psychology unit 3

Slide 1

Psychology Unit 3 Area of Study 1 Mind, Brain & Body

Area of Study 2 Memory CONSCIOUSNESS AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT INFORMED BY THE WORK OF RENE DESCARTES AND WILLIAM JAMES

Consciousness is a concept that is constructed to describe specific psychological activity or patterns of activity that is believed to occur or exist but cannot be directly observed or measured.

What psychologists know about consciousness can only be assumed from what we can measure or gather from peoples information

Described by William James in 1890 as a stream of consciouness

Described Consciousness as- A never- ending flow of thoughts feelings and emotions An awareness of objects & events in the external world An awareness of our existence & mental processes at any given time

Personal (subjective)

Selective (depending on attention)

Changing (contents blend into one another)

Continuous (moving from thought to thought)

I think, therefore I am. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Descartes (day cart) argued that consciousness is axiomatic because you cannot logically deny your minds existence at the same time as using your mind to do the denying.

He became the father of the mind/body theory of interactionism.

He stated that there is a dualism of mind and body, and they influence each other.

The brain is the major locus for the mind or consciousness of the soul, yet mind or consciousness is distributed throughout the whole body.

See handout page 872 R Gross.

Unit 3 the conscious self

Some Psychologists, biologists etc.. Take the view that:

The mind ( or consciousness) is real, it is the property of human beings along with having a body and brain.

Without the human brain there would be no consciousness the two seem to have evolved together.

Descartes stated that: the mind has its own separate existence from the bodythe mind has powers to control the body & behaviour(through operation of the pineal gland in the brain), whereas the body cannot influence the mind

Levels of AwarenessPlace the following levels of awareness in the correct orderTOTAL AWARENESS

Unconscious (coma)AnaesthetisedFocussed attentionSleepDay dreaming Hypnosis Meditation

COMPLETE LACK OF AWARENESS

Answer: TOTAL AWARENESS

Focussed attention Daydreaming Meditation HypnosisSleep Anaesthetised Unconscious (Coma)

Complete Lack of Awareness

CONCEPTS OF NORMAL WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS & ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS, INCLUDING DAYDREAMING, MEDITATIVE & ALCOHOL INDUCED, IN TERMS OF LEVELS OF AWARENESS, CONTENT LIMITATIONS, CONTROLLED & AUTOMATIC PROCESSES, PERCEPTUAL & COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS, EMOTIONAL AWARENESS, SELF CONTROL & TIME ORIENTATION. Normal Waking Consciousness (NWC) Organised, meaningful, clear,aware of our thoughts, memories, sensations perceived as real and marked by a familiar sense of time & place. Eg (Here & now!!)Altered States of Consciousness (ASC)Distinct change in the quality and pattern of mental activity.Shift in emotions, perceptions, memories, time sense, thinking,Feelings of self control and suggestibility. eg: day dreaming, sleep, dreaming, stoned drugs, smashed (drunk) etc.How to remember the characteristics of NWC:

NWC - CACA CONTENT, ATTENTION (SELECTIVE & DIVIDED), CONTROLLED & AUTOMATIC PROCESSES,AWARENESS

Content in NWCDuring NWC our thoughts are controlled & limited to realityThe content of thoughts is usually logical & well organised

We are usually able to control our thinking & do not think bizarre thoughts in NWC. During NWC the brain is actively storing information & retrieving Information from memory to use.

Levels of Attention in NWCactions that require high levels of attention, alertness and concentration to achieve a goal. Attention: involves focusing on specific stimuli & ignoring others Attention is like a spot light being moved around, or switched Like T.V. channels.

1. Selective Attention At any given moment, the focus of our attention is only a Limited range of all that we are capable of experiencing. If a situation is PERSONALLY important to us then we are more likely to pay attention to it.

Eg Cocktail party effect: ability to attend to one persons speech among competing conversations ( and being able to eaves drop by switching attention).

2. Divided Attention Refers to our ability to share our attention between two activitiesEg. Doing the dishes, cooking and listening to the TV at once.

10Controlled and Automatic processes in NWC

Controlled Processes: made of fully conscious actions that require high levels of attention, alertness concentration to achieve a goalEg: learning to drive a car, a manual car in various weather

Automatic Processes.

-Needs little conscious awareness & effort, minimal attention. Does not interfere with the performance of other activities. Are used when an activitiy is easy or familiar

Stroop Effect: takes longer to name the colour of the ink in which a word is printed if the word spells the name of a different colour than it does to identify a block of colour

Ie YELLOW PURPLE GREEN Awareness in NWC

We perceive the world as realfamiliar sense of time and place

How to remember the characteristics of ASC:

ASC - PESTPERCEPTION & COGNITION DISTORTIONS EMOTIONAL AWARENESS SELF CONTROL TIME ORIENTATION

In an ASC we become either more receptive or less receptiveto external stimuli to the point where some stimuli may not beexperienced at all i.e. our perception becomes distorted. e.g. pain medication: analgesics like codeine or morphine ease pain

drugs: alcohol, heroin, marijuana or amphetamines cause colour, taste, smell may become more sensitive and they dull or minimise sensation of pain meditation: tolerance or pain increased e.g. Swamis lying on bed of nailsPeople may lose sense of identity; feel they are someone else or that they are outside themselves looking in.Cognitive functioning (information processing) also becomes distorted during an ASC. e.g. disorganised thoughts, illogical thinking, difficulty solving problems & remembering events during an ASC.

PERCEPTION & COGNITION DISTORTIONS

Being in an ASC sometimes puts an individuals feelingsinto a state of turmoil resulting in uncharacteristic responses. e.g. alcohol - causes some people to become more openly emotional, amorous or aggressive when under the influence.

CHANGES IN EMOTIONAL FEELING CHANGES IN SELF CONTROL Changes in the ability to maintain self control are often evident during ASC.e.g. stumbling. controlling/coordinating movements etc. - less able to control anger or affection - hypnosis may help some people gain control over gambling/smoking

14DISTURBED SENSE OF TIME

Estimation of time is frequently distorted when in an ASC. Time seems to pass at a different speed

E.g. a 15 min nap may seem longer than an hour.

A full sleep may seem shorter than usual.When drunk or affected by drugs our sense of time may be lost.

Daydreaming: - ASC where we shift our attention from External stimuli Internal thoughts feelings imagined scenarios Daydreams can be: FantasiesPlanning for the future Rehearsing important conversations Reliving past events Anticipating future events

They are not constrained by the bounds of logic or reality They occur naturally often without being aware of it.

-

When does daydreaming occur ?

- Stationary, maybe because it is at these times that our active behaviour & directed attention are turned off. It is more likey to occur when we are alone or doing boring activities. Our consciousness may be turning inward to focus on more interesting thoughts and images.

Why does day dreaming occur?

Freud suggested that it Allows us to do in our fantasies what we are unable to do in reality. We reduce the frustration & tension we would otherwise have experienced as a result of unfulfilled needs and wishes.

What type of brain waves & eye movement patterns would you expect to see? Which sleep stage would it be like?

- Minimal eye movements - Alpha brain waves Associated with NREM 1 stage

What have some Psychologists suggested the purpose of DAYDREAMING to be ? try out ranges of courses of action to certain situationsHelp us solve problems allow us to stay mentally alert in certain situations

Meditative State:Induced intentionally through meditation techniques eg: yoga, Zen etc. Alters normal waking consciousness to induce an ASCCompletely clears the mind of any thoughts Produces: Deep state of relaxationHeightened state of personal awareness Feelings of inner peace and tranquility

How to meditate..........1. Sit in a comfortable position with eyes closed Focus your attention selectively on a stimulus ie: your thumb a word or your breathingFocus on this over & over again.

Alcohol - induced State: Alcohol is a psychoactive drug which changes conscious awareness, moods and perception. - needs no digestion & after it enters the stomach it passes through the intestinal tract to the bloodstream via capillaries. - depressant: lessens inhibition by depressing the activity of the brain centres responsible for judgement & sel control

Many effects of alcohol on consciousness: - impaired -perception of time - thinking - memory - emotional awareness

reduced - self awareness - self control

Slower reaction time Shortened attention span Difficulties with voluntary muscular control & movementDeterioration in performance of complex tasks

To study people at sleep, special sleep laboratories are establishedwith a sound proof bedroom.Patients follow their usual bed time routines and have electrodes attachedmostly to their face, scalp and legs that are connected to a polygraph. Measurement of sleep patterns are obtained from:EEGEMGEOG Measurement of Physiological responsesMETHODS USED TO STUDY THE LEVEL OF ALERTNESS IN NORMAL WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE STAGES OF SLEEP EEG (electroencephalograph) detects amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain DARE (brain waves) ALPHA, BETA, DELTA, THETA , that are produced by neurons

the recording on graph paper or computer disc is called an electroencephalogram EMG (electromyograph) detects, amplifies and records electrical activity DARE of muscles an electromyogram is produced

EMG recordings show changes in muscle activity & muscle tension. Electrodes are usually placed below the knees The electromyogram shows muscles relaxing through sleep stages (& shows muscle spasms & hypnic jerks)

Myoclonus restless legs is one cause of insomnia & is shown on the EMG EOG (electro ocular gram)

measures eye movement by detecting, amplifying & recording electrical activity in the muscles that control eyes.

Mostly used to see the point when a person is in either rapid eye movement REM or non REM sleep.Measurement of Physiological responses Measured by ECG (Electrocardiograph) that produces an electrocardiogram. Heart Rate at a particular time can be compared to that when in an ASC e.g. when unconscious/ asleep/ meditating heart rate is lower, & when stimulated by drugs (e.g. speed) it is higher.

Heart Rate ECG Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

ASCs are closely associated with emotional reactions, which are either heightened or reduced.

As perspiration increases or decreases there is a change in the conductivity or resistance of the skin to electric current Body Temperature

Less Variable than heart rate/ brain waves/ GSR

Body temperature drops markedly during sleep. ( Even though you may wake up feeling warm, your core temperature is at its lowest)

Mark and label the frequency on the diagram below: SLEEP AS AN ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS : PURPOSE, CHARACTERISTICS AND PATTERNS OF THE STAGES OF SLEEP INCLUDING RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (REM) & THE NON RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (NREM) STAGES OF SLEEP Sleep Is a periodic state that features the suspension of consciousness

The purpose of sleep. - RESTORATIVE THEORY Sleep gives our body time to repair damaged cells, detoxify, grow cells - SURVIVAL THEORY Sleep allows an animal to remain in active & not draw the attention of predators

during a nights sleep we may have 4 or 5 sleep cycles each cycle lasts about 80 100 minutes.

4 Types of Brain WavesComplete the table below Beta Alpha Theta Delta

BATD See diagram on page 122Brain WaveLevel of ConsciousnessFrequency & AmplitudeBetaNWC (awake,alert, concentrating, active)Alpha Relaxed wakeful/ meditationTheta Early sleepDeltaDeep sleepStages of SleepStage of SleepBrain Waves Duration in stage(approx)NREM(non REM sleep)80% of sleeptime AwakeHypnogogic State1234BetaalphaAlpha/ ThetaTheta (some delta)Theta & DeltaDelta2 minutes5 10 min20 min30min nil 30min - nilREM(Rapid Eye Movement sleep)5vbFast Beta like wavesDreaming10 30 minSee handout p 296 sample readings of EOG,EEG & EMG 31Hypnogogic State is the drowsy time between being awake & being asleep.There is slow rolling eye movements, maybe flashes of colour & imagesNon REM sleep (NREM)Non rapid eye movement sleep is characterised by: - less brain activity than NWC & REM sleep - made up of 4 stages, each deeper than the previous - decrease in blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, temp, gradually through the stages. - brain waves decrease in frequency, increase amplitude through the stages

STAGE 1 of NREM sleep - 5 10 Minutes of very light sleep - Muscles relaxing, hypnic jerks may occur; the body jolts/ twitches

STAGE 2 of NREM sleep - 20 minutes of light sleep- Still easily aroused - brain waves are mainly theta with some sleep spindles (higher frequency)- spindles give evidence of sleep STAGE 3 of NREM sleep - 30 minutes reducing to nil, moderately deep sleep-- Relaxation is nearly complete; little response to external stimuli- Delta waves begin (slow & large) therefore called slow wave sleep- Mostly theta waves

STAGE 4 of NREM sleep 30 minutes reducing to nil, very deep sleep total relaxation, almost no movement, difficult to wake mostly delta waves drowsy upon waking, sleep inertia (disoriented, poor memory of sleep etc)for some talking in sleep, sleep walking (somnambulism) or night terrors(children)

REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement) Very Deep Sleep eyes move from side to side in rapid movement..not clear why most DREAMS occur in REM sleep (80%) more REM sleep in later cycles e.g. only a few minutes at the start of sleep; up to one hour at the end. We are probably dreaming when we wake- The body is totally relaxed (paralysed) but the mind is very active (beta waves)Paradoxical sleep relaxed and active at the same time Being paralysed in REM sleep explains why when we are dreaming sometimes we cant run away etcREM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement) contHow would a researcher know when to wake up a sleeper?

What ethical considerations should there be?

How much Sleep do we need ? Infants: 16 hours a day Adults: 8 hours a day Old age: diminishes to 6 7 hours

Purpose of Sleep?- No definite evidence answer only theories to suggest why. Restorative theory Survival theory

PURPOSE OF SLEEP37Restorative theory Replenishes the bodys store of energy Damaged cells to be repaired Muscles are detoxified or rid of waste products, as their action slows downGrowth hormone is secreted at a much higher rate when asleep than when awake Sleep may have something to do with the recovery process of illness Purpose of Sleep Restorative cont

NREM sleep stage 3 & 4- important for physical growth, tissue repair and recovery from the effects of fatigue

REM sleep thought to be involved in brain growth & restoration (role in mental functioning & memory?). This sleep occurs more in the developing fetus & child & may play a part in the peak development of the brain Also provides exercise to groups of neurons that is important for maintenence of brain circuits Improved performance on motor skills after REM sleep

REM REBOUND Is catching up on REM sleep after a period of lost REM sleep by spending more time than usual in REM sleep when next asleep

Important: Evidence that NREM & REM sleep have restorative functions in relation to the body and brain is INCONCLUSIVE as to what is actually restored or repaired during sleep and at no other time.

Survival theory: (or evolutionary, preservation, protection theory)

- protects the sleeper from harm or death & enhances it survival

Sleep evolved to enhance survival by making the organism inactive during the day ( after it has eaten, drank and looked after its young). As it is risky and dangerous for the organism to be moving around.

The organism spends its time during the day sleeping, conserving energy, hidden & protected from predators and not attracting their attention.

Survival theory cont : (or evolutionary, preservation, protection theory)

EVIDENCE FOR THIS THEORY:

Animals with few natural predators: eg lions, tigers sleep 15 hours a day

Animals with many predators: cattle, horses are safer awake for longer periods sleep for approx 4 hours a day

Why do humans Sleep at night?

According to the survival theory:

We sleep then because we are highly visual animals that need lightWe are not well adapted to search for food or protect ourselves in the dark

Sleep patterns across the lifespaninfant to old age Sleep time in NREM and REM changes as we get older Sleep time in REM decreases from infancy to adulthoodinfant: New born: 16 hrs a day 50% in REM sleepEnd of infancy (approx 2yrs): 12-13 hrs 25-30% in REM End of childhood ( approx 13yrs) 9hrs 20% REM Adolescence (13-19) < 8 hrs 1/3 in REM sleep Late Adulthood 6 -7hrs 1/3 in REM sleep SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFTS DURING ADOLESCENCE COMPARED WITH CHILD AND ADULT SLEEP INCLUDING DELAYED ONSET OF SLEEP & THE NEED FOR SLEEP

Sleep wake cycle in adolescence

Age: 13 19Sleep time: decrease from 10 to < 8 hrs This age group tend to have sleep problems because they need more than 9 hrs to function well when awakeSleep Problems: Not enough sleep during the weekTaking a long time to fall asleep Difficulty waking in the mornings

Affects: - difficulties concentrating in classFalling asleep in class Mood swings difficulty controlling behaviour Unmotivated to do class work

Sleep wake cycle:Bodily functions that go through a full cycle about once every 24 hours is called CIRCADIUM RHYTHMS

The sleep wake cycle is a circadium rhythm.

The biological clock that controls the sleep waking cycle is regulated by the pineal gland, Pineal gland secretes the hormone Melatonin in various quantities at different time of the day.

Higher melatonin = greater sleepiness

Less melatonin is secreted during the day

During night time the pineal gland secretes more melatonin explains why we are more sleepy at night

Limbic System

Physiologically/biologically driven sleep needs of adolescentsHormonally induced shift in of a teenagers body clock forward by 1 2 hrs - making teenagers sleepier one to two hrs later- effects their ability to fall asleep at earlier times expected of them as a child. - this shift in onset of sleep to one or two hrs longer is called SLEEP PHASE ONSET - sleep loss can accumulate as SLEEP DEBT, that is sleep that is owed and needs to be made up.

Psych & social factors influencing adolescents sleep habit - deciding when to go to sleep - going to be later- increased demands for socialising increased demands to complete schoolwork Casual or part time jobs - late night hours

Studies showed: more sleep, earlier bed times & later weekday rises are associated with better grades. Read box 3.5 p 152 & correlational studies box 1.9 p48THE EFFECTS OF TOTAL AND PARTIAL SLEEP DEPRIVATION: Sleep DeprivationMeaning missing out on sleep11 days (264 hrs) is the world record without sleepNo ill effects once sleep is caught up on but animals do die from sleep deprivation so maybe humans also?

In one study sleep deprived rats typically were unable to maintain a constant body temperature, resulting in excessive heat loss. They eventually died after two to three weeks of no sleep (Rechtschaffen, 1989).

- Their immune system also collapsed, resulting in blood poisoning

Read article rested - & highlight key points & add these points to your notes. Effects of Sleep deprivation TOTAL PARTIAL SLEEPINESS & FATIGUE SLOWER REACTION TIMES Eg WHEN DRIVING HAND TREMORS IN ABILITY TO PERFORM COGNITVE TASKSDROOPING EYELIDS THINK IRRATIONALLY & ILLOGICALLYTROUBLE FOCUSING THE EYES DIFFICULTY MAKING DECISONS NO LONG LASTING PSYCH OR PHYS EFFECTS TEMORARY & RELATIVELY MINOR PSYCH & PHYS EFFECTS LACK OF ENERGY PROCESSING INFORMATION IN SHORT TERM MEMORY CAN BE AFFECTED SLURRED SPEECH INCREASED SENSITIVITY TO PAIN AFTER 5 CONSECUTIVE DAYS:SLOWER HEART & RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DROP IN BODY TEMPERATUREIMPAIRED HORMONE PRODUCTION IMPAIRED FUNCTIONING OF IMMUNE SYSTEMAfter normal sleep there are no ongoing ill effects.

It is difficult to attain total sleep deprivation. Animals including humans have micro sleeps (very short periods of sleep seconds) where the individual appears to be awake. TAC advert refers this to zoning out.

The EEG pattern resembles that of the early stages of NREM sleep. After a microsleep, which usually lasts for a very brief period of time, individuals may have no recollection of what happened during the microsleep.

NERVOUS SYSTEMCENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CNSTransmits & receives messages to and from the CNS PERIPHERALNERVOUS SYSTEMPNSCarries messages to & from the CNS spinal cordCONNECTS THE BRAIN & PNS brainORGANISESINTEGRATES INTERPRETS INFORMATIONSomaticNervoussystemAutonomicNervoussystemSYMPATHETICNERVOUSSYSTEM PARASYMPATHETICNERVOUSSYSTEMTHE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND ITS STRUCTURE INCLUDING --ROLES OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, PNS & ANS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMSpinal cord is an intricate cable of nerve fibres that stretch from the base of the brain to the lower back

is composed of the brain and spinal cord receives sensory information brought in bythe peripheral nervous system and conveys it to the brain for processing and interpretation Sensory informationMessage is sent to the brainTransmits motor messages from thebrain to the rest of body.PERIPHERALNERVOUS SYSTEMPNS - consists of all the nerves outsidethe CNSit carries sensory information to & motorInformation from the CNS. - it is divided into the

Somatic Nervous System &Autonomic Nervous SystemSomaticNervoussystemcontrols our voluntary actions through its control of skeletal muscle (muscles attached to bone). consists of afferent nerves that transmit sensory information to the CNS-consists of efferent nerves that transmit Motor messages from the CNS to skeletal muscleSomaticNervoussystemReceivesMotor messagesFrom the CNSMessages are transportedto muscles in specific areas of the body, to respond to a stimulus

Somatic Nervous SystemAutonomicNervoussystemcomprises nerves that control bodily functions such as Breathing, pumping blood around the body (circulation) and digestion.

the activities controlled by the CNS are automatic, so they work independently of the brain. controls activities of the internal organs (e.g. heart, stomach, intestines and glands such as the adrenal and thyroid glands)

SYMPATHETICNERVOUSSYSTEM is the bodys emergency or arousal system

increases responsiveness of muscles & organs during activity, stress or when threatened. (eg fight-flight response) - if the sympathetic nervous system stays switched on for a long time we experience stress

PARASYMPATHETICNERVOUSSYSTEM - calms our bodys activity, conserves our energy and returns our internal systems to the balanced level of activity needed for every day functioning. it decreases responsiveness of muscles and organs. eg (relaxation response)

FUNCTION SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETICAROUSAL, RESPONSIVENESSIncreasesdecreasesEXPENDITURE OFENERGYIncreasesdecreasesHEART RATE, BLOOD PRESSURE, RESPIRATION IncreasesDecreases

DIGESTIONSlowsincreases

ADRENAL GLANDSECRETIONSIncreasesdecreases

BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL IncreasesdecreasesEYES Dilate constrictArousal What is it?

it is a state of alertness and responsiveness for action

at death its 0 at sleep - its low at normal daily activity moderate in excitement, panic or emotion it is highRead levels or arousal & performance page 64The Sympathetic Nervous System increases arousal through involuntary changes in heart rate, breathing etc.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System decreases arousalThrough

Fight Flight response - An automatic (sympathetic nervous system) response to a sudden threat that prepares the person to either:Confront (fight)Escape ( flight) the threat A threat may be physical ( eg bodily injury or harm) Psychological ( fear of failure or anxiety)What happens to the body? Heart rate

Respiration rate Blood sugar level

Release of adrenaline

EnergyFight Flight responseWhat happens to the body?dilates bronchi in the lungs to increase oxygen

slows or stops digestion

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Each hemisphere has 4 lobes which arenamed according to the particular bones of the skull under which they lie.

Parietal lobeTemporal lobeOccipital lobeTemporal lobe

These lobes process the many sensory & motor impulsescoming to and leaving the brain

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND ITS STRUCTURE INCLUDING THE ROLES OF FOUR LOBES OF CERBRAL CORTEX IN THE CONTROL OF THE MOTOR, SOMATOSENSORY, VISUAL & AUDITORY PROCESSING IN HUMANS, PRIMARY CORTEX & ASSOCIATION AREAS

The brain is a system of systems Each brain part contributes to the system that it belongs to No brain part has a monopoly on any one function The size of a brain does not determine its capacity The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain making up about 80% The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain making up about 10% but it contains more than 50% of all the neurons The cerebral cortex is a folded layer of cell bodies with a surface area about the size of a sheet of newspaper. It is made up of six layers of neurons. The brain is divided into halves by a groove known as the longitudinal fissure

The Brain & Nervous SystemThe halves are joined together by white bundles of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum. Students can find this part when they cut the brain in half. It may be found just above the brain stem and it is shaped like a white boomerang.

The larger parts of the brain are involved in thought but the smaller parts of the brain are what keep us alive

The brain stem is less than 10% of the brain, but controls breathing, heart rate and it regulates blood pressure

The base of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata, and this part of the brain has our vomiting centre!

The Cerebrum What is it?

The largest portion of the brain, divided into 2 hemispheres (half globes) that each contain four lobes.

There is a left and right hemisphere. Each hemisphere has frontal, parietal , temporal and occipital lobes.

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the CEREBRAL CORTEX3mm thickContains 70% neuronsLooks like a giant wrinkled walnutIt covers most of the brain with grey matter Grey matter is spongy tissue made up mostly of cell bodies

The Cerebrum

http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/genpsycerebrum.htmlThe Brains Structure - The cortex is composed of two sides The cerebral hemispheres:

Left Hemisphere

Right Hemispherehttp://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/split.htmlLongitudinal fissureIs a deep groove that divides the brain into two hemispheres

How are the two sides connected?

By the corpus callosum - It is a thick band of nerve fibresThe billions of neurons in each hemisphere communicate with each other via the corpus callosum. This sends neural messages from one side of the brain to the other.

http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/callosum.htmlLeft side vs Right Side The left side of the brain..The right side of the brain.. mainly controls movement on the right side of the body

it receives sensory information from the right side of the body mainly controls movement on the left side of the body

it receives sensory information from the left side of the bodyExample: If you place your right hand on a hot pan lid, the information about the heat of it would travel from your right hand to the left (hemisphere) side of the brain. The left hemisphere could relay a message back to the muscles to pull the hand away WHAT IF MY LEFT HAND WAS ALSO HOLDING THE PAN ??

The information that had arrived in the left hemisphere would need to be transferred to the right hemisphere.The right hemisphere can then relay a message to the left hand to put the saucepan down How do we know this happens?

When one side of the brain is injured or damaged

Eg: STROKEThis causes damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, which can result in paralysis and loss of sensation on the left side of the body.

If the stroke occurs in the left hemisphere, the person loses sensation in & finds it difficult to move the right side of the body. Eg: SPATIAL NEGLECT - damage to right hemisphereIf the right side is damaged, affected patients pay no attention to the left side of visual space. ie a patient will not eat food on the left side of their plate.

Refuse to acknowledge a paralysed left arm as their own they dont think it is theirs.

Spatial NeglectIf a patient who suffered a brain injurycompletes a drawing like this:

Where has the patient sustained injury ?Left Hemisphere or Right Hemisphere ?

Right HemisphereSpatial Neglect Also called neglect syndrome or hemispatial neglect

Results from damage to RIGHT cerebral hemisphere (which is involved in spatial & visual tasks)

Pateint behaves as though left side of the world & sometimes body does NOT exist

when asks to read a word eg: football they would read ball neglecting the first half of the word.

The Lobes of the CerebralCortexThe lobes perform 3 main functions.. sensory areas collect nerves impulses or messages sent by 5 senses taste, touch, sight, smell & hearing. motor area transmits or sends responses which cause movement in muscles, glands & organs association areas process & combine nerve impulses from the sensory areas with those from the motor areas

4 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Speaking Language http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch02/brain.mhtmlThinking & Planning Primary Motor Cortex Primary Somatosensory Cortex Understanding Language Primary Auditory Cortex Primary Visual Cortex Read Handout(Indigo study notes)Frontal Lobe

are associated with HIGHER MENTAL ABILITIES

( to remember this learn that Frontal rhymes with mental ) - also responsible for controlling voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

- an arch of tissue over the top of the brain the MOTOR CORTEX directs the bodys muscles.

if this area is stimulated with an electrical current, certain body parts will twitch or move. different parts of the body are at various locations on the motor cortex

-Motor cortex in left frontal lobe controls voluntary movementsOn the right side of the body.

Motor cortex in right frontal lobe controls voluntary movementsOn the left side of the body.Frontal Lobethe amount of motor cortex is related to precision of movementof areas: the hands, fingers, mouth & lips get more area of motor cortexthan the feet

the LEFT FRONTAL LOBE contains an important language centre which is close to the motor cortex :

BROCAS AREA

Patients with speech problems gave early researchers the first clues about how the brain is involved with language.

The loss of the ability to speak is called "aphasia.".

Paul Broca described a patient who could say only one word..."tan." For this reason, Broca called this patient "Tan." When Tan died, Broca examined his brain and found that there was damage to part of the left frontal cortex. This part of the brain has come to be known as "Broca's Area."

BROCAS AREA Left Frontal lobe contains an important language centre

BROCAS AREA is in the left hemisphere only It is responsible for producing clear and fluent (articulate) speech. When this area is damaged Brocas aphasia can occur

What happens in this case?

When shown a picture of a boy going to the beach. A person might say boy went beachinstead of boy went to the beach.

The connecting words - of and the are left out.

Read page 34 35 on Brocas area in class

Brocas Area

To speak a word that is read, information must first get to the primary visual cortex. From the primary visual cortex, information is transmitted to the posterior speech area, including Wernicke's area. From Wernicke's area, information travels to Broca's area, then to the Primary Motor Cortex.Speaking a word that is read Parietal lobes

they register bodily (somatic) sensations such as temperature, touch, pain & pressure

- (you remember that parietal & pressure start with the same letter)

these sensations flow into the somatosensory cortex on the parietal lobes.

SENSATION DETECTED INRECEPTORS EG: PAINSensory neuronsSOMATOSENSORYAREAInformation is Organised &Interpreted here

SENSORY INFORMATIONFROM THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BODY

TRAVELS TO THE ____________HEMISPHERE

SENSORY INFORMATIONFROM THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE BODY

TRAVELS TO THE ____________HEMISPHERERIGHT LEFT Parietal lobesparietal lobe is also involved in coordination of senses & movement. - it has a large area of the association cortex. Damage to the parietal lobe - person may become clumsy in their movements - have difficulty with spatial skills - they may confuse left & right - may suffer from spatial neglect (where they dont recognise one side of the body as belonging to them)Temporal lobes

are found at each side of the brain

Sound information (auditory) is transmitted to the temporal lobes. This is where hearing registers.

The temporal lobes contain large amounts of auditory cortex

The left Temporal lobe contains a second important language centre.

Wernickes area - is responsible for comprehension/ understanding language Occipital lobes Located at the back of the brain (may help you to remember the saying eyes at the back of the head)

They contain large areas of the visual cortex

This is where visual information, transmitted from the retina on each eye is received, processed and interpreted.

Does the information received by the visual cortex correspond directly to what is seen ?NO information that is transmitted from each eye arrives in manyBits that must be reassembled into a complete image by the Visual cortex

IMAGES FORMED ON THE RETINA OF EACH EYE ARE DIVIDED INTO LEFT & RIGHT HALVES

NEURAL PATHWAY THAT TRANSMITS INFORMATIONFROM THE RIGHT VISUALFIELD REACHES THE LEFT HALF OF EACH RETINA

PATHWAY OF VISUAL INFORMATION Patients with tumours in the occipital lobes experience blindspots in their vision. Association Areas In the brain primary, sensory and motor areas make up only a small part of the cerebral cortex.

All the surrounding areas are called the association cortex 1. The association cortex combines and processes informationfrom the senses and links this with pre-existing ideas, concepts &memories. Its Function 2. It is important in allowing us to recognise familiar objects, people and experiences.

Eg if you see a sunflower the visual cortexwould register the colour, shape, size &texture of the sunflower.

The association cortex would link the information withpast knowledge of a sunflower: eg its name, that it grows in fields,Sunflower seeds etc

3. The association cortex also contributes to higher mental abilities. in thinking, planning, abstract reasoning.Both Brocas and Wernickes aphasia - involve damage to the Association areas of the brain. In Summary.. When visual information eg: picture, is transmitted to the visual cortex in the occipital lobes, we can interpret what we are seeing. When auditory information eg song, is transmitted to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobes we can interpret the sound we are receiving.

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND ITS STRUCTURE INCLUDING HEMISPHERIC SPECIALISATION: THE COGNITIVE & BEHAVIOURAL FUNCTIONS OF THE RIGHT & LEFT HEMISPHERES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX , NON VERBAL VERSUS VERBAL & ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS

Both Cerebral Hemispheres are the same size, shape, structure & have many of the same functions

The part of the hemisphere responsible for each of the functions is located in the same place in each hemisphere.

The two hemispheres do not function independently interaction occurs via the corpus callosum (bundle of nerve tissue with 200 mill neurons)

95% of people use the left hemisphere for 1. Verbal tasks - language ( speaking, writing & understanding)

Rationality logical reasoning

Processes information logically, analytically & sequentially eg (maths & science)

4. Processes sensory information from the bodys RIGHT SIDE

Left Hemisphere Right HemisphereNon verbal & spatial tasks eg: painting, map reading poetry, puzzles, musical melodies, recognising patterns2. Emotional expression & recognition 3. Processes information holistically eg: whole patterns simultaneously & less logically (intuitively) 4. Controls voluntary movements and sensations of the BODYS LEFT SIDETHE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND ITS STRUCTURE INCLUDING THE ROLE OF THE RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM IN SELECTIVE ATTENTION AND WAKEFULNESS : ROLE OF THE THALAMUS IN DIRECTING ATTENTION & SWITCHING SENSORY INPUT ON AND OFF The brainstem ( hindbrain) is a stem where the brain sits on top of.

3 structures make up the brainstem: medulla, pons and cerebellum

running through the centre of the brainstem up through the midbrain & forebrain is the reticular formation (reticular means network)

the reticular activating system (RAS) is a network or neurons that extends from the reticular formation to different parts of the brain & spinal cord.

There are upward & downward nerve ending pathways of the RAS

RAS REGULATES AROUSAL AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION

- It is one way that sensory information can be sent to the cerebral cortex. The other is via that thalamus

AROUSAL:

INCREASES OR DECREASES AROUSAL IN RESPONSE TO FEEDBACK FROM UPPER & LOWER BRAIN AREAS

RAS INFLUENCES WHETHER WE ARE AWAKE, DROWSY OR ASLEEP

WHEN RAS IS LESS ACTIVE WE GO TO SLEEP

GENERAL ANASTHETICS DECREASE THE ACTIVITY OF THE RAS MAKING US UNCONSCIOUS.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION:NEURONS SEND OUT A STEADY STREAM OF NERVE IMPULSES THAT KEEP THECEREBRAL CORTEX ACTIVE AND ALERT

RAS HIGHLIGHTS NEURAL INFORMATION OF PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE WHICH DIRECTS ATTENTION TO SIGNIFICANT EVENTS

SIGNIFICANT EVENT HAPPENS RAS BOMBARDS CORTEX TO STIMULATE SPECIFIC CORTICAL AREAS. THALAMUS: - The ascending tracts of the RAS connect to central areas in the thalamus & influenceArousal and Attention through the thalamus

What does it do? 1. It receives sensory information from the major senses & transmits the information to the cerebral cortex, either: visual cortex ( from eyes) auditory cortex ( from ears) somatosensory cortex ( sensations, touch) - except for SMELL which (bypasses the thalamus)2. Receives information about the state of our arousal (wakefulness or alertness) from the reticular formation.

3. Relays messages between the motor cortex and movement control centres in the brain

4. Filters large amounts of sensory information & give more weight ( highlights the areas are more important or need to be attended to).

5. Closes pathways of incoming sensations during sleep not allowing info to pass while the brain rests

If the thalamus is damaged?

blindness deafness Loss of sense ( not smell) cortex may misinterpret or not recieve vital sensory information

CONTRIBUTION OF STUDIES TO THE INVESTIGATION OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CONSCIOUSNESS INCLUDING:

- STUDIES OF APHASIA INCLUDING BROCAS APHASIA & WERNICKES APHASIAAphasia - means a language disorder in speech comprehension or production

Three types: Fluent aphasia: fluent speech but difficulties with auditory comprehension or repeating spoken words by others

Nonfluent aphasia: difficulty speaking but auditory comprehension is good

Pure aphasia: impairements in reading, writing or the recognition of words.

Common cause of aphasia is stroke ( loss of blood supply to areas of the brain involved in language

What happens when there is damage to the temporal lobe ?

this can severely limit the ability to use language Patients with Wernickes aphasia experience difficulty with - comprehending language - producing coherent (understandable) speech - involves difficulty with the meaning of words - speech is fluent and sentences may be grammatically correct; however, they do not make sense

Most people have no conscious awareness or understanding of their condition. They are unaware that other people cannot understand them Left Frontal lobe contains an important language centre

BROCAS AREA is in the left hemisphere only It is responsible for producing clear and fluent (articulate) speech. When this area is damaged Brocas aphasia can occur

What happens in this case?

When shown a picture of a boy going to the beach. A person might say boy went beachinstead of boy went to the beach.

The connecting words - of and the are left out.

eg: when shown a picture of a boy going to the beach, a patient with Wernickes aphasiamight describe it as Where the day went over here and it looks likesand and sea for he could go.The person with Brocas aphasia - managed to convey some of the meaning of the picture.

The person with Wernickes aphasia could not. The patient with Wernickes aphasia may not even be aware that what they are saying does not make sense.If the association area between Brocas areas & Wernickes area are damaged: What happens?

Result: the person could not repeat what has been said to them.

If the association areas surrounding either Brocas or Wernickes area are isolated from the rest of the brain

Result: a person being unable to speak and not understand what is said to them.What happens?QUESTIONSCONTRIBUTION OF STUDIES TO THE INVESTIGATION OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CONSCIOUSNESS INCLUDING:

- SPATIAL NEGLECT CAUSED BY STROKE OR INJURY If a patient who suffered a brain injury ( accident or stroke) completes a drawing like this:

Where has the patient sustained injury ?Left Hemisphere or Right Hemisphere ?

Right Hemisphere Also called neglect syndrome, hemispatial neglect or attentional disorder

Injury is usually sustained to the rear area of the parietal lobe ( left or right)

Results from damage to RIGHT cerebral hemisphere (which is involved in spatial & visual tasks)

Pateint behaves as though left side (or right depending on the damage)of the world & sometimes body does NOT exist.

- There is NO SPATIAL PERCEPTION ON THE LEFT SIDE OF THEIR WORLD.

The side of the world opposite to the damaged hemisphere tends to be neglected. Contralateral

when asks to read a word eg: football they would read ball neglecting the first half of the word.

SPATIAL NEGLECT It mostly effects vision but can also occurs for other senses such as hearing or touch.

READ PAGE 218 Study by Luzzatti 1978 - recall of images from memory CONTRIBUTION OF STUDIES TO THE INVESTIGATION OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THE BRAIN AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CONSCIOUSNESS INCLUDING: - SPLIT BRAIN STUDIES INCLUDING THE WORK OF ROGER SPERRY AND MICHAEL GAZZANIGA Why Split the Brain?

-Split brain surgery or Commissurotomy is where - Corpus Callosum is cut (usually to control epilepsy, seizures)

- Proved ineffective to control epileptic conditions

This interrupts the exchange so that one hemisphere is unable to transfer information to the other.

Eg: the speech centre is in the left hemisphere Information that travels to the right hemisphere can only be talked about if that information is transferred to the speech centre in the left hemisphere. For this information to transfer, the corpus callosum must be intact.


SPLIT BRAIN STUDIES INCLUDING THE WORK OF ROGER SPERRY AND MICHAEL GAZZANIGA

Roger Sperry

- performed Split brain operations on cats.

He cut the optic chiasm and corpus callosum and showed that visual information Must transfer to the other hemisphere for it to be seen.

Then he tested split brain patients of Bogen and Vogel.

He used a tachioscope to test the abilities of split brain patients. Page 221 222

Findings: although some patients were seizure free, they were left with a unique condition

Example patient called N.G. Showed a picture to N.G in her RVF. This info is Sent to the left hemisphere and she could name it.

Showed the star to N.Gs in her LVF. (sent to righthemisphere) but she could NOT name it. Often denied that there was a picture

WHY?

LVF RVFLVF RVFSperry Control of speech (language) is located in the left hemisphere. In order for her to say its a star the visual information must cross from the right hemisphere to the left.However with the corpus callosum cut this cannot occur.

Why can she touch the object under the partition with her LEFT hand when it was presented to her LVF?

Because her left hand is controlled by the RIGHT HEMISPHERE which also saw the Object. The right hemisphere has processed the information about the object & this Is why she could feel the object.

PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX IN RIGHT HEMISPHERE DIRECTS THE HAND TO MOVE & DOES NOT USE THE CORPUS CALLOSUM.

Look at page 224 Neural Pathway of visual information Sperry

IMAGES FORMED ON THE RETINA OF EACH EYE ARE DIVIDED INTO LEFT & RIGHT HALVES

NEURAL PATHWAY THAT TRANSMITS INFORMATIONFROM THE RIGHT VISUALFIELD REACHES THE LEFT HALF OF EACH RETINA.

INFORMATION FROM THE LEFT VISUAL FIELD REACHES THE RIGHT HALF OF EACH RETINA.

PATHWAY OF VISUAL INFORMATION Sperry Sperrys findings: - by splitting the brain it produced two half brains - each with independent Thoughts and consciousness

Consciousness however is the combined result of both hemispheres in the intact Brain

Why arent both hemispheres in conflict with each other?

This is due to many factors:The hemispheres can compensate for each other

A Task is not solely performed in a particular hemisphere although one hemisphere specialises in that task.

Not all nerve fibres connecting the left & right are cut during brain surgery lower areas are intact & some sensory information can be exchanged.

Each eye projects to both hemispheres - makes visual information available to eachhemisphere.

Information from the touch sense allows each hemisphere to be aware of the Stimulation from both sides of the body.

-CROSS CUING OR IMPLICIT TRANSFER: each hemisphere learns from the other by observing & responding to mental processes & behaviour that the other produces.


PERCEPTUAL ANOMALIES INCLUDING MOTION AFTER EFFECT, CHANGE BLINDNESS, SYNAETHESIA.

TEACHER NOTES Synaesthesia (sin-ess-THEE-zhah)Youtube clip

occurs in approx 1 in 2000 Where information taken in by one sense is experienced in a way normally associated with another sense.

Eg - sounds can be experienced as tastes or colours - tastes and smells can be experienced as sounds or visual input.

-one way experience & not bi directional eg: if a sound produces a taste, the taste willNot necessarily produce the sound.

Eg: may always experience blue with the no. 3

Why does this occur? - May be unusual brain processes unusually sensitive to external stimuli - May be a genetic basis to its experience - No strong evidence for sex differences in its experience - May be an excess of neural connections formed during early development that are normally pruned as the brain gets older & refined over time.

Common form: GRAPHEME COLOUR SYNESTHESIA

- Where people experience colours when they view numbers of letters.

OR just know that a particular letter is a colour.

See target patterns - page 234: Hs in a triangle - Complete Learning Act 4.21, 4.22, 4.23 page 237 - THE APPLICATION & USE OF BRAIN RESEARCH METHODS IN INVESTIGATING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL & COGNITIVE FACTORS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOURS INCLUDING:

DIRECT BRAIN STIMULATION TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION CT PET MRI fMRISPECT

ACTIVITY: EACH GROUP IS TO RESEARCH ONE OF THE ABOVE & include: description Key features How it is usedResearch example Advantages Limitations

psychology unit 3

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