psychology i: unit i

8/7/2019 Psychology I: Unit I

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Unit 1:

I.Why study Psychology?

II.What do Psychologists do?

III.A History of Psychology

IV.Contemporary Perspectives

Source:

Rathus, SpencerPsychology: Principles in PracticeHolt 2007


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UNIT I : SECTION 1


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How would you define the term psychology?Psychology - the scientific study of behavior and

mental process.

The word comes from the Greek Psyche: spirit or breath of life Logos: knowledge or study of

It is a philosophical science It is a traditional science it include biology,

medicine, and physics It is systematic and scientific


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How would you define the word behavior?

Behavior any action that other people canobserve or measure.

Joshua opened his eyes when the alarm rang. Herose from bed, raised the blinds, and shook hishead. All of these are observable behaviors.

Joshua is also is thinking about hitting the snoozebutton and going back to sleep. Is this abehavior?


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Walking Talking Sleeping Dream imagery Heartbeat Digesting Emotion Perception Feelings

Dreaming cannot be specifically measured. The dream image isonly seen by the dreamer. The only research that can be takenfrom a dream is brain activity. Emotion, perception, and feelingsare also mental processes that cannot be measured. Emotion canspark a behavioral reaction that can be measured later Anger -> Punching a wall Sadness -> Crying


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Behavior walking, talking, sleeping, eatingAutomatic body functions heart rate, blood

pressure, digestion, brain activity, etc.

Cognitive activity dreams, perceptions,thoughts, memoriesEmotions anxiety, anger, happiness,

sorrow, fear, rage

They often trigger a biological reactionThey often influence both behavior and mental

processes


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Social sciences include:HistoryAnthropology

EconomicsPolitical scienceSociology

Social scientists deal with the structure of

human nature and the interactions of theindividuals who make up society.


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Natural sciences include:BiologyChemistryPhysics

A major natural science area of research isthe function of the brain.

Psychologists research by:Conducting surveysExperimentsCollecting dataAnalyzing dataDrawing conclusions


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Surveys are a method of collecting data thatusually involves asking questions of people ina particular group.

Question Yes No

Are you happy with your current job?

Would higher pay make you happy?

Do you get along with your co-workers?Does your boss respect the job you do?

Do you respect the job your boss does?


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Scientists in general seek to1. observe, describe, explain, predict, and control the

events they study.Psychologists have the same goals. Observe behavior and mental processes to better

understand them Understanding behavior will allow psychologists to

explain, predict, and control behaviorGoals of Psychology:

1. Observe

2. Describe3. Explain4. Understand5. Predict6. Control the events they study.


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The Buffalo Bills placekicker Scott Norwood hadtoiled for many years perfecting his techniques. Heprepared for the day when he might play in aSuper Bowl. For several hours a day he worked to

perfect his techniques. He could kick from variousdistances in many types of weather conditions. Hefinally got a chance in Super Bowl XXV against theNY Giants. It was the final seconds of the game,the kick could win the Super Bowl. He missed.

What would a psychologist study and work toaccomplish if they worked with Norwood as aclient?


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How would you define theory?Theory statement that attempts to explain why

things are the way they are and happen the waythey do

Psychologists organize their research aboutbehavior and mental processes into theories

A useful psychological theory allows psychologiststo predict behavior and mental processes

Fatigue will lead to a complete body shutdown(forced sleep) when stress occurs


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How would you define a principle?

Principle a rule or law

Example you will probably get bettergrades if you study more


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1. Organism

2. Phenomena

3. Psychiatrist

4. Psychoanalysis5. Psychologist

6. Psychology


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1. How would you define psychology, other thanthe way in which it is defined in this chapter?

2. Psychologists use animals in their experimentsquite often. Do results from such studies apply

also to human beings? Why or why not?3. Is psychology as true of a science as chemistry,

biology, or physics? Explain.

4. Who contributes more to the welfare of society:

anthropologists, sociologists, biologists,chemists, physicists, or psychologists? Why?


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UNIT I : SECTION 2


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Sam Houston State University conducted a study on allowingconcealed weapons on college campuses to stop events of massviolence. (i.e. Kent State, Virginia Tech)

Consider you are a student at a state university. On a scale of 1 5, rate the following:

1 = not at all comfortable

5 = very comfortable1. Students and staff could carry concealed weapons with a state

sanctioned permit.2. Only staff could carry concealed weapons with a state sanctioned

permit.3. Security officers could be the only people to carry weapons.

4. The campus would remain gun free.5. All persons are subject to metal detectors before entering

university buildings Predict the percent students of Sam Houston that responded to this

survey in support of concealed weapons both on and off campus.


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Texas The average student reported a 39 percent comfort level with the idea

of concealed weapons on the campus. (0% = Not Comfortable at All;100% = Very Comfortable)

23 percent of students indicated they were not comfortable at allwith the idea.

10 percent of students reported they were very comfortable withallowing concealed handguns on campus.

Washington The average student reported a 33 percent comfort level with the idea

of concealed weapons on the campus. (0% = Not Comfortable at All;100% = Very Comfortable)

27 percent of students were not comfortable at all with concealedweapons on campus.

8 percent of students said they were very comfortable with guns oncampus.

According to the research, the Texas sample of students were morecomfortable with concealed weapons in the community, with theaverage reported comfort level at 49 percent on a 100 point scale,compared to 39 percent on campus


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All psychologists share a keen interest inbehavior and also believe in the value ofscientific research.

They also believe that the theories aboutbehavior and mental processes should besupported by scientific evidence.

They only accept something as true if the

evidence shows it so.Many will use this evidence to form theories

to guide therapy


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Clinical PsychologistsCounseling PsychologistsEducational PsychologistsDevelopmental PsychologistsPersonality Psychologists Social PsychologistsExperimental Psychologists Specialty Psychologists Industrial and organizational Environmental Consumer Forensic Health

Foreachyoushouldknow:

Clientelewhotheyhelp

Aimhowtheyhelp

Employmentwheretheywork


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Nearly half ofthe doctoralstudents whoenroll inPsychologyprograms go

into clinicalprograms. Thenext mostpopular field iscounselingpsychology.


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According to theBureau of LaborStatistics:

The highest 10percent ofpsychologists earnedmore than $106,840

The middle 50percent earnedbetween $48,700 and

$82,800.The lowest 10 percent

earned less than$37,900


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They are the kind you would think of when you hear thename psychologist. The couch & clipboard type

Clientele - help people with psychological problems:anxiety, depression, or serious disorders likeschizophrenia.

They are trained to evaluate problems through a series ofinterviews and tests.

Aim - help clients understand and resolve their problemsby changing ineffective or harmful behavior.

Employment - in hospitals, prisons, college clinics, and

private practices. How are they different from psychiatrists? They are not medical doctors. They cannot prescribe medicine. Psychiatry is a specialty of a medical doctor. They specialize

in psychology but are foremost medical doctors.


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They are similar to clinical psychologists. Interviews Tests Identify problems

Clientele: They focus on people who have adjustment problems ratherthan disorders College Career Married Divorced Employed Unemployed Only child Step child

Their clients have trouble Making decisions

Making friends With relationships With superiors

Aim - to get their clients to identify goals, overcome their adjustmentproblems, and meet challenges.

Employment businesses counseling centers, college counseling, testing

centers


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Many school districts employ one or more schoolpsychologists.

Clientele: students who may or do have problems thatinterfere with learning.

Aim: They help students cope with peer group and family

problems, psychological problems, and learning disorders.They make a plan for students that will help themovercome their disability

They often administer IQ and achievement tests, givingassistance to those who need assistance. Theyrecommend students to programs to best fit their needs.

School psychologists often observe students in theclassroom to see how they interact with other studentsand teachers.

In most cases, school psychologists deal with theplacement of students

Employment: school districts


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Clientele: special needs students of the entire schooldistrict

They work with larger groups of students with moregeneralized needs.

Aim: Create course plans and instructional methods for

an entire school system that can meet the needs of largegroups of students with similar learning disabilities. Research Psychological factors motivation, emotions, creativity, and

intelligence Cultural factors beliefs, customs, activity

Economic factors level of income of the families Instruction factors methods of the classroom

Employment: school districts, testing companies (SAT),colleges


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Clientele: research based Aim: study the changes that occur throughout a persons life

span. Physical height, weight, growth, maturity, aging Emotion developing self-esteem Cognitive mental images of the world Social bonds between parents and children, relationship between

parents and children, peers, and children and other adults Research relative influences of heredity and the environment on

development. (Nature vs. Nurture) How can psychologists help parents and school officials encourage

adolescents to avoid activities that may be harmful to their physicaland psychological well-being?

What are the causes of suicide and depression among teens? How can people prevent painful situations from occurring?

Employment: mostly private practices, some work adjunct withschools


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Clientele: individuals who exhibit anxiety,aggression, gender role, or other disordersrelated to personality. Clients seek tocontrol the behaviors that go with a certaindisorder

Aim: Study the development of traits so thatinterested clients can control and adjust thepattern of certain behavior (angermanagement, shyness, friendliness)

Employment: personal practice, researchgroups


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Clientele: individuals who want reasons for whythey act or relate a certain way in public. The ways in which women and men behave in a given

setting The physical and psychological factors that attract

people to one another The reasons people tend to conform to group standards

and expectations How peoples behavior changes when they are members

of a group

Aim: provide help or research to people so thatthey can have more control over their behavior inpublic

Employment: research, private practice


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Clientele: Research for university or industry studies. Aim: provide data which will explain the basic processes of

the nervous system and the brain and how it impactshuman behavior Sensation

Perception Memory Learning Motivation

Basic research is research that has no immediateapplication and is done for its own sake. Their findings

usually put into practice other kinds of psychologicalspecialists. (motivation research has helped clinicalpsychologists develop plans for how to control eatinghabits)

Employment: universities, industry, pharmaceuticalcompanies


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Industrial and Organizational Psychologists Study the behavior of people at work Improve working conditions to increase worker output

Environmental Psychologists Investigate the psychological effects of extremes in

temperature, noise, and air pollution Consumer Psychologists Study the behavior of shoppers to explain and predict their

behavior Forensic Psychologists Explain the behavior associated with evidence used in court

Train officer in how to handle dangerous situations Health Psychologists Examine the ways in which behavior and mental processes are

related to physical health. Ex: The effect of stress on health conditions like heart disease

and headaches


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Unit I: Section 3


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Advice that has remained a motto of modernpsychological studyKnow thyself. Socrates

Socrates suggested also that we can learn

much about ourselves by carefully examiningour thoughts and feelings.

This method of learning about yourself iscalled introspection

Introspection looking within ones ownthoughts and feelings in an effort to learnabout themself


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Platos student, Aristotle also contributed manyquestions about behavior that still shapepsychological research today.

Associationism An experience often can be associated with a past

experience. The face of a loved one can make you feel secure

He believed that people are greatly motivated toseek pleasure and to avoid pain. This is still anoverlying modern psychological view

Aristotle published his explorations on psychology in abook called Peri Psyches. It covers a wide range ofissues such as sensation, perception, thought,intelligence, needs and motives, feelings andemotions, and also memory.


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Outlandish research techniques characterize psychologicalstudies in the Middle Ages.

Europeans generally believed that psychological disorderswere signs of possession by demons. This was supposedlya punishment for sins or deals with the devil.

Tests were used to determine whether a person waspossessed.

The Water Float Test Based on the principle that pure metals will sink. Additionally,

a pure person would sink. Suspected possessed individuals were thrown into deep water. If you floated you were impure and in association with the

devil If you sank, you were pure. But likely, would die from

drowning.


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Modern science emerges in the 1500s 1700sCopernicus suggests the Earth revolves around

the sunNewton formulates the laws of gravity.

Locke knowledge is not inborn, but learnedfrom experience

Lavoisier animals and plants use oxygen inrespiration

Psychology develops in the 1800sHuman behavior and mental processes should be

supported with evidence.1879 the beginning of psychology as a modern

laboratory science


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Structuralism the basicelements of consciousnesscontain two categories:1. Objective sensations sight,

taste, hearing. They accuratelydescribe the outside world.

2. Subjective sensations feelings,emotions, mental images. Theyare subjective to the individual.

Example A person can experience an

apple objectively by observing

its shape, color, texture, andtaste. The person can also experience

an apple subjectively byremembering how good it feelsto bite into one.

fidnet.com


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Disagreed with structuralism He maintained that experience is a

continuous stream of consciousness He focused on the relationships

between experience and behavior Functionalists are concerned with how

mental processes help organisms adaptto their environment.

Example Cameron stopped asking out a girl he was

attracted to because he was laughed atafter three nos

Adaptive (successful) actions arerepeated and eventually become habits Less-adaptive (failed) actions are

discontinued

pbs.org


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Structuralists Functionalists

What are theelements (structures)of psychologicalprocesses?

What is involved?

What are thepurposes (functions)of behavior andmental processes?

What do certainbehaviors and mentalprocesses accomplishfor the person

(animal)?


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Challenged functionalismsstudy of consciousness.

Consciousness, to Watson is aprivate event that is onlyknown to the individual.

Many disagreed with himHe asserted that if psychology

is a natural science, it mustbe limited to observable,measurable events behavior.

He defined psychology as thescientific study of observablebehavior.ebooks-library.com


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Added reinforcement tothe behaviorist tradition

Reinforcement anaction is likely torepeated when

accompanied with arewardAccording to Skinner,

people learn the sameway animals do. Humansbehave in certain waysbecause we have beenreinforced for doing so.

nndb.com


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Gestalt German for:shape or form

It is the idea thatperceptions are more thanthe sums of their parts.Rather, they are wholes

that give shape, ormeaning to the parts. They reject the

behaviorist notion thatpsychologists should onlyconcentrate on observable

behavior. Learning and problem

solving are accomplishedby insight, not mechanicalrepetition

verf-kampioen.com


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ARE THE CIRCLES IN THE CENTER OF THE TWO SETS THE SAME SIZE?


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The father ofpsychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis theimportance ofunconscious motives

and internal conflictsin determining humanbehavior

Psychodynamicthinking

People are driven byhidden impulses Verbal slips and dreams

are unconscious wishes

nndb.com


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trunews.blogspot.com


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Unit I: Section 4


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There are very few psychologists that followthe structuralist, functionalist, or Gestaltperspective.

Many today follow the behaviorist traditionof Watson and Skinner with somemodifications

The most important of these contemporaryperspectives are the biological, evolutionary,cognitive, humanistic, psychoanalytic,learning, and sociocultural perspectives.


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Emphasizes the influence of biology onour behavior.

Especially focused on the brain They look for the connections between

events in the brain, such as activity of

brain cells, and behavior and mentalprocesses. Using CAT scans (Computerized Axial

Tomography) They are interested in the influence of

hormones and genes. They have learned: Certain parts of the brain are highly active

when a person is listening to music. Certain chemicals in the brain are

connected with the storage of information the formation of memories

Xanatos Satanicos Bombasticos


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Focuses on the evolution ofbehavior and mental processes.

Charles Darwin in the struggle forsurvival, the most-adaptiveorganisms have a greater chance ofsurviving to maturity, when hey

can reproduce. Example: People who are naturally resistant

to certain diseases are more likelyto transmit their genes to futuregenerations.

Many believed that behaviorpatterns, like aggressive behavior,has roots in heredity which evolvewithin a genetic family.

http://sleevage.com


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Thoughts Behavior They investigate ways in which

people perceive information andmake mental images of the world,solve problems, and dream.

Cognitive psychologists sometimesrefer to our strategies for solvingproblems as our mentalprograms or software. In thiscomputer metaphor, our brainsare the hardware that runs themental programs.

The human brain is like acomputer. The organ is thehardware, which runssoftware which are ourthoughts

themcompanies.com


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Emphasizes the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance ofconsciousness, self-awareness, and thecapacity to make choices.

Peoples personal experiences areconsidered the most important part of

this perspective Humanists believe we are free to choose

our own behavior and it is not shaped byoutside forces.

The goal of this perspective is to helppeople explore their feelings, manage

their negative impulses, and realize theirpotential. Critics of this perspective argue that their

focus is not scientific because feelings cannot be measured.


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The influence of unconscious forces aresignificant towards human behavior.Ex A person may have built up animosity

towards their father, this person may

unconsciously take out their aggression on a co-worker who looks similar to their father.

Shaped by Sigmund FreudThis no longer dominates psychology as it did

in the 1940s and 50s. It focuses on the experiences of people in

their early childhood


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Emphasizes the effects of experience onbehavior

Social-learning theory: people can changetheir environments or create new ones

Learning occurs intentionally by observingothers and adapting to a situation

People act a certain way only when they

recognize that the circumstances call forthat behaviorActing with hostility when provokedActing with friendliness when treated well


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Studies the influences of ethnicity,gender, culture, and socio-economic

status on behavior and mentalprocesses Prejudices Ethnic differences on intelligence tests Vulnerabilities to health problems in

different groups Gender roles

Recent findings: More than half of American college

students are women.

Two thirds of doctoral degrees inPsychology are awarded to women.

African Americans and Hispanics areunderrepresented in fields ofPsychology

creativeclass.com

Perspective Subject Matter Key Assumption

Bi l i l N t l d h Bi l i l


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Biological Nervous system, glands, hormones,genetic factors

Biological processesinfluence behavior andmental processes

Perspective Subject Matter Key Assumption

Biological Ner o s s stem glands hormones Biological processes


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Biological Nervous system, glands, hormones,genetic factors

Biological processesinfluence behavior andmental processes

Evolutionary Physical traits, social behavior Adaptive organisms survive

and transmit their genes tofuture generations

Cognitive Interpretation of mental images,thinking, language

Perceptions and thoughtsinfluence behavior

Humanistic Self-concept, consciousness People make free andconscious choices based ontheir unique experiences

Psychoanalytic Unconscious processes, early-childhood experiences

Unconscious motivesinfluence behavior

Learning Environmental influences, learning,observational learning Personal experience andreinforcement guideindividual differences

Sociocultural Ethnicity, gender, culture,socioeconomic status

Sociocultural, biological, andpsychological factors createindividual differences


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V. Research Methods

VI. Learning Styles


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Is it enough for a psychologist to argue thatsomething is true because it has been saidbefore?No, it must be supported with evidencePsychologists are skeptical of claims that lack

scientific valueMuch of the debate in the psychological

community is what can be measured?


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Many questions form from daily experience Experience: Siamese fighting fish tend to be

aggressiveWhy are Siamese fighting fish aggressive?

Others are formed out of psychological

theories Theory: people learn from observing others Question: What effects (if any) does watching

television violence have on viewers Some are even formed from common

knowledge Common knowledge: two heads are better than one Question: Do pairs of individuals solve problems

more effectively than people working alone?


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Hypothesis a prediction orassumption about behavior that istested through scientific research

They may be worded in an if-then statement IfSiamese fighting fish are

aggressive, then they will attackeach other The average person could make

this assumption simply from thename of the species of fish

The hypothesis is also based on

the pet shop sales personsadvice not to put more than oneSiamese fish in one tank.

This hypothesis must be tested.

http://indianapublicmedia.org


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The scientific nature of psychologyrequires a hypothesis to be testedbefore it can be concluded as true.

Psychologists research in a method thatis ethical. They do not want to harmthe participants

In proving the hypothesis, if Siamesefish are aggressive, then they willattack each other, there are two waysto test the hypothesis1. Throw two Siamese fish in a tank

together

2. Create an illusion of another fish witha mirror Psychologists would tend to use the

later method so that the fish werentharmed.

freshwater-aquariums.net


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Within the collection of data:Decide what information is needed to test the

hypothesisGather information

Examine information Is the information sufficient to test hypothesis? If no, return to the beginning

bettatalk.com


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What do the findings mean?

After seeing the reflection

The fish go into an attack positionThey fan out their finsPuff out their cheeks

After looking through the data from tests,psychologists look for patterns andrelationships in the data.


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Studies can sometimes produce a random occurrence. The fish that was studied was abnormal and acted in an

uncharacteristic way. To be widely accepted as theory, a study will undergo the

scrutiny of replication Replication repeating a study to determine if the results

will be produced in the same way Some parts of the experiment may change More fish may be used Males and females may be used Water temperature may change

In a study where people are the participants, a replicationmay need to get a diverse group Ethnicity Age Education Income level


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Often a study will produce a whole new setof questions to be studied. They are usuallymore specific.Are Siamese fish territorially aggressive?

Do water temperatures affect the aggressivenature of Siamese fish?

Are females as aggressive as males?


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Form a question and hypothesis based on thethree ways to form a question.Daily experiencePsychological theoryCommon knowledge


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While the game is on, you are a psychologist.

Develop your own 5 step research method,based on the scientific method.

Your research should involve theenvironment of opening day, and how it

affect players performance.


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V. Research Methods


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Take out a sheet of paper.

Record your answers to the following. Betruthful as this is anonymous.

1. What is your gender?

2. Do you have friends of another race in

school?3. Do you have a friend of another race outside

of school?


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The survey method is what we just did. You ask people questions directly to gather data. The experiment that we completed mimics at 1990 study done

among races. The experiment concluded that even though many students

attend racially diverse schools, their neighborhoods are

segregated as patterns of settlement (de facto segregation). Surveys can be oral or written questionnaires It is important to take a large sample of people in order to get

accurate results Some respondents may just want to please the interviewer Others may assume their answers are not confidential

This happened in the 1960s when a survey was conducted to seehow frequent people brush their teeth. Many did not respondhonestly and the survey showed that their should be three timesas much toothpaste sold in the US according to the frequencyreported.


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Suppose the city government was issuing a referendumballot to begin a 10:00pm curfew for people under the ageof 18. How would each group vote? Teenagers not of age to vote College students (18-22) Middle class adults (23-55)

Retired (55-beyond) It is important to equally represent different groups. Researchers usually focus on a target population, or a

group that will be studied in the research. In the study above, the target population would be all the

possible voters on the referendum. Within the target population, a researcher would study a

sample which is only part of the target population. Itwould be costly and inefficient to survey every member ofa target population


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Random sample individuals are selected atrandom from the target population. Eachmember has an equal chance at beingselected

Stratified sample subgroups in a populationare proportionately represented. If 15% of the population is African American,

then the study must include 15% AfricanAmerican participants

In some cases, a researcher may only want tofind out the results of a certain group ofpeople. A sample of only females may benecessary for research on gender roles.


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The Survey MethodPeople respond to a series of questions about a

particular subjectAdvantage It enables researchers to gather

information about large numbers of peopleDisadvantage People may not be entirely

honest when responding. They are not alwaysrepresentative of the target population


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V. Research Methods


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Psychologists learn about human behavior bygiving tests. Intelligence tests measure learning abilityAptitude tests measure certain skills and talents

like music or mechanical skills.Personality tests can diagnose psychological

problems such as anxiety or depression


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A case study is an in-depth investigation of anindividual or a small group.

Methods in a case study: Speak to individuals Interview clients Find out personal histories

Psychologists use what they learn in a case studyto generalize broader principles that apply to the

larger population.Case studies can be inconsistent because many

people have gaps in their memories or falselyinterpret their past to impress the researcher


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Many studies need to research an individualor group over a long period of time.

A longitudinal method is one waypsychologists study a group of individuals

over a long period of time (years, decades)Observations occur at intervals once a year

depending on the type of study If they are studying development of young

people, the intervals may be shorter once a

monthThese types of studies are costly and time

consuming.


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Focuses on changes over time withdevelopment

The cross-sectional method follows a set ofindividuals over a number of years, but they

take groups of different ages and comparetheir differences.Example: in a language-learning study,

psychologists may study; 12 month, 14month, and 16 month old children. Theywould study the skills of the members ofeach group and make generalizations abouteach group over time.


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Which is a more reliable and accuratemethod?The longitudinal methodThe cross-sectional method


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Psychologists tend to trustobservations that take placein the participants naturalsetting.

The naturalistic-observationalmethod is used to observepeople and animals in their

field. People homes, office, school

Animals natural habitats

Example: Jane Goodalls studyof chimpanzees in Tanzania


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Some observations are difficult in a naturalsetting. An artificial model can sometimes makethe observation easier.

Laboratory-observation methods create anartificial environment which are morecontrollable and easier to manipulate.

Example: B. F. Skinner used Skinner boxes tostudy the behavior of rats. In his laboratory, hewould drop a food pellet into a box when the rat

presses a lever. The rats learned to repeat thisbehavior when they are hungry. The rats wouldeven travel through extensive mazes to seek thereinforcement.


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Once psychologists have made theirobservations, they must analyze andinterpret them and find correlations.

One method they use is correlation

Correlation is a measure of how closely twothings are related.

Questions involving correlationDoes the need for achievement attain higher

salaries?What is the relation between stress and health?Does involvement in extra-curricular activities

yield higher grades?


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Positive correlation Negative correlation

A relationshipbetween twovariables in which onevariable increaseswhile the other alsoincreases

People with a higher

need to achieve havea higher salary

A relationshipbetween twovariables when onevariable increaseswhile the otherdecreases

People with high

stress have worseimmune systems


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Correlation describes relationshipsCorrelation does not reveal the cause and

effect.

Just because a persons immune system maybe weaker and they have high stress, doesnot mean that the stress causes the weakimmune system. They are just related.


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Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Testing

Case-study

Longitudinal

Cross-sectional

Naturalistic-observational

Laboratory-observational

In your own words


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Unit I: Section V


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The method researchers use to answerquestions about cause and effect is theexperiment.

In an experiment, participants receive what is

called a treatment, such as a change in roomtemperature or a new drug.

Researchers then carefully observe theparticipants to determine how the treatment

influences their behavior.The conditions created in an experiment may

not accurately reflect conditions in real life.


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Variables are factors that can change Independent variable the factor that

researchers manipulate so that they candetermine its effectExperiment warm temperatures cause

aggression in humans Independent variable the temperature

Dependent variable the factor that depends

on something the independent variableSame experimentDependent variable aggression


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Ideal experiments use experimental andcontrol groups

Experimental group receives the treatmentControl group does not receive the

treatmentThis method makes it possible for

researchers to conclude that theexperiments results are caused by the

treatment and not by something elseWhen an experiment uses both control as

well as experimental groups, they are calledcontrolled experiments


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People who seek psychotherapy expect it towork.

They may feel better simply because theyexpect it to make them feel better.

This is an example of theplacebo effectPlacebo a substance or treatment that has

no effect apart from the participants beliefin it.Ex a pill that has no medicinal value (sugar pill)


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Bias can change the outcome of studies aparticipant expects that a drug may havecertain effects would pay close attention toany sensations that are similar to those

effects.Single-blind study in order to reduce bias,

participants do not know whether they are inthe experimental or the control group. The

researchers would know.


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Researchers can alsobecome biased aboutthe outcome of atreatment. A double-blind study intends to

decrease the possibilityof this.

Double-blind study astudy in which both theparticipants and theresearchers are unawareof who receives thetreatment.

aicr.org


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Researchers organize data to generalizeabout the information.Finding the central tendency the mean or modeFind the range of scores or how variable the

scores areTwo frequently used measures of variabilityRange lowest score subtracted from highest

score

Standard deviation the measure of distance ofevery score to the mean.

Large standard deviation = more spread outscores


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Ethics are standards for proper andresponsible behavior

Ethics of psychologists1. Promote the dignity of the individual

2. Foster human welfare

3. Maintain scientific integrity

The American Psychological Association (APA)has established specific guidelines to guideethical research. Confidentiality Informed consent


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To study the development of children whohave been separated from their parentPurposefully separate infants from their mothers

to study the effects of separation

Observe the development of children who havealready been separated from their mothers sincean early age


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The APA requires that the records ofresearch participants and clients remainconfidential

People are more likely to disclose truthful

information when they know that what theysay will be private

Confidentiality can be breeched if a clientreveals plans to harm someone


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The APA has strict restrictions againstresearch that could pose a serious threat tothe physical or psychological health ofparticipants

The APA generally requires that participantsin studies are given informed consent aboutthe research.

Informed consent is a general overview of

what will be done in the research along withthe participants choice to be a part of it ornot


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Psychologists may use deception aboutresearch only under specified conditions:When they believe the benefits of the research

outweigh its potential harm

When they believe that the individuals wouldhave been willing to participate if they hadunderstood the benefits of the research

When participants receive an explanation of thestudy after it has occurred


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Unit I: Section VI


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Intelligence is the abilities to learn fromexperience, to think rationally, and to dealeffectively with others.

It does not have to do with achievementAchievement is the knowledge and skills

gained from experience.

Intelligence provides the basis forachievement. Achievement is made possibleby intelligence.


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g + s = intelligenceCharles Spearman suggested that general

intelligence g is all of our intellectualabilities.

The g factor represents the abilities toreason and solve problems

Intelligence also includes specific abilitiess math, music, writing


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Psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1993)suggests we have multiple intelligences insteadof one Verbal/linguistic Logical/mathematical

Visual/spatial Bodily/kinesthetic dancers and athletesMusical/rhythmic Interpersonal sensitivity to others feelings Intrapersonal insight into own feelings

Naturalist nature and the laws that govern behavior Existential insight into philosophyGardner suggests that these intelligences are

independent of one another


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Psychologist RobertSternberg breaksintelligence intothree factors (1997,

2001, 2003)1. Analytical

intelligence academia

2. Creative intelligence

new situations3. Practical intelligence

street smarts


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Psychologist Daniel Goleman (1995) was interestedin why smart people are not always as successfulas might be expected.

He proposes a new intelligence: emotionalintelligence sometimes called E.Q.

Emotional intelligence includes 5 factors that

contribute to success1. Self awareness: recognizing your own feelings2. Mood management: distracting oneself from an

uncomfortable feeling3. Self-motivation: moving ahead with confidence and

enthusiasm

4. Impulse control: delaying pleasure until the task hasbeen accomplished

5. People skills: empathizing and communicating withothers


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Today, the Wechsler Scale (1995) is morecommonly used to gauge intelligence

It does not use the concept of mental age,

although they use still use the term IQ It yields three scoresVerbalNon-verbalCombined

This is particularly good at identifyinglearning disabilities (reading comprehension)


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50% of IQ scores in the United States fallbetween 90-110

95% are between 70-130The average is 1005% are eitherbelow 70 = retardationAbove 130 = gifted


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Mental retardation is defined with an IQ below 70. Itcan be caused by many factors: Fetal alcoholsyndrome, malnourishment, genetics

Mild retardation - 50-70 IQProblems with walking, feeding themselves, talking

Moderate retardation 35-49 IQUsually cannot read or complete math problems

Severe retardation 20-34 IQHave trouble with daily tasks and routines

Profound retardation below 20 IQCannot function without assistance


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People who have IQ scores above 130 areconsideredgifted

Being gifted means one has potential foroutstanding talent or accomplishment comparedto others of the same age

Some researchers believe this caused bymotivation and creativity (Renzulli 1986)

Others believe it is the result of insight (Davidson1986)

Educators recognize the importance of identifyinggifted children early and providing them with rich,varied learning opportunities to help them developtheir potential


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Thomas Bouchard (1990), studied twins to see ifthere IQ scores were similar. Identical twins had the most similar results, even

when the children were raised in different homes Fraternal twins were moderately similar

Brothers and sisters, parents and children were alsomoderately similarHe also studied heritability, or the extent to

which variations in a trait can be explained bygenetic factors

He determines that about half of the differencesin IQ scores among people can be accounted forby heredity. The remainder is determined byenvironment.

Some of intelligence is affected by environment


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Schaie (1993, 94) has found that intellectualfunctioning in older people is linked toseveral environmental factorsLevel of income

Level of educationA history of stimulating jobs Intact family lifeAttendance at cultural events

Married to a intelligent personFlexible personality


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Unit I: Section VII


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Study of the changes that take placethroughout a persons life spanConception Infancy

ChildhoodAdolescenceAdulthoodElderly

From previous lessons, what are the twotypes of research methods that adevelopmental psychologist would use toshow development?


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Most of the research in the field of developmentrevolves around the influence of: Nature heredity, genes, biology Nurture environment

Certain kinds of behavior are biologically

programmed and will occur as long as thechildren receive adequate nutrition and socialexperience.

The influences of nurture or the environmentare:

Nutrition Family background Culture Learning from home, school, work


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Infants can only reach certain developmentsif they have reached the sequentialmaturation

Maturation is the automatic and sequential

process of development that results fromgenetic signals Infants sit up before they crawlCrawl before they standStand before they walk

Maturation cannot be forced, infants will notreach certain stages until they are ready known as critical periods


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John Locke - Infants are like a tabula rasa(blank slate) where experiences will bewritten (nurture)

Arnold Gessel maturation plays the most

important role in development.Benjamin Watson the influence of nurture

is much greater than that of nature


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Most physical development occurs in stagesSitting crawling standing walking

in that orderCognitive (mental) development occurs more

gradually (Flavell 2002)Learning is unique to the individual and occurs

rapidly at certain times and slower at othertimes


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Infants possess immediate physicalcharacteristics and abilitiesHeightWeight

Reflexes involuntary actions (swallowing)Changes in height and weight are examples

of physical developmentFrom conception to birth, newborns:Grow from a microscopic cell to 20 in lengthGrows a billion times more than its weight at

conception

2 days old


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Birth 2 years Infants double their birth

weight in 5 months, triple inthe first year (8lbs 21lbs)

They grow about 10 in thefirst year

During the second year, theygenerally gain 4-6 in heightand 4-7lbs in weight

2 days old

18 months old


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2 years adolescence2-3 height gain/year4-6lbs gain/year


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rhsmpsychology.com

Culture does affect motor development


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Culture does affect motor development In the USA, infants start walking at around 12

months Babies lie in cribs In Uganda, infants start walking around 10

month Babies carried on backs and are kept upright

fic.nih.gov


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Infants have certain reflexes automatically(they are not learned)Grasping squeezing a fingerBreathing

SuckingSwallowingRooting moving head towards an object on

cheek (nipple to mouth)

Moro (startle) withdrawing from painful stimulilike loud noisesDefecation - waste elimination


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The process by which infants learn to makesense of the sights, sounds, tastes, and othersensations to which they are exposed.

Infants tend to be attracted to new stimuli

5-10 week infants look longest at compleximages

15-20 week infants prefer images that resemblefaces

Depth perception develops around ninemonths of age. They begin being afraid ofheights and falling.


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The processCling to mother contact with others playing

with toys playing with others

Attachment in infants is essential to their

survival. They begin to distinguishfriendlies who can help them meet theirneeds.

Attachment grows from birth to the age of

seven months. It tends to expand to two ormore caregivers (dad and grandma).


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By the age of 8 months, some infants developstranger anxiety, or the fear of strangers. It is high when they are alone with strangers Less when they are with a friendly

Around the same age, infants may also develop

separation anxiety, or stress when a caregiver isnot presentThese anxieties may be caused by: Contact comfort human need for physical contact

from ones mother Imprinting instinctive attachment during a critical

period.Attachment is not solely for biological parents.

It develops in adoptive parents as well.


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Caregivers that are affectionate and reliabletend to raise children that are securely attached.(Cox 1992) Upset when caregiver leaves Seeks affection upon return

Caregivers that are unresponsive or unreliablewill raise children that are insecurely attached. Children dont mind when caregiver leaves No change in emotion when caregiver returns Sometimes upset when caregiver returns

Secure children are happier, friendlier, and morecooperative with parents and teachers than areinsecure children (Belsky 1991).


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bloggymoms.com


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Authoritative parents combine warmth withpositive strictness. These children are moreindependent and achievement oriented

Authoritarian parents believe in obedience

for its own sake. They have strict guidelinesthat they expect children to follow. Theirchildren tend to not do as well as theauthoritative parents because they create

stress.Both can prove successful


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Secure attachment plays a major role in selfesteemPsychologist Carl Rogers noted that there are

two types of support parents can give to theirchildren unconditional positive regard and

conditional positive regardUnconditional positive regard means that parentslove and accept their children for who they are no matter how they behave

Conditional positive regard means that parentsshow love only when the children behave in anacceptable form

Conditional positive regard contributes to longterm low self esteem and a constant need forapproval


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To be added later

psychology i: unit i

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