image needs to be as similar to the control readings as possible.
Differences in the background geology are normally not an issue for homogenous rock
surfaces, such as sandstone. However, for heterogeneous surfaces such as granite,
proximity is essential. Additionally, D-stretch is useful for identifying ideal areas for
control readings. Because the rock surface needs to be completely free of pigment or
paint, D-stretch can locate areas with minimal pigment smudging and runoff. These
weathering effects can be invisible to the naked eye, and thus can greatly alter pXRF
results unbeknownst to the researcher, as the control readings will be too similar to the
pigment readings to identify any differences in chemistry.
76
Ease of access to a pictograph site can influence where and how to conduct
pXRF analysis. Depending on the availability of additional equipment, locations to
conduct analysis can be quite limited. Although there is always the possibility for hand-
held use of the instrument, a tripod is preferred for holding the instrument while taking
readings. This stabilizes the instrument and limits the effects of air, moisture, and
movement during analysis. Most of rock art sites in Squamish are in difficult to reach
places. For example, site EaRu 9 is located in a high rock shelter, is difficult to find and
difficult to access. It requires hiking through thick forest and scrambling up loose rock
ridges to reach the site, as shown in Figure 39. It is relatively manageable with a hiking
bag, but carrying a tripod and a 25lb case containing an X-ray instrument makes this
climb quite hard to manage. In addition to accessing the site with cumbersome
equipment, the location of the pictographs at the site also affects which ones are ideal
for analysis.
Firstly, there needs to be enough room in front of the panel for the researcher to
stand, maneuver and operate the equipment (Figure 40). If the pictographs are located
close to the ground surface, this limits the use of the tripod and calls for hand-held use.
Conversely, some pictographs may be located out of reach on the rock wall. This
prevents analysis with pXRF unless use of an extension arm is available. The only
equipment available for this study was a tripod, which allows for minor extension, but not
more than 2.5m (Figure 41). In summation, the additional equipment used for pXRF
analysis can greatly affect the range of images available for analysis. Without a tripod,
one is limited to pictographs located at or below eye level, near a surface where the
analyzer can easily stand for up to 5 minutes at a time in a comfortable position
(otherwise arm, leg, and back soreness will ensue). With a tripod, potential samples
extend to include images located 2-4m above ground surface, which can be slightly
rough or uneven.
Included in the selection factors for in situ analysis of rock art with pXRF is the
overall size of the pictograph. The size (length by width) determines how many readable
data points are on the pictograph. It is best to approach this selection criteria using D-
stretch. Regardless of the physical size of the image, if the majority of the pigment is
weathered, faint, or thin, the potential for readable data points is not promising. Ideally, a
pictograph will yield five pigment (and corresponding control) data points (Newman and
77
Loendorf 2005). Having more data points allows for a more accurate picture of the
overall elemental make up of the pigment. The same is required of the control readings.
In addition to the size of the pictograph, the pictographs associated with the
analyzed image can potentially enhance the research project. A comparison of
pictographs EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b, both located on the same panel at EaRu 9, provide
an example. Having pictographs located on the same rock panel, especially images that
meet all the previously listed criteria, allows for easy comparison of pigment data as the
control data are the same. This methodology helps to negate the background effect, thus
allowing for better identification of characteristic elements in pigment data.
This range of considerations can greatly alter the selection process of
sites for pXRF analysis. Rock paintings, and rock art in general, is often meant to be
private, secret, or hidden. Even the ease of access to many rock art sites in France and
Spain is difficult, where researchers must crawl through small cramped tunnels to reach
dark caverns in the depths of caves. In Squamish, the rock art sites are located directly
on water sources or in high elevation areas where climbing is required for access. Once
at the site, there is little room for movement and manoeuvring of equipment. Of course,
rock art locations differ greatly across the globe, and in some cases access is easy,
there is a lot of room to maneuver, and there are many images located on one rock wall.
The best approach is to scout out locations beforehand, be conscious of the
environment and the accessibility, and to properly record images for optimal pXRF
variables.
78
Figure 38: Difficult access to some rock art sites may limit the length and type of research (photo is access EaRu 9).
(Photo courtesy Melissa Roth, used with permission)
79
Figure 39: At EaRu 9, a larger floor space allows for easy manoeuvring of equipment and analysis.
(Photo courtesy Melissa Roth, used with permission)
80
Figure 40: PXRF on pictograph EaRu 9a with use of a tripod.
(Photo courtesy Travis Freeland, used with permission)
81
5.2. Future research
The potential for future research on formal and informed methods for ochre and
rock art is extensive. There is at least one additional ochre source in traditional
Squamish territory possibly utilized for paint; further research would include this source
in geochemical analyses. This would not only determine if the ochre sources in
Squamish were all geologically different, but it would contribute to growing research
community of pXRF and heterogeneous materials. Further research on sources outside
of Squamish, perhaps in neighboring areas, would also contribute to a database of
geochemical ochre signatures with pXRF. This has the potential to expand known
concepts of ochre trade and procurement in the Pacific Northwest, as analyzing samples
with pXRF is much more time-efficient and cost-effective for researchers working with
such material culture. It is also non-destructive to the specimens, which is a major
concern for many research projects conducted in collaboration with First Nations groups
on their lands. It is possible to extend research with pXRF to artifacts containing ochre
stains and caked pieces of ochre. Such research could help to determine if materials are
geochemically similar to their mineral origins using pXRF, and is pXRF is sensitive
enough to provide such conclusive results. This would be a great contribution to the field
of ochre research and pXRF, as it is not widely believed that such semi-quantitaive
results are obtainable with pXRF, though this study shows otherwise.
Presently, only two peer-reviewed articles exist on working with pXRF and rock
paintings (Huntley 2012; Newman and Loendorf 2005). The room for expansion in this
field is limitless. The use of pXRF for analyzing rock-painting pigments will undoubtedly
increase over time. PXRF instruments today are markedly more sensitive to specimens
than their older counterparts are; and as such the potential outcomes of this and future
research will reveal information on mineral selection and procurement, the nature and
meaning behind the creation of rock art images, human and mineral interaction
concerning ritual processes, and mineral trade. Researchers could move beyond trying
to first discover the ever elusive “meaning” behind rock art images, and work towards
82
understand the processes that led to their creation. Examining the processes behind the
creation of rock art is a testament to the meaning of the images.
5.3. Significance
Even though the use of pXRF for semi-quantitative analysis on heterogeneous
materials is questionable, without experimentation we will never be able to understand
the problems and progress beyond them. We will also not be able to realize the full
potential of the applications of pXRF without experimentation. In certain instances, a
different analytical technique or instrument substitutes or cross-validates the research.
This is the case with many ochre studies, where INAA provided quite conclusive results.
With rock art, however, this is not possible due to the destructive nature of these
techniques. Even with removing a paint sample from a rockwall, it is more than likely that
a portion of the rockwall beneath the image will come with it. By exploring the
methodology and formulating ways and avenues around these limitations, researchers
can realize the potential uses of pXRF in rock art. This study provides a starting point of
which archaeologists and rock art researchers can expand. Not only does this research
provide a list of useful field practices on using pXRF for in-situ analysis, it also lays out
different methodological and statistical frameworks for subsequent analysis of ochre
samples and rock art pigments.
Rarely is informed and formal research methods used in conjunction with
each other for rock art research (Chippindale and Taçon 1998; Huntley et al. 2011). The
reason for this is formal research on pictographs or petroglyphs focuses on dating
techniques and pXRF is under-utilized. As such, the duality of this research project is
unique. There exists a wealth of historical and modern ethnographic information in
Squamish territory, land use, resource gathering, oral traditions, human and mineral
interactions, and place names (Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986; Hill-Tout
1897, 1900; Matthews 1955; Reimer 2003, 2006, 2012). There is a disconnection in
much of rock art from its original context of creation resulting in its subjection to modern
forms of interpretation, whether by researchers or descendant communities. There is a
fortunate exception in the lower mainland of British Columbia. In BC, there is a level of
cultural continuity that is rare in many indigenous societies in colonized countries. Many
83
ethnographers (Hill-Tout 1897, 1900; Teit 1896, 1930), researchers (Arnett 2013; Copp
2006; Lundy 1978) and Indigenous peoples (Reimer 2003, 2006, 2012; York et al. 1993)
have since recorded oral traditions or modern interpretations of the processes and
meanings of rock art. This thesis project is the first of its kind to incorporate formal
scientific analysis and informed ethnographic perspectives on ochre and rock art
research. It provides semi-quantitaive information on the geochemistry of ochre sources
and pigment compositions, and brings into light the cultural landscape that incorporates
the rock art sites, ochre sources, and the oral traditions surrounding them.
It is clear from the previous discussion that pXRF provides sufficient
qualitative and semi-quantitaive data for heterogeneous compounds such as ochre and
rock art pigments. Recognizing the usefulness of pXRF for such materials is important
for future research on ochre and rock art, and the broader scope of archaeology. The
landscape interpretation, ethnographic information, and use of oral traditions allowed this
project to contribute to the broader scale of Indigenous archaeology and First Nations
cultural research. This research project shows that archaeological and scientific
perspectives can play a great part in enhancing modern knowledge and perspectives on
cultural landscapes, and the relationship of this with ancient and modern people.
84
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97
Appendices
98
Appendix A. Qualitative Tables for Ochre and Rock Art
A.1 Qualitative table of ochre source locations
* cannot measure the full extent of Paul Ridge source as much of it may be underground and not exposed.
Location Terrain Ease of Access Elevation Seasonal Restriction Exposure Size
Paul Ridge
6.5km NE from trailhead via
via Elfin Lakes hiking trail.
13km south of Mt. Garibaldi.
Alpine, rock outcrops with
660m elevation gain from
trailhead. Alpine meadows
throughout, some
conifers.
Trail is well maintained.
Difficult 1660m
November - July
(depending on snow
cover and when
snow melts)
Open Soil 50m*
Pilchuck Creek
12km up Squamish River
road, Northeast side
of main River, small bridge
crosses the creek.
Second Growth forest,
Alluvial floodplain of
Squamish River. Dense
vegetation, steep muddy
bank walls.
Easy Sea Level
December-February
(depending on snow
cover,
temperature and water
level when frozen)
Bank wall 20-25m
99
A.2 Qualitative table of individual ochre samples from Paul Ridge and Pilchuck Creek.
Paul Ridge Color Munsell Color Description Homogenity Heterogeneity Grain Size Coarse Fragments Texture
1 2.5YR 4/6 red color texture, grain size very fine to very coarse 50% loam
2 2.5YR 3/4 dark reddish brown color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% sandy loam
3 2.5YR 4/6 red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 25% sandy loam
4 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color, texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 30% sandy loam
5 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color, texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% loamy sand
6 2.5YR 3/6 dark red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 40% sandy loam
7 2.5YR 3/6 dark red texture color very coarse to very fine 25% sandy loam
8 2.5YR 3/6 dark red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% sandy loam
Pilchuck Creek
1 7.5YR 5/8 strong brown absent color fine >5% silty clay
2 7.5YR 4/6 strong brown texture color fine >5% silty clay
3 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color fine >5% silty clay
4 5YR 3/2 dark reddish brown absent color, texture fine >5% silty clay
5 2.5YR 3/6 dark red absent grain sizes, color medium grained sand 25% sandy loam
6 5YR 5/8 yellowish red absent grain sizes, color coarse to medium sand 25% sandy loam
7 7.5YR 5/8 strong brown texture, grain sizes color fine >5% sandy loam
8 7.5YR 4/6 strong brown texture, grain sizes color fine >5% silty clay loam
9 5YR 4/6 yellowish red texture, grain sizes color fine >5% silty clay
10 5YR 4/6 yellowish red texture color fine >5% sandy loam
11 2.5YR 4/8 red texture color fine sand 15% sandy loam
12 5YR 5/8 yellowish red absent color, texture fine >5% silty clay
100
A.3 Qualitative table of pictographs and rock art sites.
Site #Associated
Place NameAbbreviation Location Visibility Accessibility Panels Images/Panel Types of Images Visitation
DjRt 2 Khul-Kalos FCRock bluff on edge of water,
side of small hillprivate moderate 2 1, 11 (12 total)
anthropomorphic, animal,
celestial, zoomorphic, stylistic.multiple
DjRt 10 Sts’i’ts’a7kin MURock bluff in forest,
50m NE from Browning Lakepublic easy 1 1 directional/geometric/anthropomorphic. single
EaRu 9 P’uỳáḿ US
Rock Shelter on Upper
Squamish River, steep
climb, high up
private difficult 4 15 ,31,7,12
human, anthropomorphic,
celestial, geometric, zoomorphic,
animal, amorphous.
multiple
101
Appendix B. Raw pXRF spectra for ochre and rock art sites.
B.1 Raw Spectra for Paul Ridge
Blue Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
V Mn Co
PR 1 1670 3378 4616
PR 2 1572 3110 3964
PR 3 1611 3187 4288
PR 4 2347 3620 5851
PR 5 2691 6350 8387
PR 6 2403 5770 7083
PR 7 2601 5076 6779
PR 8 2558 4542 7183
Green Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
PR 1 34332 98 26 6700 2160 228 217
PR 2 29020 66 5 12151 2300 137 248
PR 3 29689 93 0 11566 2310 86 216
PR 4 26951 39 0 12085 2474 109 275
PR 5 35764 82 0 8094 2239 119 158
PR 6 27586 99 8 15652 2546 170 198
PR 7 28263 43 0 13411 1933 156 187
PR 8 30858 38 15 14795 1860 88 259
102
B.2 Raw Spectra for Pilchuck Creek
Blue Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
V Mn Co
PC 1 1941 16958 3854
PC 2 2387 9903 4450
PC 3 2437 8295 5585
PC 4 2256 6596 3801
PC 5 2150 9955 4592
PC 6 2399 8916 5248
PC 7 2829 12030 4828
PC 8 2146 10566 3290
PC 9 2277 8006 5394
PC 10 2367 10037 5805
PC 11 2029 8992 4132
PC 12 2415 18320 8245
Green Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
PC 1 43969 491 25 12416 2366 77 310
PC 2 37258 390 20 12729 2484 90 292
PC 3 52684 235 112 9199 1304 90 228
PC 4 24663 250 129 10096 2132 118 349
PC 5 36955 67 29 8955 1473 24 256
PC 6 37292 263 126 11335 1637 120 301
PC 7 32767 934 118 12396 1711 90 328
PC 8 28120 151 85 9711 1753 83 267
PC 9 38257 182 62 7928 1257 66 275
PC 10 48786 267 129 10212 1413 126 264
PC 11 38590 114 81 8703 1654 67 236
PC 12 87266 286 67 7305 1311 99 212
103
B.3 Raw Spectra for DjRt 2
DjRt 2 Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 609 257 380 3873 46 86 3251 613 104 138
2 744 223 359 3269 15 0 1979 585 110 55
3 694 245 310 3910 65 102 2672 420 117 141
4 717 402 443 4283 32 3 2331 459 112 76
5 634 139 338 2263 52 85 3608 611 88 165
6 650 197 263 3877 52 77 1940 585 120 125
DjRt 2 Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 637 310 147 2932 60 89 3071 452 94 136
2 581 603 400 2673 39 15 2569 648 56 91
3 693 318 0 2993 71 263 2781 517 103 202
4 639 530 443 6462 49 240 3054 190 133 192
5 634 155 151 3590 65 216 4153 513 169 229
6 673 271 392 4742 38 250 2494 746 104 154
104
B.4 Raw Spectra for DjRt 10
DjRt 10 Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Sample # Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
1 3012 638 1092 3381 67 441 3614 2199 201 398
2 3608 280 842 3562 47 515 2115 2451 160 334
3 2206 826 1924 1073 53 497 1210 2371 284 409
4 2763 348 1614 4053 82 657 3047 2647 211 463
DjRt 10 Pigment (Independent) Readings
Sample # Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
1 2817 797 1544 3808 69 473 2312 2834 256 434
2 2729 701 1864 5810 41 811 2652 2440 284 461
3 3597 795 1542 6702 63 798 1674 2242 212 544
4 2194 260 1151 9452 67 481 2076 2985 287 391
105
B.5 Raw Spectra for EaRu 9a
EaRu 9a Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 948 2189 1710 17511 28 58 10948 1948 224 184
2 871 912 1310 9516 49 33 13618 1475 88 234
3 910 965 1429 17259 44 50 14527 2462 257 336
4 1084 1480 1619 23316 96 1 22587 3938 228 325
5 972 1292 2008 27006 34 53 12765 3016 175 4
EaRu 9a Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 721 744 838 9793 92 75 18097 2420 309 269
2 712 467 504 4771 3 1 7647 1207 62 161
3 778 779 737 1259 36 0 4527 702 103 95
4 638 630 630 6120 51 41 10850 1465 88 156
5 878 1057 567 10927 68 10 15368 2689 190 323
106
B.6 Raw Spectra for EaRu 9b
EaRu 9b Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 567 932 664 8434 49 29 9998 1889 58 157
2 686 639 349 4839 55 3 9054 1581 110 152
3 146 110 0 4077 36 7 8055 1841 140 133
4 632 474 455 4139 20 2 10502 1486 47 152
5 603 1062 799 6505 32 47 8031 1614 59 149
6 648 578 148 5260 48 85 7920 1323 105 128
EaRu 9b Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 626 569 541 7338 35 8 8901 1974 40 176
2 709 921 753 6485 24 1 9264 1175 30 134
3 632 525 521 6221 44 2 10427 1927 81 141
4 633 770 787 9196 22 12 8741 1964 85 127
5 657 1223 921 7820 30 53 8316 1866 121 175
6 706 896 662 6544 85 1 11444 2185 44 137
107
Appendix C. Eigenvalues and Correlations of Principal Component Analyses.
C.1 All Ochre Samples
Correlations
V Mn Fe Co As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.0395 0.1170 0.2180 0.1467 0.0601 -0.3279 -0.3707 0.0419 0.0608
Mn 0.0395 1.0000 0.0930 0.0531 0.0199 0.1461 0.3267 0.2240 -0.1675 -0.2590
Fe 0.1170 0.0930 1.0000 0.2197 0.8991 0.1556 -0.3445 -0.0150 0.9005 -0.2370
Co 0.2180 0.0531 0.2197 1.0000 0.1997 -0.1740 0.0328 -0.2124 0.3724 -0.2830
As 0.1467 0.0199 0.8991 0.1997 1.0000 0.3463 -0.4108 -0.1825 0.8747 -0.1652
Rb 0.0601 0.1461 0.1556 -0.1740 0.3463 1.0000 -0.3898 -0.3775 0.0912 0.0073
Sr -0.3279 0.3267 -0.3445 0.0328 -0.4108 -0.3898 1.0000 0.6121 -0.3143 -0.3414
Sb -0.3707 0.2240 -0.0150 -0.2124 -0.1825 -0.3775 0.6121 1.0000 -0.1662 -0.2197
Th 0.0419 -0.1675 0.9005 0.3724 0.8747 0.0912 -0.3143 -0.1662 1.0000 -0.2400
U 0.0608 -0.2590 -0.2370 -0.2830 -0.1652 0.0073 -0.3414 -0.2197 -0.2400 1.0000
108
Eigenvalues
109
C.2 Paul Ridge and Pilchuck Creek
Correlations
V Mn Fe Co As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.2427 0.1353 0.6045 0.3363 0.2606 0.2030 -0.2678 -0.1234 0.0303
Mn 0.2427 1.0000 0.7085 0.0116 0.6030 0.4042 -0.2253 -0.4123 -0.4389 0.2902
Fe 0.1353 0.7085 1.0000 0.3918 0.2061 0.2661 -0.4590 -0.5482 -0.1716 -0.1701
Co 0.6045 0.0116 0.3918 1.0000 -0.2085 -0.2476 0.0511 -0.1140 0.2150 -0.6003
As 0.3363 0.6030 0.2061 -0.2085 1.0000 0.4923 0.0874 -0.1308 -0.1920 0.5846
Rb 0.2606 0.4042 0.2661 -0.2476 0.4923 1.0000 -0.3046 -0.6317 -0.1678 0.5338
Sr 0.2030 -0.2253 -0.4590 0.0511 0.0874 -0.3046 1.0000 0.5165 0.0839 0.1559
Sb -0.2678 -0.4123 -0.5482 -0.1140 -0.1308 -0.6317 0.5165 1.0000 0.3954 -0.0476
Th -0.1234 -0.4389 -0.1716 0.2150 -0.1920 -0.1678 0.0839 0.3954 1.0000 -0.3341
U 0.0303 0.2902 -0.1701 -0.6003 0.5846 0.5338 0.1559 -0.0476 -0.3341 1.0000
110
Eigenvalues
111
C.3 Log10 Transformation Values of Ochres
Source Log10 V/Fe Log10 Mn/Fe Log10 Co/Fe Log10 As/Fe Log10 Rb/Fe Log10 Sr/Fe Log10 Sb/Fe Log10 Th/Fe Log10 U/Fe
PC 1 -1.355121053 -0.413771958 -1.057234878 -1.952065096 -3.24520658 -0.549164885 -1.269131848 -2.756655863 -2.151784895
PC 2 -1.193367119 -0.575452759 -0.922859527 -1.980154931 -3.270189543 -0.466425252 -1.176067947 -2.616977029 -2.105836687
PC 3 -1.334823212 -0.802862351 -0.974655564 -2.350610879 -2.672460718 -0.757938122 -1.60640115 -2.767436232 -2.363743894
PC 4 -1.038706808 -0.572765256 -0.812148033 -1.994105894 -2.281456193 -0.387896561 -1.063258703 -2.320163896 -1.849220476
PC 5 -1.235234747 -0.569631942 -0.905671327 -2.741598404 -3.105275209 -0.615607616 -1.39947046 -3.187461965 -2.159433241
PC 6 -1.191585428 -0.621445616 -0.851621849 -2.151659927 -2.47124513 -0.517194151 -1.357566996 -2.49243443 -2.09304918
PC 7 -1.063803734 -0.435171054 -0.83166942 -1.545089805 -2.443554674 -0.422155114 -1.282186672 -2.561194172 -1.999562837
PC 8 -1.117385599 -0.42510471 -0.931819418 -2.270038369 -2.519596391 -0.461751362 -1.2052334 -2.529937224 -2.022504055
PC 9 -1.22534788 -0.679295325 -0.850799969 -2.322639523 -2.790319221 -0.683547269 -1.483375633 -2.763166975 -2.143378217
PC 10 -1.314096954 -0.686691287 -0.924492987 -2.26178395 -2.577705501 -0.679184405 -1.53815305 -2.587924666 -2.266691285
PC 11 -1.279192732 -0.63261848 -0.970314466 -2.529569927 -2.67798976 -0.646805795 -1.367939273 -2.760399976 -2.213562776
PC 12 -1.557927935 -0.6779196 -1.02465441 -2.484479037 -3.114770267 -1.077224849 -1.823242378 -2.945209875 -2.614509209
PR 1 -1.312982633 -1.007039459 -0.871433304 -2.544473028 -3.120725756 -0.709624301 -1.201245353 -2.177764257 -2.19923937
PR 2 -1.266244866 -0.969937019 -0.864563762 -2.643153473 -3.763727404 -0.378085387 -1.100969572 -2.325976841 -2.068245727
PR 3 -1.265500029 -0.969213506 -0.840340793 -2.504112621 0 -0.409412382 -1.10898359 -2.538097118 -2.138141819
PR 4 -1.060061794 -0.871866314 -0.663344786 -2.839510277 0 -0.348328229 -1.037175189 -2.393148386 -1.99124219
PR 5 -1.123532388 -0.750672361 -0.629839443 -2.639632234 0 -0.645282886 -1.203391993 -2.477899125 -2.354788999
PR 6 -1.059934961 -0.679512919 -0.59047149 -2.445053537 -3.537598745 -0.246118893 -1.034830333 -2.21023981 -2.144023542
112
PR 7 -1.036077906 -0.745696645 -0.620052625 -2.817749803 0 -0.323757096 -1.164986404 -2.25809366 -2.179376652
PR 8 -1.081467235 -0.832120645 -0.633061908 -2.909584178 -3.313276516 -0.319252805 -1.21985483 -2.544885103 -2.076068011
SM 1 -0.541281928 -0.871588132 -0.337704917 -3.058100507 0 -1.172416271 -2.183039244 -2.925474942 -1.278400968
SM 2 -0.070195343 -0.750450668 -0.217064285 -0.968377996 -1.245670145 -0.138532371 -0.935496769 -1.528601918 -0.217497065
CU -0.624805278 -1.332036955 -0.39698704 -1.379876628 -1.957737856 -1.616144246 -2.372711204 -2.39707055 -3.071681208
FR -1.509539886 -0.914976787 -0.94645717 -2.26244027 -3.131276157 -1.304982914 -2.061549873 -2.788410092 -2.884766511
NM -1.695822052 -0.981528891 -1.313497625 -2.473973302 -3.854184544 -0.879541287 -1.16748445 -3.149054231 -2.588692874
KN -2.116240556 -2.043268992 -1.171576952 -2.095193469 -3.589727526 -3.145044113 -2.812399583 -2.518012844 -3.341085599
OR -0.616364763 -0.088577563 0.732134584 -2.361406315 -3.556382918 0.085817714 -1.077816423 -1.754750572 -2.05123294
113
C.4 All Pictograph Site Independents and Controls
Correlations
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.0097 0.6077 -0.0814 0.3010 0.8932 -0.3597 0.5013 0.5914 0.8354
Mn 0.0097 1.0000 0.6224 0.7009 -0.0177 -0.1538 0.6001 0.5122 0.2174 0.0813
Co 0.6077 0.6224 1.0000 0.5405 0.1515 0.4981 0.1967 0.7329 0.6528 0.5946
Fe -0.0814 0.7009 0.5405 1.0000 0.0876 -0.2051 0.7109 0.5920 0.3062 -0.0042
As 0.3010 -0.0177 0.1515 0.0876 1.0000 0.3233 0.1608 0.3525 0.4674 0.5023
Rb 0.8932 -0.1538 0.4981 -0.2051 0.3233 1.0000 -0.5221 0.3113 0.6056 0.8313
Sr -0.3597 0.6001 0.1967 0.7109 0.1608 -0.5221 1.0000 0.5013 0.0340 -0.1119
Sb 0.5013 0.5122 0.7329 0.5920 0.3525 0.3113 0.5013 1.0000 0.5882 0.5797
Th 0.5914 0.2174 0.6528 0.3062 0.4674 0.6056 0.0340 0.5882 1.0000 0.7340
U 0.8354 0.0813 0.5946 -0.0042 0.5023 0.8313 -0.1119 0.5797 0.7340 1.0000
114
Eigenvalues
115
C.5 All Pictograph Site Independents
Correlations
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.0392 0.5846 -0.0535 0.3251 0.9514 -0.3448 0.4583 0.6953 0.8737
Mn 0.0392 1.0000 0.7037 0.7311 -0.0146 -0.0983 0.6737 0.5636 0.2812 0.0979
Co 0.5846 0.7037 1.0000 0.6959 0.1569 0.4782 0.3926 0.7877 0.7310 0.5529
Fe -0.0535 0.7311 0.6959 1.0000 0.0975 -0.1807 0.7637 0.6816 0.3849 -0.0124
As 0.3251 -0.0146 0.1569 0.0975 1.0000 0.2464 0.1990 0.4266 0.2921 0.4672
Rb 0.9514 -0.0983 0.4782 -0.1807 0.2464 1.0000 -0.4796 0.3160 0.6548 0.8349
Sr -0.3448 0.6737 0.3926 0.7637 0.1990 -0.4796 1.0000 0.5526 -0.0302 -0.1023
Sb 0.4583 0.5636 0.7877 0.6816 0.4266 0.3160 0.5526 1.0000 0.5987 0.5283
Th 0.6953 0.2812 0.7310 0.3849 0.2921 0.6548 -0.0302 0.5987 1.0000 0.7155
U 0.8737 0.0979 0.5529 -0.0124 0.4672 0.8349 -0.1023 0.5283 0.7155 1.0000
116
Eigenvalues
117
C.6 All Pictograph Site Controls
Correlations
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 -0.0690 0.6893 -0.2797 0.2883 0.8539 -0.3966 0.5636 0.4859 0.8189
Mn -0.0690 1.0000 0.3917 0.4709 0.0306 -0.2800 0.4621 0.3535 0.0579 0.0490
Co 0.6893 0.3917 1.0000 -0.1065 0.2309 0.6326 -0.1355 0.6339 0.5745 0.7518
Fe -0.2797 0.4709 -0.1065 1.0000 0.2516 -0.3495 0.8110 0.3542 0.1123 0.0153
As 0.2883 0.0306 0.2309 0.2516 1.0000 0.4239 0.1316 0.3109 0.6954 0.5636
Rb 0.8539 -0.2800 0.6326 -0.3495 0.4239 1.0000 -0.5872 0.3322 0.5500 0.8271
Sr -0.3966 0.4621 -0.1355 0.8110 0.1316 -0.5872 1.0000 0.4088 0.1072 -0.1297
Sb 0.5636 0.3535 0.6339 0.3542 0.3109 0.3322 0.4088 1.0000 0.5656 0.6881
Th 0.4859 0.0579 0.5745 0.1123 0.6954 0.5500 0.1072 0.5656 1.0000 0.7729
U 0.8189 0.0490 0.7518 0.0153 0.5636 0.8271 -0.1297 0.6881 0.7729 1.0000
118
Eigenvalues
119
C.7 EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b Pigment Comparison
Correlations
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.6863 0.9202 0.8863 0.4048 0.3839 0.8223 0.6743 0.8076 0.3718
Mn 0.6863 1.0000 0.7425 0.6115 0.0457 0.5725 0.3191 0.3197 0.6749 0.1194
Co 0.9202 0.7425 1.0000 0.9257 0.0987 0.6541 0.5761 0.5630 0.8146 0.1186
Fe 0.8863 0.6115 0.9257 1.0000 0.2111 0.4575 0.6615 0.7888 0.8128 0.0881
As 0.4048 0.0457 0.0987 0.2111 1.0000 -0.4125 0.7557 0.6246 0.1678 0.4364
Rb 0.3839 0.5725 0.6541 0.4575 -0.4125 1.0000 -0.0838 0.0124 0.6050 -0.0128
Sr 0.8223 0.3191 0.5761 0.6615 0.7557 -0.0838 1.0000 0.8026 0.6175 0.5996
Sb 0.6743 0.3197 0.5630 0.7888 0.6246 0.0124 0.8026 1.0000 0.6381 0.2586
Th 0.8076 0.6749 0.8146 0.8128 0.1678 0.6050 0.6175 0.6381 1.0000 0.4814
U 0.3718 0.1194 0.1186 0.0881 0.4364 -0.0128 0.5996 0.2586 0.4814 1.0000
120
Eigenvalues
121
C.8 DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b Pigment Comparison
Correlations
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
V 1.0000 0.0637 -0.0203 -0.2075 -0.0780 -0.3869 -0.1762 -0.2686 0.0025 -0.6831
Mn 0.0637 1.0000 0.9698 0.8375 -0.1305 -0.4497 0.7889 0.7616 -0.4055 0.3520
Co -0.0203 0.9698 1.0000 0.8730 -0.2794 -0.4694 0.7740 0.7606 -0.3914 0.3286
Fe -0.2075 0.8375 0.8730 1.0000 -0.2270 -0.5073 0.8127 0.8707 -0.4333 0.3528
As -0.0780 -0.1305 -0.2794 -0.2270 1.0000 0.3839 0.0920 0.0460 -0.0897 0.3311
Rb -0.3869 -0.4497 -0.4694 -0.5073 0.3839 1.0000 -0.5588 -0.5373 0.5526 0.3636
Sr -0.1762 0.7889 0.7740 0.8127 0.0920 -0.5588 1.0000 0.9395 -0.7269 0.4798
Sb -0.2686 0.7616 0.7606 0.8707 0.0460 -0.5373 0.9395 1.0000 -0.5639 0.4673
Th 0.0025 -0.4055 -0.3914 -0.4333 -0.0897 0.5526 -0.7269 -0.5639 1.0000 -0.3054
U -0.6831 0.3520 0.3286 0.3528 0.3311 0.3636 0.4798 0.4673 -0.3054 1.0000
122
Eigenvalues
123
Appendix D. Means and Standard Deviations for Elemental Concentrations of Ochre Samples and Pictograph Sites.
D.1 Paul Ridge, Pilchuck Creek and Similkameen Ochres
Paul Ridge (n=8) Pilchuck Creek (n=12) Similkameen (n=2)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max
V 2181.625 479.9357 1572 2691 2302.8 230.53421 1941 2829 3005 2258.5 1408 4602
Mn 4379.125 1250.223 3110 6350 10715 3524.2729 6596 18320 1222.5 1313.1 294 2151
Fe 30307.88 3188.503 26951 35764 42217 16199.706 24663 87266 8829.5 10146 1655 16004
Co 6018.875 1598.572 3964 8387 4935.3 1300.8327 3290 8245 4179 4490.1 1004 7354
As 69.75 26.79952 38 99 302.5 229.79259 67 934 96 115.97 14 178
Rb 6.75 9.452891 0 26 81.917 41.655423 20 129 47 66.468 0 94
Sr 11806.75 3080.04 6700 15652 10082 1804.9531 7305 12729 1139.5 89.803 1076 1203
Sb 2227.75 239.2672 1860 2546 1707.9 414.66119 1257 2484 148.5 61.518 105 192
Th 136.625 47.56931 86 228 87.5 28.06648 24 126 34 21.213 19 49
U 219.75 39.22736 158 275 276.5 41.223338 212 349 923 113.14 843 1003
124
D.2 Pictograph sites pigment (independent) readings
DjRt 2 (n=6) DjRt 10 (n=4)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max
V 674.7 52.05254 609 744 2834.25 578.2395 2194 3597
Mn 243.83 88.10089 139 402 638.25 256.1137 260 797
Co 348.83 61.53834 263 443 1525.25 291.8029 1151 1864
Fe 3579.17 722.2704 2263 4283 6443 2342.725 3808 9452
As 43.7 17.64842 15 65 60 12.90994 41 69
Rb 58.83 45.15492 0 102 640.75 189.1849 473 811
Sr 2630.17 683.1092 1940 3608 2178.5 411.1168 1674 2652
Sb 545.5 83.90411 420 613 2625.25 343.6058 2242 2985
Th 108.5 11.48477 88 120 259.75 34.75989 212 287
U 116.7 42.21216 55 165 457.5 64.46963 391 544
EaRu 9a (n=5) EaRu 9b (n=6)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max
V 957 80.6846 871 1084 660.5 37.9302 626 709
Mn 1367.6 515.438 912 2189 817.3 257.2428 525 1223
Co 1615.2 269.773 130 2008 697.5 153.5887 521 921
Fe 18921.6 6668.73 9516 27006 7267.3 1118.951 6221 9196
As 50.2 26.8924 28 96 40 23.42502 22 85
Rb 39 23.2271 1 58 12.83 20.17342 1 53
Sr 14889 4501.35 10948 22587 9515.5 1185.703 8316 11444
Sb 2567.8 957.587 1475 3938 1848.5 347.1004 1175 2185
Th 194.4 66.3724 88 257 66.83 34.82193 30 121
U 216.6 134.695 4 336 148.33 21.53756 127 176
125
D.3 Pictograph sites rock wall (control) readings
DjRt 2 (n=6) DjRt 10 (n=4)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max
V 642.83 38.4105 581 693 2897.25 581.4301 2206 3608
Mn 364.5 168.5453 155 603 523 254.76 280 826
Co 255.5 180.356 0 443 1368 490.7491 842 1924
Fe 3898.667 1458.362 2673 6462 3017.25 1326.895 1073 4053
As 53.7 13.79372 38 71 62.25 15.60716 47 82
Rb 178.83 102.1595 15 263 527.5 91.90394 441 657
Sr 3020.3 604.0933 2484 4153 2496.5 1057.116 1210 3614
Sb 511 190.0295 190 746 2417 185.9175 2199 2647
Th 109.83 38.12305 56 169 214 51.62041 160 284
U 167.3 50.19827 91 229 401 52.93392 334 463
EaRu 9a (n=5) EaRu 9b (n=6)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max
V 745.4 89.2905 638 878 547 200.5413 146 686
Mn 735.4 217.111 467 1057 632.5 339.2083 110 1062
Co 655.2 133.588 504 838 402.5 302.6515 0 799
Fe 6574 3905.66 1259 10927 5542.333 1672.089 4077 8434
As 50 33.5187 3 92 40 13.03841 20 55
Rb 25.4 32.3311 0 75 28.83 32.70288 2 85
Sr 11297.8 5526.49 4527 18097 8926.667 1115.441 7920 10502
Sb 1696.6 835.276 702 2689 1622.333 213.9586 1323 1889
Th 150.4 100.843 62 309 86.5 37.1093 47 140
U 200.8 92.6941 95 323 145.1667 11.75443 128 157
126
Appendix E. ANOVA test results
E.1 Comparison of EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b controls
V
Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 107352.4 107352 4.1471 0.0722
Error 9 232975.2 25886
C. Total 10 340327.6
Mn
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 28877.48 28877.5 0.3402 0.574
Error 9 763860.7 84873.4
C. Total 10 792738.2
Co
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 174156.3 174156 2.9609 0.1194
Error 9 529372.3 58819
C. Total 10 703528.6
Fe
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 2902735 2902735 0.3483 0.5696
Error 9 74996119 8332902
C. Total 10 77898854
As
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 272.7273 272.727 0.4593 0.515
Error 9 5344 593.778
C. Total 10 5616.727
127
Rb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 32.1485 32.15 0.0304 0.8655
Error 9 9530.033 1058.89
C. Total 10 9562.182
Sr
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 15333473 15333473 1.0749 0.3269
Error 9 1.28E+08 14265477
C. Total 10 1.44E+08
Sb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 15042.4 15042 0.0448 0.837
Error 9 3019633 335515
C. Total 10 3034675
Th
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 11136.03 11136 2.1072 0.1806
Error 9 47562.7 5284.7
C. Total 10 58698.73
U
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 8441.094 8441.09 2.1669 0.1751
Error 9 35059.63 3895.51
C. Total 10 43500.73
128
E.2 Comparison of EaRu 9a and DjRt 2 controls
V
Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 28690.69 28690.7 6.5757 0.0305
Error 9 39268.03 4363.1
C. Total 10 67958.73
Mn
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 375182.2 375182 10.2141 0.0109
Error 9 330586.7 36732
C. Total 10 705768.9
Co
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 435709.3 435709 16.7563 0.0027
Error 9 234024.3 26003
C. Total 10 669733.6
Fe
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 19520205 19520205 2.4519 0.1518
Error 9 71650819 7961202
C. Total 10 91171024
As
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 36.6667 36.667 0.0606 0.8111
Error 9 5445.333 605.037
C. Total 10 5482
Rb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 64204.88 64204.9 10.252 0.0108
Error 9 56364.03 6262.7
C. Total 10 120568.9
129
Sr
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1.87E+08 1.87E+08 13.5634 0.0051
Error 9 1.24E+08 13776988
C. Total 10 3.11E+08
Sb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 3833584 3833584 11.6118 0.0078
Error 9 2971297 330144
C. Total 10 6804881
Th
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 4488.148 4488.15 0.8425 0.3826
Error 9 47944.03 5327.11
C. Total 10 52432.18
U
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 3054.594 3054.59 0.5853 0.4638
Error 9 46968.13 5218.68
C. Total 10 50022.73
130
E.3 Comparison of EaRu 9a and DjRt 10 controls
V
Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 10289908 10289908 68.8568 <.0001
Error 7 1046074 149439.1
C. Total 8 11335982
Mn
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 100252.8 100253 1.8311 0.2181
Error 7 383257.2 54751
C. Total 8 483510
Co
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1129075 1129075 9.9555 0.016
Error 7 793886.8 113412
C. Total 8 1922962
Fe
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 28112157 28112157 2.9682 0.1286
Error 7 66298673 9471239
C. Total 8 94410830
As
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 333.4722 333.472 0.4468 0.5253
Error 7 5224.75 746.393
C. Total 8 5558.222
Rb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 560232 560232 132.8454 <.0001
Error 7 29520.2 4217
C. Total 8 589752.2
131
Sr
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1.72E+08 1.72E+08 9.5998 0.0174
Error 7 1.26E+08 17931533
C. Total 8 2.98E+08
Sb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1153280 1153280 2.7891 0.1388
Error 7 2894437 413491
C. Total 8 4047718
Th
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 8988.8 8988.8 1.2928 0.293
Error 7 48671.2 6953.03
C. Total 8 57660
U
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 89066.76 89066.8 14.5756 0.0066
Error 7 42774.8 6110.7
C. Total 8 131841.6
132
E.4 Comparison of EaRu 9b and DjRt 2 controls
V
Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 27552.08 27552.1 1.3217 0.277
Error 10 208460.8 20846.1
C. Total 11 236012.9
Mn
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 215472 215472 3.0037 0.1137
Error 10 717349 71735
C. Total 11 932821
Co
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 64827 64827 1.0445 0.3309
Error 10 620631 62063.1
C. Total 11 685458
Fe
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 8104920 8104920 3.2929 0.0996
Error 10 24613499 2461350
C. Total 11 32718419
As
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 560.3333 560.333 3.1107 0.1083
Error 10 1801.333 180.133
C. Total 11 2361.667
Rb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 67500 67500 11.7327 0.0065
Error 10 57531.67 5753.2
C. Total 11 125031.7
133
Sr
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1.05E+08 1.05E+08 130.0751 <.0001
Error 10 8045687 804568.7
C. Total 11 1.13E+08
Sb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 3705185 3705185 90.4924 <.0001
Error 10 409447.3 40945
C. Total 11 4114633
Th
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1633.333 1633.33 1.1541 0.3079
Error 10 14152.33 1415.23
C. Total 11 15785.67
U
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1474.083 1474.08 1.1092 0.317
Error 10 13290.17 1329.02
C. Total 11 14764.25
134
E.5 Comparison of DjRt 2 and DjRt 10 controls
V
Source DF Sum of
Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 12197747 12197747 95.5225 <.0001
Error 8 1021560 127695
C. Total 9 13219306
Mn
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 60293.4 60293.4 1.4324 0.2656
Error 8 336745.5 42093.2
C. Total 9 397038.9
Co
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 2970375 2970375 26.8464 0.0008
Error 8 885145.5 110643
C. Total 9 3855521
Fe
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 1864549 1864549 0.9372 0.3614
Error 8 15916052 1989507
C. Total 9 17780601
As
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 176.8167 176.817 0.8409 0.3859
Error 8 1682.083 210.26
C. Total 9 1858.9
Rb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 291764.3 291764 30.1091 0.0006
Error 8 77521.83 9690
C. Total 9 369286.1
135
Sr
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 658563.3 658563 1.0177 0.3426
Error 8 5177124 647141
C. Total 9 5835688
Sb
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 8718806 8718806 245.3824 <.0001
Error 8 284252 35532
C. Total 9 9003058
Th
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 26041.67 26041.7 13.6515 0.0061
Error 8 15260.83 1907.6
C. Total 9 41302.5
U
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio Prob > F
Rock Art Sites 1 131040.3 131040 49.9074 0.0001
Error 8 21005.33 2626
C. Total 9 152045.6
136
Appendix F Tukey’s HSD test results
F.1 Absolute differences and means
q* Alpha Confidence
2.84256 0.05 95%
V
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DjRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DjRt 10 Control -546 1633.8 1756 1851.8 2897.25
EaRu 9a Control 1633.8 -488.4 -365 -269.2 745.4
DjRt 2 Control 1756 -365 -445.8 -350 642.8333
EaRu 9b Control 1851.8 -269.2 -350 -445.8
547
Mn
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DjRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DjRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DjRt 10 Control -457.44 -335.06 -272.78 -67.06 735.4
EaRu 9a Control -335.06 -417.58 -357.37 -149.58 632.5
DjRt 2 Control -272.78 -357.37 -511.43 -308.37 523
EaRu 9b Control -67.06 -149.58 -308.37 -417.58 364.5
137
Co
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DjRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DjRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DjRt 10 Control -579.79 162.76 436.22 583.22 1368
EaRu 9a Control 162.76 -518.58 -243.81 -96.81 655.2
DjRt 2 Control 436.22 -243.81 -473.4 -326.4 402.5
EaRu 9b Control 583.22 -96.81 -326.4 -473.4 255.5
Fe
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -4157.4 -2948.8 -1305.1 -852.9 6574
EaRu 9a Control -2948.8 -3795.2 -2151.5 -1718.1 5542.333
DlRt 2 Control -1305.1 -2151.5 -3795.2 -3361.8 3898.667
EaRu 9b Control -852.9 -1718.1 -3361.8 -4648.2 3017.25
As
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -40.863 -28.719 -26.516 -15.052 62.25
EaRu 9a Control -28.719 -33.364 -31.326 -19.698 53.66667
DlRt 2 Control -26.516 -31.326 -36.549 -24.993 50
EaRu 9b Control -15.052 -19.698 -24.993 -33.364 40
138
Rb
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -143.83 217.37 367.37 365.65 527.5
EaRu 9a Control 217.37 -117.44 32.56 30.26 178.8333
DlRt 2 Control 367.37 32.56 -117.44 -119.74 28.83333
EaRu 9b Control 365.65 30.26 -119.74 -128.65 25.4
Sr
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -5039.2 -2453.6 3452.8 3456.4 11297.8
EaRu 9a Control -2453.6 -4600.2 1306.2 1287 8926.667
DlRt 2 Control 3452.8 1306.2 -4600.2 -4619.3 3020.333
EaRu 9b Control 3456.4 1287 -4619.3 -5634 2496.5
Sb
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -886.1 -120.2 -14.2 1097.1 2417
EaRu 9a Control -120.2 -792.6 -684.5 426.8 1696.6
DlRt 2 Control -14.2 -684.5 -723.5 387.8 1622.333
EaRu 9b Control 1097.1 426.8 387.8 -723.5 511
139
Th
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -122.19 -52.32 -7.38 15.96 214
EaRu 9a Control -52.32 -109.29 -64.07 -40.74 150.4
DlRt 2 Control -7.38 -64.07 -99.77 -76.43 109.8333
EaRu 9b Control 15.96 -40.74 -76.43 -99.77 86.5
U
Abs(Dif)-HSD
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control Mean
DlRt 10 Control -115.43 90.69 128.29 150.46 401
EaRu 9a Control 90.69 -103.24 -65.38 -43.21 200.8
DlRt 2 Control 128.29 -65.38 -94.25 -72.08 167.3333
EaRu 9b Control 150.46 -43.21 -72.08 -94.25 145.1667
140
F.2 Tukey HSD levels
q* Alpha Confidence
2.84256 0.05 95%
V
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 2350.25 175.3522 1851.8 2848.699 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 2254.417 175.3522 1755.97 2752.866 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 2151.85 182.2314 1633.85 2669.853 <.0001
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 198.4 164.495 -269.19 665.987 0.6314
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 102.567 164.495 -365.02 570.153 0.9231
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control 95.833 156.8398 -349.99 541.66 0.9272
Mn
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 370.9 154.0732 -67.062 808.8623 0.1134
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 2 Control 268 146.9031 -149.581 685.5807 0.2965
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 10 Control 212.4 170.686 -272.785 697.5849 0.6085
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 158.5 164.2426 -308.369 625.3694 0.7706
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 10 Control 109.5 164.2426 -357.369 576.3694 0.9081
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 102.9 154.0732 -335.062 540.8623 0.9077
141
Co
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 1112.5 186.1976 583.222 1641.778 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 965.5 186.1976 436.222 1494.778 0.0004
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 712.8 193.5022 162.758 1262.842 0.009
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 399.7 174.6689 -96.807 896.207 0.1401
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 252.7 174.6689 -243.807 749.207 0.4892
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 2 Control 147 166.5402 -326.4 620.4 0.8138
Fe
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 10 Control 3556.75 1551.289 -852.88 7966.381 0.139
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 2675.333 1400.304 -1305.11 6655.78 0.2605
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 10 Control 2525.083 1492.729 -1718.09 6768.253 0.3581
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 2 Control 1643.667 1335.137 -2151.54 5438.873 0.6165
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 1031.667 1400.304 -2948.78 5012.113 0.8809
DlRt 2 Control
DlRt 10 Control 881.417 1492.729 -3361.75 5124.587 0.9336
142
As
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 22.25 13.1228 -15.0523 59.55234 0.3561
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control 13.66667 11.73739 -19.6976 47.03089 0.6563
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 12.25 13.63762 -26.5157 51.01573 0.8059
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 10 12.31028 -24.9927 44.99269 0.8478
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 8.58333 13.1228 -28.719 45.88567 0.9127
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9a Control 3.66667 12.31028 -31.326 38.65936 0.9905
Rb
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 502.1 48.00327 365.648 638.5521 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 498.6667 46.19117 367.366 629.9678 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control DlRt 2 Control 348.6667 46.19117 217.366 479.9678 <.0001
DlRt 2 Control EaRu 9a Control 153.4333 43.33116 30.262 276.6047 0.0121
DlRt 2 Control EaRu 9b Control 150 41.31464 32.561 267.4393 0.0101
EaRu 9b Control
EaRu 9a Control 3.4333 43.33116 -119.738 126.6047 0.9998
143
Sr
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 10 Control 8801.3 1880.314 3456.4 14146.2 0.0011
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 8277.467 1697.305 3452.78 13102.16 0.0007
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 10 Control 6430.167 1809.333 1287.03 11573.3 0.0118
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 2 Control 5906.333 1618.317 1306.17 10506.49 0.0097
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 2371.133 1697.305 -2453.56 7195.82 0.5179
DlRt 2 Control
DlRt 10 Control 523.833 1809.333 -4619.3 5666.97 0.9912
Sb
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 1906 284.5656 1097.11 2714.894 <.0001
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 1185.6 266.9462 426.79 1944.41 0.0018
EaRu 9b Control
DlRt 2 Control 1111.333 254.5232 387.84 1834.83 0.0022
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 794.667 284.5656 -14.23 1603.561 0.0551
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 720.4 295.7292 -120.23 1561.028 0.1077
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 74.267 266.9462 -684.54 833.077 0.9922
144
Th
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 127.5 39.24019 15.9574 239.0426 0.0222
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 104.1667 39.24019 -7.3759 215.7092 0.0718
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 63.9 36.81056 -40.7362 168.5362 0.3367
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 63.6 40.7796 -52.3184 179.5184 0.4263
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 40.5667 36.81056 -64.0695 145.2029 0.6931
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control 23.3333 35.09749 -76.4334 123.1 0.9088
U
Level - Level Difference Std Err Dif Lower CL Upper CL p-Value
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9b Control 255.8333 37.06941 150.461 361.2053 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
DlRt 2 Control 233.6667 37.06941 128.295 339.0387 <.0001
DlRt 10 Control
EaRu 9a Control 200.2 38.52366 90.694 309.7058 0.0004
EaRu 9a Control
EaRu 9b Control 55.6333 34.77419 -43.214 154.481 0.4048
EaRu 9a Control
DlRt 2 Control 33.4667 34.77419 -65.381 132.3144 0.7721
DlRt 2 Control
EaRu 9b Control 22.1667 33.15589 -72.081 116.4142 0.9075