psyco 350 lec #4 – slide 1 lecture 4 – psyco 350, a1 winter, 2011 n. r. brown
TRANSCRIPT
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 1
Lecture 4 – Psyco 350, A1Winter, 2011
N. R. Brown
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 2
Outline
• Aspects of Modal Model: • Duration/Forgetting: Brown-Peterson Task• Retrieval: Sternberg Task
• Problems w/ Modal Model
• Dual Task Experiment
• Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory– Phonological Loop
– Visuo-spatial sketchpad
– Central Executive
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 3
Duration & Forgetting in STM
• Brown-Peterson Task:Initial attempt to measure duration of STM
• Procedure:– hear sub-span target set: 3 letters
– count backwards for X s
– recall target
• Manipulation – length of retention interval• Assumption:
– Counting task knocks out rehearsal
– Measure of the rate of forgetting
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 4
Brown-Peterson: Main Finding
• In the absence of rehearsal, sub-span material is forgotten very rapidly from STM
• Initial interpretation: information rapidly decays from STM
• Note: w/ 0-delay, only 80% accuracy.
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Psyco 350 Lec #3 – Slide 5
A Test of Decay Hypothesis
• Waugh & Norman (1965) -- Serial Probe Task• Method:
– auditory, 16 digit list, followed by probe digit– TASK: name the digit that followed the probe
• Manipulation:– location of probed item– Presentation time: 1digit/s vs 4 digits/s
• Decay prediction: – recall: 1 digit/s < 4 digits/s
• Interference prediction: – recall: 1 digit/s ≈4 digits/s
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 6
Waugh & Norman (1965)
Results:• Recall w/ # of
intervening items– consistent w/ both
decay & interference
• Recall (more or less) unaffected by presentation rate– Consistent only w/
interference
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 7
Evidence for PI in Brown-Peterson Task
• Keppel & Underwood (1962)
• Competing Predictions:– Decay prediction: Does
delay affect recall? NO
– Interference prediction: Performance decline across trials? YES
• Conclusion:– Interference causes
forgetting in STM
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 8
Studying Retrieval from STM
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 9
The Sternberg TaskA Cognitive Psychology Classic
Research Style:
• Paradigm-driven
• Exhaustive exploration of “parameter space”
• Disregard for:– intrinsic importance of phenomena
– individual/cultural differences
– emotion & motivation
Slide 9
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Psyco 350 Lec #4– Slide 10
An Example: The Sternberg Task
An Information Processing Classic:
• 2,500+ cites for two 1969 papers
Task:
Target set: short list of items
Probe: a single item
Target present “Old”
Target absent “New””
Slide 10
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 11
STM Retrieval: 3 Possibilities
• Issue: – How do we access
information in STM?
– Is Item X in STM?
• Three possibilities:– Parallel –
simultaneous access to all items.
– Serial – consider 1 item at a time.
Retrieval Models
Parallel Serial
ExhaustiveSelf- Terminating
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 12
STM Retrieval: 3 Possibilities
Three possibilities:• Parallel – simulators
access to all items.• Serial – consider 1
item at a time.– Self-terminating
• Stop when:
target = content
– Exhaustive• Check each item on
list
Retrieval Models
Parallel Serial
ExhaustiveSelf- Terminating
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 13
Selecting between Retrieval Model: The Sternberg Task
• Task– Materials:
• Memory Set: N letters• Probe: target letter
– Question: Is probe in memory set?• Manipulations
– Set Size: 1 to 6 letters– Probe Type:
• positive (in memory set)• negative (not it set)
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Psyco 350 Lec #4– Slide 14
Sternberg Task: Method
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 15
Competing Retrieval Model Predictions
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 16
Why Serial Models Make Different PredictionsAdditive Factors Logic (Radvansky, pp. 58-60)
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Psyco 350 Lec #4– Slide 17
Sternberg Task: Results
• RT w/ set size
Implication: serial
• Negative = PositiveImplication: exhaustive
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 18
Sternberg’s Model
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Psyco 350 Lec #4– Slide 19
Problems / Serial Exhaustive Process
• Conceptual:– 40 ms/comparison seems awfully fast.
• Empirical:– Repetition Effect (Baddeley & Ecob, 1973):
Probe = T: RTWTN < RTWGN
– Serial Position Effects (Corballis et al., 1972)Probe = T: TRWGN < RTWGN
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Psyco 350 Lec #4– Slide 20
Alternative Approach to Sternberg Findings
Assumptions:
• memory set, the most active portion of LTM
• memory “searched” in parallel
• decision process:– “Yes”: probe-memory similarity > threshold
– “No”: at deadline – similarity < threshold
Set Size Effects:
• encoding: activation/item as set size • retrieval: speed of assessment as set size
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 21
Sternberg Task: Results
• RT w/ set size
Implication: serial
• Negative = PositiveImplication: exhaustive
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 22
Problems / Serial Exhaustive Process
• Conceptual:– 40 ms/comparison seems awfully fast.
• Empirical:– Repetition Effect (Baddeley & Ecob, 1973):
Probe = T: RTWTN < RTWGN
– Serial Position Effects (Corballis et al., 1972)Probe = T: TRWGN < RTWGN
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 23
Alternative Approach to Sternberg Findings
Assumptions:
• memory set, the most active portion of LTM
• memory “searched” in parallel
• decision process:– “Yes”: probe-memory similarity > threshold
– “No”: at deadline – similarity < threshold
Set Size Effects:
• encoding: activation/item as set size • retrieval: speed of assessment as set size
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 24
STM, But …Model Modal accounts for serial position curve, but …
not long-term recency effects.Capacity of STM is limited, but …
also affected by chunking & expertise.In the absence of rehearsal, information is forgotten rapidly,
but …not on the first trial.
Serial exhaustive process may be used to scan STM, or…a parallel process may be used to assess the active contents of LTM.
Simple “slot model” can’t account for performance of classic STM task.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 25
Dual-task Performance & the Demise of STM
• STM In Modal Model– single component short-term store
– functions• temporary storage – lists, task relevant info• transfer to LTM via rehearsal
“A [single] system for holding and manipulating information for a wide variety of tasks such as learning, comprehension, and reasoning”
-- Baddeley, p. 67
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 26
Dual-task Performance & the Demise of STM
A Dual Task.1. encode list of digits
2. perform a cognitive task (e.g., reasoning, comprehension)
3. recall list of digits.
If both load and task make use of same store, then increasing load (to span) should disrupt performance on cog task.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 27
Grammatical Reason W/ Memory Load (Baddeley, 1986)
• Concurrent Tasks– Memory span task – provides a memory load
– Grammatical reasoning task
• Procedure:– auditor presentation of digit load – 1 digit/s
– concurrent overt rehearsal of load
– visual presentation of letter pair & sentence
– respond T/F to sentence
– serial recall of digits
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 28
Grammatical Reasoning Task
Design:• memory load
– 0 to 8 digits
• sentence type– true value X voice X
affirmation
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 29
Implications of Single-store View
• Assumptions:– Span Task – absorbs (almost) all STM capacity– Reasoning task – requires access to STM
Prediction:If span task absorbs all of STM
dual task requirements should produce a dramatic impairment in performance.
Span-length memory load catastrophic interference
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 30
Dual Task Reasoning: Results
• No effect on reasoning when load is light (0-2)
• reason slowed by load• error rate low regardless
of load.
-----------------------------------
Load also has negative, but non-catastrophic, impact on free recall & text comprehension
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 31
Implication of Dual Task Performance
• System responsible for digit span cannot be the same as system responsible for learning / reasoning.
• Motivated the development of the multi-component WM model.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 32
Working Memory: An Alterative to STM
• Baddeley and Hitch’s (1983) model
• Central executive– Control center of working memory
• Two slave systems:– Phonological loop
• Processes verbal/acoustic information
– Visuo-spatial sketch pad• Processes visual and spatial information
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 33
Basic WM Model
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 34
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 35
Current WM Model
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 36
Dual Task Reasoning: Results
• No effect on reasoning when load is light (0-2)
• reason slowed by load• error rate low regardless
of load.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 37
WM Interpretation of Dual Task
• Load maintenance requires:– access to phonological store
– minor attentional resources to schedule rehearsal
• Grammatical reasoning requires:– attentional resources for sentence
understanding/reasoning
– limited access to phonological store – note: sentences presented visually
As load , attentional demands . Thus, less capacity available for sentence processing.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 38
Phonological loop
Two components• Phonological short-term store
– Phonological information that decays with time• Inner ear
• Subvocal rehearsal process – Articulatory-like rehearsal that needs active
maintenance• Inner voice
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 39
The Phonological Loop
Phonological Store
Phonological Store: holds small amount of speech based information
Articulatory Control Process: Based on inner speech
Auditory Presentation
VisualPresentation
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 40
Phonological Loop
• Speech-based System: – phonological similarity – irrelevant speech – articulartory suppression
• 2-s Capacity:– word length effect
– cross-linguistic Δ’s
– developmental Δ’s
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 41
Evidence for the Phonological Loop
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 42
Evidence for Phonological Loop
• Phonological Similarity Effectsimilar sounding list < dissimilar sounding lists
------- vs ---------
• (Almost) No Evidence for Semantic Similarity Effect
• Implies: representation is speech-based not meaning based.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 43
Evidence for Phonological Loop
• Irrelevant Speech Effect– Recall impaired if items are accompanied by other
verbal material.
– Effect found w/: same-language words, same-language non-words, foreign words.
• Interpretation: “unattended (linguistic) material was gaining access to
the phonological store.”
-- Baddeley, p. 53
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 44
Evidence for Phonological Loop
• Articulartory Suppression– concurrent (overt or covert) articulation, decreases
word span.
(“the, the, the…” ; “one, two, three, one, two..)
– concurrent articulation decreases• the phonological similarity effect • word length effect.
• Interpretation: articulation of irrelevant items dominates ACP - Words
cannot be “rehearsed” or recoded into phonological code
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 45
Evidence for the Phonological Loop
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 46
Evidence for Phonological Loop
• Word Length Effect
word span decrease as # of syllables/word increases.
• Recall depends of reading rate.– # words recalled ≈ 2 * (reading rate)
• reading rate = # words read / s
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 47
Phonological Loop – Capacity of Phono Store
Baddeley et al (1975)
Task: serial recall
Materials:5-word lists
Manipulation: syllable length
Results:• recall , as syllable
length • recall predicted by
reading rate.• cf. STM predictions
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 48
Phonological Loop – Capacity of Phono Store
Baddeley et at (1975)• linear relation between
reading time & recall• Interpretation:
– capacity of phono loop
~ 2 s of speech materials• Reason
– fast fading phono trace– rehearsal refreshes trace. – if not rehearsed within 2
s, most info lost.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 49
Phonological Loop – Capacity of Phono Store
Baddeley et at (1975)• Implications:
– across languages, digit span should be related to mean syllable length of digits.
– digit span should increase w/ age, because speech rate does.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 50
Cross-Linguistic Δs in Digit SpanNaveh-Benjamin & Ayers (1986)
As predicted:• span larger
for languages w/ short digits than long
• span ≈ 2 X reading rate
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 51
Age-related Δs Digit SpanHulme (1984)
As predicted:• span w/ age• span ≈ 2 X speech
rate
-----------------------Overt or covert articulation
serves to maintain items in the phonological store by refreshing their fading traces. The faster it can run, the longer the memory span
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 52
Phonological Loops: Functions• Learning to read:
Children with impaired reading ability have reduced memory spans and have difficulties in tasks which require the manipulation of phonological information (e.g. given Stop, reply Top).
• Language comprehension:STM patients some difficulty in comprehending verbose or complex sentences e.g.
“The boys pick the apples” = OK;
“The two boys pick the green apples from the tree” = Impaired
• Vocabulary acquisition
There is a strong correlation between non-word repetition (which strongly taxes the phonological loop) and vocabulary size (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1989)
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 53
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 54
VSSP
• Function:– “construction, maintained, & manipulation of
mental images.” – Radvansky, p. 97
• Assumptions:– Independence of VSSP & Phonological Loop
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 55
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Operations:
• Mental rotation
• Mental scanning
• Boundary extension
• Dynamic memory
Supports:
Spatial problem-solving (moving a couch)
Prediction of dynamic consequences.
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 56
Independence of VSSP & Phonological LoopBrooks (1968)
• Dual Task Experiment– Goal to demonstrate:
• spatial response mode interference w/ spatial processing
• verbal response mode interferes w/ verbal processing
• cross-modal tasks produce little interference
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 57
Independence of VSSP & Phonological LoopBrooks (1968)
• Design (2X3)
TASK X RESPONSE MODE
image scanning pointing
grammatical decision tapping
vocal
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 58
Brooks (1968): Image Scanning Task
Given a block letter & starting point:
If current corner is top or bottom “yes”
Otherwise ”no”
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 59
Brooks (1968): Image Scanning Task
Given a proverb/cliché:
If current word is noun “yes”
Otherwise ”no”
Example:
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 60
Brooks (1968): Response Modes
While performing target task:• Vocal – say “yes”/”no” • Taping – left tap = “yes”; right tap = “no” • Pointing – point to successive “y”/”n” pairs on
response sheet
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 61
Brooks (1968): Pointing
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 62
Brooks (1968): Results
• Spatial response mode:– interfered w/ spatial task
– did not interfere w/ verbal task
• Verbal response mode:– interfered w/ verbal task
– did not interfere w/ spatial task
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Psyco 350 Lec #4 – Slide 63
Brooks (1968): Interpretation
• Task X Mode interaction indicates:– separate & limited pool of resources for verbal
& spatial task
• image scanning task & spatial response mode draw on the limited resources of the VSSP.
• grammatical decision task & vocal response mode both draw on the resources of the phonological loop.