PSYCHOLOGY 305 / 305GPSYCHOLOGY 305 / 305GSocial PsychologySocial Psychology

LeadershipLeadershipLecturer: James NeillLecturer: James Neill

OverviewOverview

QuestionsQuestions TheoriesTheories IssuesIssues ConclusionsConclusions

QuestionsQuestions

What is leadership? What is leadership? What is followership?What is followership? Is leadership the same as Is leadership the same as

management?management? What are the characteristics What are the characteristics

of successful leaders?of successful leaders? Do leaders show distinctive Do leaders show distinctive

patterns of behavior? patterns of behavior? What leadership styles are What leadership styles are

there?there?

QuestionsQuestions

How does leaders’ behavior How does leaders’ behavior vary with the situation?vary with the situation?

What sources of power and What sources of power and influence are used by influence are used by leaders?leaders?

What are the effects of What are the effects of different types of different types of leadership?leadership?

Can we do without Can we do without leadership?leadership?

How can leadership skills How can leadership skills be developed?be developed?

A Leadership StoryA Leadership Story A group of workers and their leaders are set a task A group of workers and their leaders are set a task

of clearing a road through a dense jungle on a of clearing a road through a dense jungle on a remote island to get to the coast where an estuary remote island to get to the coast where an estuary provides a perfect site for a port.provides a perfect site for a port.

The leaders organise the labour into efficient units The leaders organise the labour into efficient units and monitor the distribution and use of capital and monitor the distribution and use of capital assets – progress is excellent. The leaders continue assets – progress is excellent. The leaders continue to monitor and evaluate progress making to monitor and evaluate progress making adjustments along the way to ensure the progress adjustments along the way to ensure the progress is maintained and efficiency increased wherever is maintained and efficiency increased wherever possible. possible.

Then, one day amidst all the hustle and bustle and Then, one day amidst all the hustle and bustle and activity, one person climbs up a nearby tree. The activity, one person climbs up a nearby tree. The person surveys the scene from the top of the tree.person surveys the scene from the top of the tree.

A Leadership StoryA Leadership Story

And shouts down to the assembled And shouts down to the assembled group below…group below…

““Wrong way!”Wrong way!”

(Adapted from Stephen Covey (2004) “The Seven (Adapted from Stephen Covey (2004) “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People”.)Habits of Highly Effective People”.)

Leadership vs. ManagementLeadership vs. Management

““Management is doing Management is doing things right, leadership things right, leadership is doing the right is doing the right things”things”

(Warren Bennis and Peter (Warren Bennis and Peter Drucker)Drucker)

LEADERS AND LEADERS AND MANAGERSMANAGERS

““LeadersLeaders . . .are often dramatic and unpredictable in style. . . .are often dramatic and unpredictable in style.

They tend to create an atmosphere of change, ferment They tend to create an atmosphere of change, ferment

even chaos. They are often obsessed by their ideas, even chaos. They are often obsessed by their ideas,

which appear as visionary and consequently excite, which appear as visionary and consequently excite,

stimulate and drive other people to work hard to create stimulate and drive other people to work hard to create

reality out of fantasy . . . reality out of fantasy . . . ManagersManagers are typically hard- are typically hard-

working, analytical, tolerant and fair-minded. They have a working, analytical, tolerant and fair-minded. They have a

strong sense of belonging to the organisation, and take strong sense of belonging to the organisation, and take

great pride in perpetuating and improving the status quo.”great pride in perpetuating and improving the status quo.”

(French, 1987, p475)(French, 1987, p475)

Leaders Vs. ManagersLeaders Vs. Managers

InnovateInnovate DevelopDevelop InspireInspire Long-term viewLong-term view Ask what and whyAsk what and why OriginateOriginate Challenge the status Challenge the status

quoquo Do the right thingDo the right thing

AdministerAdminister MaintainMaintain ControlControl Short-term viewShort-term view Ask how and whenAsk how and when InitiateInitiate Accept the status quoAccept the status quo Do things rightDo things right

LeadersLeaders ManagersManagers

Leadership vs ManagementLeadership vs Management

Leadership & management are distinct, yet complementary systems of action

Effective leadership + good management = healthy organizations

Effective leadership Effective leadership produces useful changeproduces useful change

Effective management Effective management controls complexitycontrols complexity

Leaders and Managers: Leaders and Managers: Distinguishing their rolesDistinguishing their roles

Establishorganizational

mission

FormulateStrategy for

implementingmission

Implementorganizational

strategy

Leader’s JobLeader’s Job

Manager’s JobManager’s Job

Social Psychology of Social Psychology of Leadership?Leadership?

Leadership is…Leadership is… A relationshipA relationship A group phenomenonA group phenomenon A form of social influenceA form of social influence

What is LeadershipWhat is Leadership??

Leadership is… Leadership is… the process of getting the process of getting the cooperation of the cooperation of others in others in accomplishing a accomplishing a desired goal.desired goal.

Leadership is… Leadership is… the ability to influence the ability to influence a group toward the a group toward the achievement of goals.achievement of goals.

What is LeadershipWhat is Leadership??

Leadership is defined in a variety of ways Leadership is defined in a variety of ways depending on the philosophical and depending on the philosophical and sociological position of the definer or sociological position of the definer or theorist. Since leaders are found at all theorist. Since leaders are found at all levels of groups, organizations, and society, levels of groups, organizations, and society, it seems almost everyone intuitively has a it seems almost everyone intuitively has a concept or opinion of what leadership is or concept or opinion of what leadership is or should be, and those concepts throughout should be, and those concepts throughout history are as diverse as the theoretical history are as diverse as the theoretical definitions present in the literature. Thus, it definitions present in the literature. Thus, it is not surprising that leadership has been is not surprising that leadership has been conceptualized, studied, and theorized in conceptualized, studied, and theorized in very different ways.very different ways.

Organizational LeadershipOrganizational Leadership

Organizational Organizational

Leadership…Leadership…

is the ability to is the ability to influence influence employees to employees to voluntarily pursue voluntarily pursue an organization’s an organization’s goals.goals.

Leadership CharacteristicsLeadership Characteristics

• Involves noncoercive influenceInvolves noncoercive influence• Is goal directedIs goal directed• Requires followersRequires followers

Formal vs. Informal Formal vs. Informal LeadershipLeadership

Formal LeadershipFormal Leadership– The process of influencing relevant The process of influencing relevant

others to pursue official organizational others to pursue official organizational objectives.objectives.

Informal LeadershipInformal Leadership– The process of influencing other to The process of influencing other to

pursue unofficial objectives that may or pursue unofficial objectives that may or may not serve the organization’s may not serve the organization’s interests.interests.

What is a Follower?What is a Follower?

A follower is an individual who A follower is an individual who follows the ideas, goals, or tasks of a follows the ideas, goals, or tasks of a leader. leader.

Followers are developed by working Followers are developed by working together to identify goals and together to identify goals and strategies for achieving the goals.strategies for achieving the goals.

Leadership HistoryLeadership History

The study of leadership is not new:

“The study of leadership rivals in age the emergence of civilization, which shaped its leaders as much as it was shaped by them. From its infancy, the study of history has been the study of leaders – what they did and why they did it. (1990, Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. 3rd Ed. p.3)

Evolution of Leadership Evolution of Leadership TheoryTheory

Overview of Traditional Overview of Traditional Leadership TheoriesLeadership Theories

Dispositional theories: there are Dispositional theories: there are certain attributes which make a great certain attributes which make a great leaderleader

Behavior theories: great leadership is Behavior theories: great leadership is based on what someone doesbased on what someone does

Situational (contingency) theories: Situational (contingency) theories: interaction between leader and interaction between leader and situation is importantsituation is important

Leadership TheoryLeadership Theory

Leadership as a Person (Traits)Leadership as a Person (Traits) Leadership as Role (Contingency Leadership as Role (Contingency

Theories)Theories)– A person may be an effective leader in A person may be an effective leader in

one circumstance but perform poorly in a one circumstance but perform poorly in a different circumstance.different circumstance.

Leadership as a Person x RoleLeadership as a Person x Role Leadership as power & influenceLeadership as power & influence New perspectivesNew perspectives

Modern Thought on Modern Thought on LeadershipLeadership

The end of WW1 brought the demise The end of WW1 brought the demise of hereditary leadershipof hereditary leadership

First theories on personal qualities or First theories on personal qualities or traitstraits

After WW2, shift to observable After WW2, shift to observable behavioursbehaviours

1960’s - Situational leadership1960’s - Situational leadership Recently - transactional to Recently - transactional to

transformational leadershiptransformational leadership

Leadership: Person and Leadership: Person and Role:Role:

what personality goes with style?what personality goes with style? Personality traitsPersonality traits: introversion, : introversion,

optimism, need for power, optimism, need for power, flamboyanceflamboyance

Role attributesRole attributes: Theory X, expressive, : Theory X, expressive, participativeparticipative

Situational characteristicsSituational characteristics: stability, : stability, uncertainty, complexity (remember uncertainty, complexity (remember “contingency”)“contingency”)

Leadership: Traditional Leadership: Traditional ExplanationsExplanations

Person-based Person-based TheoriesTheories

Situational TheoriesSituational Theories

Dispersed TheoriesDispersed Theories

Exchange TheoriesExchange Theories

The trait approachThe trait approach

Early research into leadership can be characterized as a search for ‘the great man’. Personal characteristics of leaders were emphasized and the implicit idea was that leaders are born rather than made. All leaders were supposed to have certain stable characteristics that made them into leaders. The focus was on identifying and measuring traits that distinguished leaders from non-leaders or effective from ineffective leaders. There was the hope that a profile of an ‘ideal’ leader could be derived from the above that could serve as the basis for selection of future leaders.

Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy

• The desire to leadThe desire to lead

• Honesty and Honesty and integrityintegrity

• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence

• IntelligenceIntelligence

• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy

• The desire to leadThe desire to lead

• Honesty and Honesty and integrityintegrity

• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence

• IntelligenceIntelligence

• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge

The Trait ApproachThe Trait Approach

Great Person TheoryGreat Person Theory

The view that leaders The view that leaders possess special traits possess special traits that set them apart that set them apart from others and that from others and that these traits are these traits are responsible for their responsible for their assuming positions of assuming positions of power and authority.power and authority.

Great Man - Trait TheoriesGreat Man - Trait Theories

Early research attempted to identify Early research attempted to identify specific traits differentiating leaders from specific traits differentiating leaders from followers. followers. Personality, social, physical, Personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits were found to and intellectual traits were found to differentiate leaders from others.differentiate leaders from others.– Bernard, 1926Bernard, 1926– Bingham, 1927Bingham, 1927– Kilbourne, 1935Kilbourne, 1935– Mann, 1959 Mann, 1959 – Stogdill, 1948Stogdill, 1948– Tead, 1929Tead, 1929

Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

People tend to perceive that someone is a People tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits certain:leader when he or she exhibits certain:

Physical qualities Physical qualities Character attributes Character attributes Intellectual qualities Intellectual qualities Personal qualitiesPersonal qualities

Prentice Hall, 2000Prentice Hall, 2000 Chapter 10Chapter 10 3131

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theoryof Leadershipof Leadership

Traits of a LeaderTraits of a Leader

•Drive and AmbitionDrive and Ambition

•Desire to Lead Desire to Lead

•Honesty and IntegrityHonesty and Integrity

•Self-ConfidenceSelf-Confidence

•IntelligenceIntelligence

•Technical ExpertiseTechnical Expertise

Big 5 Personality Predictors of Big 5 Personality Predictors of Leadership AbilityLeadership Ability

ExtroversionExtroversion AgreeablenessAgreeableness ConscientiousnessConscientiousness Lack of NeuroticismLack of Neuroticism Openness to experienceOpenness to experience

Motivation and LeadershipMotivation and Leadership

Leader Motive PatternLeader Motive Pattern– High need for powerHigh need for power– High need for achievementHigh need for achievement– Low need for affiliationLow need for affiliation

Negative leadership traits that Negative leadership traits that prevent individuals from being prevent individuals from being

leadersleaders UninformedUninformed Non-participativeNon-participative Rigid Rigid Authoritarian Authoritarian Offensive Offensive

Criticisms – Trait TheoriesCriticisms – Trait Theories No universal traits predict leadership in all No universal traits predict leadership in all

situationssituations Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of

relationship of leadership and traits.relationship of leadership and traits.(Which comes first, trait or leadership position?)(Which comes first, trait or leadership position?)

Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.“strong” situations.

Provides little guidance concerning what advice or Provides little guidance concerning what advice or training to give current or soon-to-be leaderstraining to give current or soon-to-be leaders

Better predictor of the appearance of leadership Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

Overlooks needs of followersOverlooks needs of followers Fails to clarify trait's relative importance.Fails to clarify trait's relative importance.

Summary and ConclusionsSummary and Conclusions

– Great deal of literature examining Great deal of literature examining the impact of individual differences the impact of individual differences on leadershipon leadership

– Literature provides some support Literature provides some support for the role of individual differencesfor the role of individual differencesAppear to be key skill and traits for Appear to be key skill and traits for associated with effective leadershipassociated with effective leadership

Style ApproachStyle Approach

Emphasizes the behavior of leaderEmphasizes the behavior of leader Two kinds of behavior: task Two kinds of behavior: task

behaviors (help group members to behaviors (help group members to achieve their goals) and achieve their goals) and relationship behaviors (help relationship behaviors (help subordinates feel comfortable with subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, with each other, and themselves, with each other, and with the situation)with the situation)

Style studies since late 1940’sStyle studies since late 1940’s

Leadership Style & Leadership Style & Emotional ClimateEmotional Climate

Autocratic style - the leader uses strong, directive,

controlling actions to enforce the rules,

regulations, activities, &

relationships in the work environment; followers have little

discretionary influence

Democratic style - the leader takes

collaborative, reciprocal,

interactive actions with followers;

followers have high degree of

discretionary influence

Laissez-fair style - the leader fails to

accept the responsibilities of

the position; creates chaos in

the work environment

Leadership RolesLeadership Roles

Early studies identified three Early studies identified three different styles:different styles:

AutocraticAutocratic DemocraticDemocratic Laissez-faireLaissez-faire

Leadership as BehaviorLeadership as Behavior

Leadership as Behavior or Function Leadership as Behavior or Function (Skills)(Skills)

Leadership consists of certain behaviors, or Leadership consists of certain behaviors, or functions,functions, that groups must have performed. that groups must have performed.

– 1. Task orientation1. Task orientation– 2. People orientation2. People orientation– 3. Change-oriented behaviors3. Change-oriented behaviors

LeadershipLeadership

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles– Manz and Sims (2001) reported:Manz and Sims (2001) reported:

1. The quality of group output was better under 1. The quality of group output was better under democratic leadership.democratic leadership.

2. Democratic leadership took more time than 2. Democratic leadership took more time than autocratic.autocratic.

3. Member satisfaction was higher under 3. Member satisfaction was higher under democratic leadership.democratic leadership.

4. The democratic group had the lowest 4. The democratic group had the lowest absenteeism.absenteeism.

5. The democratic group fostered more 5. The democratic group fostered more independence.independence.

Contemporary Approaches to Contemporary Approaches to LeadershipLeadership

Attribution theoryAttribution theory Charismatic leadershipCharismatic leadership Visionary leadershipVisionary leadership Transactional leadershipTransactional leadership Transformational leadershipTransformational leadership Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

TASK-ORIENTED V PEOPLE-TASK-ORIENTED V PEOPLE-ORIENTED LEADERSHIP ORIENTED LEADERSHIP

(Blake and Mouton, 1964)(Blake and Mouton, 1964) TASK-ORIENTEDTASK-ORIENTED

– task is uppermost;task is uppermost;– employee needs close employee needs close

supervision;supervision;– supervisor upset when supervisor upset when

tasks not accomplished;tasks not accomplished;– human aspect human aspect

neglected;neglected;– regular checks on work regular checks on work

progress;progress;– perceived as “tough”;perceived as “tough”;

PEOPLE-ORIENTEDPEOPLE-ORIENTED– concern for concern for

subordinates’ needs;subordinates’ needs;– climate building;climate building;– inquiries about inquiries about

problems;problems;– can be can be

counterproductive if counterproductive if “overdone”.“overdone”.

Contingency ApproachContingency Approach

Effective Effective leadership leadership behavior behavior depends on depends on the situation the situation at handat hand

Contingency Leadership TheoryContingency Leadership Theory

GGiven the right context, every iven the right context, every leadership theory or model is the leadership theory or model is the correct one.correct one.

There is no one best style of There is no one best style of leadershipleadership

Leadership style must match the Leadership style must match the situationsituation

The Continuum of Leadership The Continuum of Leadership BehaviorBehavior

(Tannenbaum, 1974)(Tannenbaum, 1974)A

UT

OC

RA

T

DEMOCRAT

PUSHTells

Sells

[Tests]

Consults

Joins

PULL

Boss

Employee

Autocractic or Democratic?Autocractic or Democratic?

Reasons for a more participative or Reasons for a more participative or democratic style:democratic style:

Information or expertise exists Information or expertise exists among subordinatesamong subordinates

Greater understanding, acceptance Greater understanding, acceptance and support of decision by and support of decision by subordinatessubordinates

LEADERSHIP STYLE MATRIXLEADERSHIP STYLE MATRIX

High

People Focus

LowLow High

Task Focus

Supportive or Human-relations Leadership

High Concern for People; Low Concern for Task

Abdicative or Laissez-faire Leadership

Low Concern for People; Low Concern for Task

Participative or Democratic Leadership

High Concern for People; High Concern for Task

Directive or Autocratic Leadership

Low Concern for People; High Concern for Task

Situational Leadership Situational Leadership TheoryTheory

Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership

StrengthsStrengths– Practical: easy to understand and applyPractical: easy to understand and apply– Prescriptive: tells what to do or what to do Prescriptive: tells what to do or what to do

not in various situationsnot in various situations– Leader’s flexibility: employees and leading Leader’s flexibility: employees and leading

styles differ from situation to situationstyles differ from situation to situation CriticismsCriticisms

– Leader’s styles and employee’s Leader’s styles and employee’s development level do not always match, development level do not always match, there exist other factors toothere exist other factors too

Task vs. RelationshipTask vs. Relationship

Task-oriented LeadershipTask-oriented Leadership

Relationship-oriented Relationship-oriented Leadership Leadership

Is best under situations of high or low control

Is best under situations of moderate control

The Managerial GridThe Managerial Grid

FollowersFollowersCapabilityMotivation

FollowersFollowersCapabilityMotivation

LeaderLeaderPersonality

traitsBehavior

Experience

LeaderLeaderPersonality

traitsBehavior

Experience

Contingency LeadershipContingency LeadershipFramework VariablesFramework Variables

Contingency LeadershipContingency LeadershipFramework VariablesFramework Variables

SituationSituationTask

StructureEnvironment

SituationSituationTask

StructureEnvironment

Leadership ContinuumLeadership Continuum

““A continuum of leadership style A continuum of leadership style extending from complete retention extending from complete retention of power by the manager to of power by the manager to complete freedom for subordinatescomplete freedom for subordinates" "

Autocratic ("Telling") Autocratic ("Telling") Diplomatic ("Selling) Diplomatic ("Selling) Consultative ("Consulting")Consultative ("Consulting") Participative ("Joining")Participative ("Joining")

What are the situational or What are the situational or contingency leadership contingency leadership

approaches?approaches? Leader traits and behaviors can act in Leader traits and behaviors can act in

conjunction with situational contingencies.conjunction with situational contingencies. The effects of leader traits are enhanced by The effects of leader traits are enhanced by

their relevance to situational contingencies.their relevance to situational contingencies. Major situational contingency theories.Major situational contingency theories.

– Fiedler’s leadership contingency theory.Fiedler’s leadership contingency theory.– House’s path-goal theory of leadership.House’s path-goal theory of leadership.– Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership

model.model.– Vroom-Jago Normative decision theoryVroom-Jago Normative decision theory– Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

Contingency Leadership Contingency Leadership TheoriesTheories

The appropriate style of The appropriate style of leadership is contingent on leadership is contingent on the requirements of the the requirements of the particular situation and the particular situation and the situational variables situational variables mediating the interaction mediating the interaction between leadership between leadership behavior and situations behavior and situations resulting in effectiveness resulting in effectiveness or “situational or “situational favorableness”favorableness”

Only the leader possessing Only the leader possessing particular qualities will particular qualities will arise due to the specific arise due to the specific situational circumstances situational circumstances requiring specific requiring specific leadership abilitiesleadership abilities

Least Preferred Coworker Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)(LPC)– Fiedler (1964, 1967, 1971)Fiedler (1964, 1967, 1971)

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory– House (1971)House (1971)– House and Mitchell (1974)House and Mitchell (1974)

Normative Decision-Making Normative Decision-Making ModelModel– Vroom and Yetton (1973)Vroom and Yetton (1973)– Vroom and Jago (1988)Vroom and Jago (1988)

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

““You know what makes leadership? It You know what makes leadership? It is the ability to get men to do what is the ability to get men to do what they don't want to do and like it.they don't want to do and like it.” --” --Harry TrumanHarry Truman

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

A theory of leadership suggesting that A theory of leadership suggesting that subordinates will be motivated by a leader only subordinates will be motivated by a leader only to the extent they perceive this individual as to the extent they perceive this individual as helping them to attain valued goals.helping them to attain valued goals.

Four basic leadership styles:Four basic leadership styles:– InstrumentalInstrumental (directive): An approach focused on providing (directive): An approach focused on providing

specific guidance and establishing work schedules and rules.specific guidance and establishing work schedules and rules.– SupportiveSupportive: A style focused on establishing good relations : A style focused on establishing good relations

with subordinates and satisfying their needs.with subordinates and satisfying their needs.– ParticipativeParticipative: A pattern in which the leader consults with : A pattern in which the leader consults with

subordinates, permitting them to participate in decisions.subordinates, permitting them to participate in decisions.– Achievement OrientedAchievement Oriented: An approach in which the leader : An approach in which the leader

sets challenging goals and seeks improvements in sets challenging goals and seeks improvements in performance. performance.

Path-Goal Leadership Model Path-Goal Leadership Model

Used to select the Used to select the leadership style leadership style that is that is appropriate to the appropriate to the situation to maximize situation to maximize performance and job performance and job satisfaction.satisfaction.

4 Basic Path-Goal Leadership 4 Basic Path-Goal Leadership TypesTypes

InstrumentalInstrumental (directive): An approach (directive): An approach focused on providing specific guidance focused on providing specific guidance and establishing work schedules and and establishing work schedules and rules.rules.

SupportiveSupportive: A style focused on establishing : A style focused on establishing good relations with subordinates and good relations with subordinates and satisfying their needs.satisfying their needs.

ParticipativeParticipative: A pattern in which the leader : A pattern in which the leader consults with subordinates, permitting consults with subordinates, permitting them to participate in decisions.them to participate in decisions.

Achievement OrientedAchievement Oriented: An approach in : An approach in which the leader sets challenging goals which the leader sets challenging goals and seeks improvements in performance. and seeks improvements in performance.

Path-Goal Guidelines to Be Path-Goal Guidelines to Be Effective LeaderEffective Leader

Determine the outcomes subordinates want Determine the outcomes subordinates want – e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work, e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work,

and autonomy to do one’s job, etc.and autonomy to do one’s job, etc. Reward individuals with their desired Reward individuals with their desired

outcomes when they perform welloutcomes when they perform well Be clear with expectationsBe clear with expectations

– Let individuals know what they need to do to Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards (the path to the goal)receive rewards (the path to the goal)

– Remove barriers that prevent high performanceRemove barriers that prevent high performance– Express confidence that individuals have the Express confidence that individuals have the

ability to perform wellability to perform well

Path-Goal Leadership StylesPath-Goal Leadership Styles

DirectiveDirective– Informs subordinates of expectations, Informs subordinates of expectations,

gives guidance, shows how to do tasksgives guidance, shows how to do tasks SupportiveSupportive

– Friendly and approachable, shows Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status, well-being and needs concern for status, well-being and needs of subordinatesof subordinates

Path-Goal Leadership StylesPath-Goal Leadership Styles

ParticipativeParticipative– Consults with subordinates, solicits Consults with subordinates, solicits

suggestions, takes suggestions into suggestions, takes suggestions into considerationconsideration

Achievement orientedAchievement oriented– Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to

perform at highest level, continuously seeks perform at highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employeesin highest motivations of employees

Prentice Hall, 2000Prentice Hall, 2000 Chapter 10Chapter 10 6767

The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory

Environmental Environmental Situational FactorsSituational Factors

OutcomesOutcomesLeaderLeaderBehaviorBehavior

Subordinate Subordinate Situational FactorsSituational Factors

Transformational Transformational LeadershipLeadership

Since late 1970’sSince late 1970’s Part of the ’New leadership’ paradigmPart of the ’New leadership’ paradigm Attention to the charismatic and Attention to the charismatic and

affective elements of leadershipaffective elements of leadership A process that changes and transforms A process that changes and transforms

individualsindividuals Emotions, values, ethics, standards, Emotions, values, ethics, standards,

long-term goalslong-term goals Incorporates charismatic and visionary Incorporates charismatic and visionary

leadershipleadership

Transactional and Transactional and Transformational LeadersTransformational Leaders

Transactional

Use formal rewards and punishments

Deal making

Contractual obligations

Transformational

Uses personal attributes to inspire followers

Excites followers

“The most powerful kind of leadership is to offer people pathways and permissions to do things they want to do but feel unable to do for themselves. That sort of energy evokes energies within people that far exceed the powers of coercion.”

(Palmer 1993)

"A leader is best when people barely know he "A leader is best when people barely know he exists.  exists. 

Not so good when people obey and acclaim him.  Not so good when people obey and acclaim him. 

Worse when they despise him.  Worse when they despise him. 

But of a good leader who talks little, when his work But of a good leader who talks little, when his work is done and his aim fulfilled, they will say, "We is done and his aim fulfilled, they will say, "We did it ourselves." did it ourselves."

-- Lao Tsu, 600 B.C. -- Lao Tsu, 600 B.C.

True LeaderTrue Leader

Bass’s Theory of Transformational and Bass’s Theory of Transformational and

Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership Transformational leaders possess Transformational leaders possess

charismatic-leader characteristics (vision, charismatic-leader characteristics (vision, rhetorical skills, etc.).rhetorical skills, etc.).

Transactional leaders do not possess these Transactional leaders do not possess these leader characteristics, nor are they able to leader characteristics, nor are they able to develop strong emotional bonds with develop strong emotional bonds with followers or inspire followers to do more than followers or inspire followers to do more than they thought they could. Instead, they thought they could. Instead, transactional leaders motivate followers by transactional leaders motivate followers by setting goals and promising rewards for setting goals and promising rewards for desired performance. desired performance.

Transactional & Transactional & Transformational Transformational

LeadershipLeadershipAs a

transactional leader, I use formal rewards

& punishments.

As a transformational leader,

I inspire and excite followers to high levels

of performance.

Transformational Transformational Leadership TheoryLeadership Theory

Transformational leadersTransformational leaders– Are capable of charting new courses for their Are capable of charting new courses for their

organization.organization.– Are visionaries who challenge people to do Are visionaries who challenge people to do

exceptional things, above and beyond the plan.exceptional things, above and beyond the plan. Transactional leadersTransactional leaders

– Monitor people to see that they do the expected, Monitor people to see that they do the expected, according to plan in order to maintain the status according to plan in order to maintain the status quo.quo.

– Get people to do things by offering a reward or Get people to do things by offering a reward or threatening them with a punishment.threatening them with a punishment.

Understanding Understanding Transformational Leadership Transformational Leadership

Transactional leaders – pursue an Transactional leaders – pursue an economic exchange with the employee in economic exchange with the employee in return for contracted services renderedreturn for contracted services rendered

Transformational leaders – support Transformational leaders – support employee’s needs to move to higher levels employee’s needs to move to higher levels of achievement while simultaneously of achievement while simultaneously encouraging them to transcend their own encouraging them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team or self-interest for the sake of the team or organizationorganization

REMEMBER . . .REMEMBER . . .

25% of organisational productivity 25% of organisational productivity

is due tois due to

employee satisfaction.employee satisfaction.

Chris Argyris: Chris Argyris: Personality and OrganizationPersonality and Organization Traditional management principles produce Traditional management principles produce

conflict between people and organizations. conflict between people and organizations. – Task specialization produces narrow, boring jobs that Task specialization produces narrow, boring jobs that

require few skills.require few skills.– Directive leadership makes workers dependent and treats Directive leadership makes workers dependent and treats

them like children.them like children. Workers adapt to frustration in several ways:Workers adapt to frustration in several ways:

– Withdraw—absenteeism or quittingWithdraw—absenteeism or quitting– Become passive, apatheticBecome passive, apathetic– Resist top-down control through deception, Resist top-down control through deception,

featherbedding, or sabotagefeatherbedding, or sabotage– Climb the hierarchyClimb the hierarchy– Form groups (such as labor unions)Form groups (such as labor unions)– Train children to believe work is unrewardingTrain children to believe work is unrewarding

ZONE OF INDIFFERENCEZONE OF INDIFFERENCE

The Area Within Which an The Area Within Which an

Individual Will Comply With Individual Will Comply With

Directives Without Question.Directives Without Question.

Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics

Identification with the leader and the Identification with the leader and the visionvision

Heightened emotional levelsHeightened emotional levels Willing subordination to the leaderWilling subordination to the leader Feelings of empowermentFeelings of empowerment

Five Types of FollowersFive Types of Followers

Independent, uncritical thinkingIndependent, uncritical thinking

Independent, critical thinkingIndependent, critical thinking

PassivePassive ActiveActive

Alienatedfollowers

Survivors

SheepYes

people

Effectivefollowers

Source: R. E. Kelley, “In Praise of Followers,” Harvard Business Review 66 (1988): 145.

Dynamic FollowerDynamic Follower

Responsible Responsible steward of his or steward of his or her jobher job

Effective in Effective in managing the managing the relationship with relationship with the bossthe boss

Practices self-Practices self-managementmanagement

McGregor’s Theory X & Theory McGregor’s Theory X & Theory YY

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. (2 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. (2 assumptions about basic nature)assumptions about basic nature)

Theory XTheory X– Workers are passive and lazyWorkers are passive and lazy– Prefer to be ledPrefer to be led– Resist changeResist change

Theory YTheory Y– Management’s basis task is to ensure that workers Management’s basis task is to ensure that workers

meet their important needs while they workmeet their important needs while they work Either theory can be a self-fulfilling prophecy.Either theory can be a self-fulfilling prophecy.

MotivationMotivation

THEORY XTHEORY X Man dislikes work and will avoid it if Man dislikes work and will avoid it if

he can.he can. Man must be forced or bribed to put Man must be forced or bribed to put

out the right effort.out the right effort. Man would rather be directed than Man would rather be directed than

accept responsibility, which he accept responsibility, which he avoids.avoids.

Man is motivated mainly by money.Man is motivated mainly by money. Man is motivated by anxiety about Man is motivated by anxiety about

his security.his security. Most men have little creativity - Most men have little creativity -

except when it comes to getting except when it comes to getting round management rules!round management rules!

McGregor’s Theory of Motivation

THEORY YTHEORY Y Work is necessary to man’s Work is necessary to man’s

psychological growthpsychological growth Man wants to be interested in his Man wants to be interested in his

work and, under the right conditions work and, under the right conditions he can enjoy ithe can enjoy it

Man will direct himself towards an Man will direct himself towards an accepted targetaccepted target

Man will seek, and accept Man will seek, and accept responsibility under the right responsibility under the right conditionsconditions

The discipline a man imposes on The discipline a man imposes on himself is more effective, and can be himself is more effective, and can be more severe, than any imposed on more severe, than any imposed on himhim

Under the right conditions man is Under the right conditions man is motivated by the desire to realise his motivated by the desire to realise his own potentialown potential

Creativity and ingenuity are widely Creativity and ingenuity are widely distributed and grossly underused.distributed and grossly underused.

Servant LeadershipServant Leadership

Servant Leaders Servant Leaders focus on providing focus on providing increased service to increased service to others—meeting the others—meeting the goals of both the goals of both the followers and the followers and the organization—rather organization—rather than themselvesthan themselves

Ten Characteristics Ten Characteristics of the Servant Leaderof the Servant Leader

1.1. Focus on listeningFocus on listening

2.2. Ability to empathize with others’ Ability to empathize with others’ feelingsfeelings

3.3. Focus on healing sufferingFocus on healing suffering

4.4. Self-awareness of strengths and Self-awareness of strengths and weaknessesweaknesses

5.5. Use of persuasion rather than Use of persuasion rather than positional authority to influence otherspositional authority to influence others

Ten Characteristics of Ten Characteristics of the Servant Leaderthe Servant Leader

6.6. Broad-based conceptual thinkingBroad-based conceptual thinking

7.7. Ability to foresee future outcomesAbility to foresee future outcomes

8.8. Belief that they are stewards of their Belief that they are stewards of their employees and resourcesemployees and resources

9.9. Commitment to the growth of peopleCommitment to the growth of people

10.10. Drive to build community within and Drive to build community within and outside the organizationoutside the organization

Benefits of Leading Without Benefits of Leading Without AuthorityAuthority

Latitude for creative devianceLatitude for creative deviance– Easier to raise questionsEasier to raise questions

Issue focusIssue focus– Freedom to focus on single issue, rather Freedom to focus on single issue, rather

than many issuesthan many issues Frontline informationFrontline information

– Often closer to the people who have the Often closer to the people who have the informationinformation

Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

In some situations, leader may not In some situations, leader may not be necessarybe necessary– Other factors may substitute for or Other factors may substitute for or

neutralize leader’s influenceneutralize leader’s influence Potential substitutes:Potential substitutes:

– Individual characteristicsIndividual characteristics– Job structureJob structure– Organizational characteristicsOrganizational characteristics

SUBSTITUTES FOR SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP

Subordinate CharacteristicsSubordinate Characteristics AbilityAbility ExperienceExperience TrainingTraining KnowledgeKnowledge Professional OrientationProfessional Orientation

Task CharacteristicsTask Characteristics Unambiguous and RoutineUnambiguous and Routine Methodologically InvariantMethodologically Invariant Providing Feedback ItselfProviding Feedback Itself Intrinsically SatisfyingIntrinsically Satisfying

Task CharacteristicsTask Characteristics Closely-knit, Cohesive Work Closely-knit, Cohesive Work

GroupGroup CultureCulture

Prentice Hall, 2000Prentice Hall, 2000 Chapter 10Chapter 10 9090

Goals That AreGoals That AreFormalized orFormalized or

Rules That Are RigidRules That Are Rigid

Goals That AreGoals That AreFormalized orFormalized or

Rules That Are RigidRules That Are Rigid

Jobs That Are Jobs That Are Unambiguous orUnambiguous orHighly SatisfyingHighly Satisfying

Jobs That Are Jobs That Are Unambiguous orUnambiguous orHighly SatisfyingHighly Satisfying

WorkgroupsWorkgroupsThat Are CohesiveThat Are Cohesive

WorkgroupsWorkgroupsThat Are CohesiveThat Are Cohesive

Workers That AreWorkers That AreExperienced orExperienced orHighly-TrainedHighly-Trained

Workers That AreWorkers That AreExperienced orExperienced orHighly-TrainedHighly-Trained

Is LeadershipIs LeadershipAlways Relevant?Always Relevant?

Is LeadershipIs LeadershipAlways Relevant?Always Relevant?

Implicit Leadership TheoryImplicit Leadership Theory

We have a subjective mental We have a subjective mental prototype of what leaders are likeprototype of what leaders are like– Attribute typical set of traits to leadersAttribute typical set of traits to leaders– People who fit the prototype more likely People who fit the prototype more likely

to be judged as effective leadersto be judged as effective leaders Prototypes and genderPrototypes and gender

Leadership as PowerLeadership as Power

Power is the extent to which one person Power is the extent to which one person can exert more force on other group can exert more force on other group members than they, in turn, can exert to members than they, in turn, can exert to resist the leader's intentionsresist the leader's intentions

What is power?What is power?

Power is the ability to Power is the ability to ……– Get someone to do something you want Get someone to do something you want

done.done.– Make things happen in the way you want.Make things happen in the way you want.

Influence is Influence is ……– What you have when you exercise power.What you have when you exercise power.– Expressed by others’ behavioral response Expressed by others’ behavioral response

to your exercise of power.to your exercise of power.

Five Sources of PowerFive Sources of Power

1.1. Legitimate Power Legitimate Power all managers have; results all managers have; results from managers’ formal positions within the from managers’ formal positions within the organizationorganization

2.2. Reward Power Reward Power all managers have; results from all managers have; results from manager’s authority to reward their subordinatesmanager’s authority to reward their subordinates

3.3. Coercive Power Coercive Power all managers have; results from all managers have; results from the manager’s authority to punish subordinatesthe manager’s authority to punish subordinates

4.4. Expert Power Expert Power is power resulting from one’s is power resulting from one’s specialized information or expertisespecialized information or expertise

5.5. Referent Power Referent Power power derived from one’s power derived from one’s personal attractionpersonal attraction

Outcomes of Power UseOutcomes of Power Use CommitmentCommitment

– Influence target agrees with and internalizes requestInfluence target agrees with and internalizes request– Referent & expert powerReferent & expert power

ComplianceCompliance– Influence target is apathetic about request but agrees to carry Influence target is apathetic about request but agrees to carry

it outit out– Legitimate & reward powerLegitimate & reward power

ResistanceResistance– Influence target opposes request and avoids carrying it outInfluence target opposes request and avoids carrying it out– Coercive powerCoercive power

Men’s and Women’s Men’s and Women’s Leadership StylesLeadership Styles

In general, women fall back on a In general, women fall back on a democratic leadership styledemocratic leadership style– Encourage participationEncourage participation– Share power and informationShare power and information– Attempt to enhance followers’ self-worthAttempt to enhance followers’ self-worth– Prefer to lead through inclusionPrefer to lead through inclusion

Men feel more comfortable with a directive Men feel more comfortable with a directive command-and-control stylecommand-and-control style– Rely on formal authorityRely on formal authority

Cultural Issues in Cultural Issues in LeadershipLeadership

Societal cultural values and practices Societal cultural values and practices affect leaders:affect leaders:– Shape the leader’s values and normsShape the leader’s values and norms

– Influence decisions and actionsInfluence decisions and actions

Some features of leadership are Some features of leadership are universal, others differ across culturesuniversal, others differ across cultures– ““Charismatic visionary” seems to be Charismatic visionary” seems to be

universaluniversal– Participative leadership works better in Participative leadership works better in

some cultures than otherssome cultures than others

ConclusionsConclusions

Leadership plays a central part in Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior.understanding group behavior.

Our understanding of leadership and the Our understanding of leadership and the dynamics continues to grow.dynamics continues to grow.

Theories offer incomplete explanations.Theories offer incomplete explanations. A lot of research has been done, illustrating A lot of research has been done, illustrating

the complexity of leadershipthe complexity of leadership Leadership as person, role, & situation.Leadership as person, role, & situation. Leader as an active, flexible pursuer of vision Leader as an active, flexible pursuer of vision

who influences others towards achievement of who influences others towards achievement of vision.vision.

ConclusionsConclusions

Male and female leadership styles Male and female leadership styles tend to be more alike than different.tend to be more alike than different.

No one style of leadership is always No one style of leadership is always the preferred leadership style.the preferred leadership style.

Leadership is not value free and Leadership is not value free and culturally-bound.culturally-bound.