proteus lab manual.pdf

Circuit Simulation using Proteus

Department of Electronics Engg., P.V.P.I.T., Budhgaon

Dr. V. P. Shetkari Shikshan Mandal’s

Padmabhooshan Vasantraodada Patil Institute of Technology,

Budhgaon-416304

Department of Electronics Engineering

Circuit Simulation

LAB MANUAL

Prepared by

Prof. K. P. Paradeshi

Associate Professor,

Electronics Engineering,

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 01

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Design of Half Wave Rectifier using Proteus.

Aim:

Design & stimulate the half wave rectifier.

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.

• To understand the circuit arrangement of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.

• To understand the simulation procedure of ―Half Wave Rectifier‖ circuit

using proteus.

• To observe & analyze the output waveforms

Outcomes:

• Able to understand principal of working of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.

• Able to understand the simulaton procedure of Half Wave Rectifier circuit

using proteus.

• Able to observe & analyse the circuit.

Programme Education Objective (PEO) Satisfied : 2,3

• To enable student to analyse solve electronics engineering problem by applying

basic principles of mathematics , sciences and engineering and also be able to

use modern engineering techniques , skills and tools to fulfill social needs.

• To enable to innovate, design and develop a variety of electronic and computer

based components and system for applications including signal processing ,

communication , computer network and control system.



Introduction:

The device which converts ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectifiers. In fact,

rectifiers produce unidirectional & pulsating voltage from ac source.

Rectifiers offers a low resistance to the flow of current in one direction & high

resistance to flow of current in opposite direction that is rectifier converts AC into DC. This

conversion is achieved by rectifier supplied with AC signal using step down transformer. The

output of contains pulsating DC (ripple voltage) which can be removed by using filter circuit.

we have to design the HWR using proteus. It is easy to design on the proteu

Circuit Diagram:

Half wave rectifier

Circuit arrangement:

The circuit arrangement of half wave as shown in fig. It uses one transformer for

providing step down operation as well as to provide electrical isolation. In this type of

arrangement diode D, load resistance RL are used, the output is taken across load resistance

as shown in figure.

Theory:

When a single rectifier unit is placed in series with the load across an ac supply, it

converts alternating voltage into uni-directional pulsating voltage, using one half cycles of

the applied voltage, the other half cycles being suppressed because it conducts only in one

direction. Unless there is an inductance or battery in the circuit, the current will be zero,

therefore, for half the time. This is called half-wave rectification. As already discussed, diode



is an electronic device consisting of two elements known as cathode and anode. Since in a

diode electrons can flow in one direction only i.e. from cathode to anode so the diode

provides the unilateral conduction necessary for rectification. This is true for diodes of all

types-vacuum, gas-filled, crystal or semiconductor, metallic (copper oxide and selenium

types) diodes. Semiconductor diodes, because of their inherent advantages are usually used as

a rectifying device. However, for very high voltages, vacuum diodes may be employed.

The half-wave rectifier circuit using a semiconductor diode with a load resistance RL

but no smoothing filter is given in figure. The diode is connected in series with the secondary

of the transformer and the load resistance RL, the primary of the transformer is being

connected to the ac supply mains.

A transformer has been added to provide the desired voltage into the rectifier. For

high voltage DC power supplies this would obviously be a step-up transformer,but with many

solid-state equipment application voltages of 4.5,6,9,22.5,40volts are used. Thus necessitating

a step-down transformer. Hence,in HWR the step-down transformer is used.

Working of a Half wave rectifier:

The ac voltage across the secondary winding changes polarities after every half cycle.

During the positive half-cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when upper end of the secondary

winding is positive w.r.t. its lower end, the diode is forward biased and therefore conducts

current. When forward voltages crosses barrier potential (0.7v for silicon diode) the diode

works as closed switch,the large current flows through RL.This current produces dc voltage

across the load RL. If the forward resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero (in practice,

however, a small resistance exists) the input voltage during the positive half-cycles is directly

applied to the load resistance RL, making its upper end positive w.r.t. its lower end. The

waveforms of the output current and output voltage are of the same shape as that of the input

ac voltage.

During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when the lower end of the

secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its upper end, the diode is reverse biased and so does not

conduct that is diode D acts as open switch.Thus during the negative half cycles of the input

ac voltage the current through and voltage across the load remains zero if the reverse current,

being very small in magnitude, is neglected. Thus for the negative half cycles no power is

delivered to the load.

Thus the output voltage developed across load resistance RL (VL) is a series of positive

half cycles of alternating voltage, with intervening very small constant negative voltage

levels, It is obvious from the figure that the output is not a steady dc, but only a pulsating dc

wave. Since only half-cycles of the input wave are used, it is called a half-wave rectifier. The

output voltage is unidirectional,pulsating & intermittent.



DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE:-

Vdc = Vm/3.14 (with no load)

Vm= maximum voltage

DC OUTPUT CURRENT:-

Idc = Im/3.14 Im=maximum current

Significance of half wave rectifier using proteus:

The most important characteristics which are required to be specified for a power supply

are given below :

1. The required output dc voltage.

2. The average and peak currents in the diode.

3. The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode.

4. The regulation.

5. The ripple factor

Advantages:

• Simple circuit and low cost.

Disadvantages:

• The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc component, ac components

of basic frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency. Ripple factor is high

and an elaborate filtering is, therefore, required to give steady dc output.

• The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is quite low. This is due to

the fact that power is delivered only half the time.

• Transformer utilization factor is low.

• DC saturation of transformer core resulting in magnetizing current and hysteresis

losses and generation of harmonics.

The type of supply available from a half-wave rectifier is not satisfactory for general

power supply. This type of supply can be satisfactory for some particular purposes such as

battery charging.



Procedure using Proteus:

1. From main page of Proteus, click on ‗P‘ to pick device from library.

2. In pick device, insert the component which has to be selected & click on ‗OK‘.

3. Place the all components on the Proteus screen.

4. Right click and select edit properties to change the values.

5. Add voltage probe at input and output.

6. Select the ‗graph mode‘& choose analouge Analysis graph window.

7. Right click and select ‗add traces‘ (input & output trace).

8. Right click & activate simulation graph.

9. Observe and analyse input & output waveforms.

Circuit simulation



Conclusion:

By using Proteus we can understand working of half wave rectifier. During the

negative half cycles of the input ac voltage, diode D acts as open switch. Thus for the

negative half cycles no power is delivered to the load. The input voltage during the positive

half-cycles is directly applied to the load resistance RL and waveforms appears across diode

D.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 02

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

To study bridge full wave rectifier.

Aim:

To design and simulate bridge full wave rectifier circuit using proteus and observe the

waveforms.

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of bridge full wave rectifier.

• To understand the circuit arrangement of bridge full wave rectifier.

• To understand the simulation procedure of bridge full wave rectifier circuit

using proteus.

• To observe & analyze the output waveforms

Outcomes:

• Able to understand principal of working of bridge FWR circuit.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of bridge FWR circuit.

• Able to understand the simulation procedure of bridge FWR circuit using

Proteus.

• Able to observe & analyze the circuit.

Programme Education Objective (PEO) Satisfied: 2,3




• To enable to innovate, design and develope a variety of electronic and computer





Introduction:-

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full

wave rectifier circuit above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single

phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge"

configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that

it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The

single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to

the other side as shown below.

Working of full wave bridge rectifier:

The circuit arrangement made for bridge FWR is as shown in fig. It uses one

transformer for providing step down operation as well as to provide electrical isolation. In

this type of arrangement, four diodes (D1, D2,D3,D4) are connected in such a way , to form

a bridge. Hence it is called as ―bridge FWR‖. Here, two diodes are conducting at a time and

remaining two diodes are non-conducting. The output is taken across load resistance as

shown in fig.

During positive half cycle of AC input, the diode D1 and D3 becomes forward

bias, at the same time, diodes D2 and D4 becomes reverse bias. Thus, current flows through

the path : diode D1, load resistance RL , diode D3, to the second end of transformer‘s

secondary winding. In this situation, current through RL flows from top to bottom producing

positive output voltage across it.

During negative half cycle of AC input, diode D2 and D4 becomes forward

biased, at the same time, diodes D1 and D3 becomes reverse bias. Thus, current flows

through the path : diode D2, load resistance RL , diode D4, to the second end of

transformer‘s secondary winding. In this situation, current flows in the same direction

producing positive output voltage across load resistance as shown in waveforms.



Theory:.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two

diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,

diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the

current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes

D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the

load is the same direction as before.



The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage

developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-

wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in

reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one so the

amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input

VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a

50Hz supply). Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge

rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available "off-the-shelf" in a range of

different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be

connected by spade connectors.The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge

rectifier with one corner cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the

corner is the positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being

the negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input alternating

voltage from a transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier

produces an output wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of

circuit to produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a

greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output

waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency.



Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the

rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the

smoothing capacitor is an Aluminum Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF

or more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak

voltage. However, there are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable

smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the no-

load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of

ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage.

Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output

waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel capacitors can

be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be almost as smooth as

pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than

100mV peak to peak.

The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only

determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load current,

and is calculated as:



Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice

the input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.

The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple

value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-

wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the

AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the

supply frequency (50Hz).

The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply

voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-

filter) to the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of

two smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across them

to introduce a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component.

Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal

voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where "xx" stands for the output voltage rating) for

a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a negative output voltage

which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet) while delivering a constant

output current of over 1 amp.



FWR Circuit Using Proteus

Components required:

Name Description Number of

components

required

RES Resistor(3.3K) 1

DIODE Diode 1N4007 4

TRAN Transformer 280-280) 1

Vac Ac voltage source 1

GND Ground 3

Procedure using proteus:

1. First of all, pick a bridge of diodes 1N4007 from the components list, and place it

properly on the screen

2. Pick the transformer having rating of 12-0-12 and place it as per the circuit diagram.

3. Pick a resistance of 3.3kilo ohm, and place it properly.

4. Connect the AC Source of 230V(freq.50Hz) volts source .

5. With the help of wires, connect all these components in a proper way, as shown in fig.

6. Connect voltage probes to the input & output positions.

7. open graph option and activate analogue analysis option to observe the output

waveforms.

8. By right clicking on the window, add the traces of each component. And then

simulate the graph. After that, you will get desired output waveforms of the bridge

FWR.

Advantages:

1.Smaller size of transformer is required due to higher value of transformer utilization factor.

2.The need of centre tap transformer is eliminated.

3.PIV rating of diode is less as compared to centre tap FWR.

4.There is no problem of transformer core saturation.



Disadvantages:

1. It requires two additional diodes as compared to centre tap FWR.

CIRCUIT SIMULATION

RESULT



Conclusion:

By studying bridge FWR, we conclude that bridge FWR is most efficient

electronic circuit which converts AC signal into DC signal. As the current flowing through

the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional the

same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage

across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows

through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage

drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now

twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 03

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title :

Low Pass Filter & High Pass Filter .

Aim :

To Study & simulate frequency response of low pass & high pass filter.

Objectives:

To understand principal of working of low pass & high pass filter.

To understand the circuit arrangement of low pass & high pass filter.

To understand the procedure of low pass & high pass filter using

capacitor& register circuit using proteus.

To observe the frequency response waveforms and analyze the circuit.

Outcomes:

Students will be able to study low pass & high pass filter using capacitor&

register.

Students will be able to understand the circuit arrangement of pass & high

pass filter

Students will be able to understand the procedure of pass & high pass filter

using capacitor & register circuit using proteus.

Students will be able to observe the simulation and analyse the working of

circuit.


To enable student to analyse solve electronics engineering problem by

applying basic principles of mathematics , sciences and engineering and

also be able to use modern engineering techniques , skills and tools to fulfill

social needs

To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and

computer based components and system for applications including signal

processing , communication , computer network and control system.



Introduction

Low Pass Filter :

A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals and attenuates

(reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The

actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes

called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is

the opposite of a high-pass filter. A band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and a

high-pass.

Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as

a hiss filter used in audio), anti-aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analog-to-

digital conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of

images, and so on. The moving average operation used in fields such as finance is a particular

kind of low-pass filter, and can be analyzed with the same signal processing techniques as are

used for other low-pass filters. Low-pass filters provide a smoother form of a signal,

removing the short-term fluctuations, and leaving the longer-term trend.

An optical filter could correctly be called low-pass, but conventionally is described as

"longpass" (low frequency is long wavelength), to avoid confusion.

Electronic low-pass filters

Passive electronic realization

Passive, first order low-pass RC filter

One simple electrical circuit that will serve as a low-pass filter consists of a resistor in

series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance,

and blocks low-frequency signals, causing them to go through the load instead. At higher

frequencies the reactance drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit. The

combination of resistance and capacitance gives the time constant of the filter

(represented by the Greek letter tau). The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency

or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(signal_processing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutoff_frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aliasing_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_conversion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_conversion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average_(finance)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_electric_load

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(electronics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_constant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RC_Divider.svg



or equivalently (in radians per second):

One way to understand this circuit is to focus on the time the capacitor takes to charge. It

takes time to charge or discharge the capacitor through that resistor:

At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the capacitor to charge up to practically the

same voltage as the input voltage.

At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to charge up a small amount before the

input switches direction. The output goes up and down only a small fraction of the

amount the input goes up and down. At double the frequency, there's only time for it to

charge up half the amount.

Another way to understand this circuit is with the idea of reactance at a particular frequency:

Since DC cannot flow through the capacitor, DC input must "flow out" the path marked

(analogous to removing the capacitor).

Since AC flows very well through the capacitor — almost as well as it flows through

solid wire — AC input "flows out" through the capacitor, effectively short circuiting to

ground (analogous to replacing the capacitor with just a wire).

The capacitor is not an "on/off" object (like the block or pass fluidic explanation above). The

capacitor will variably act between these two extremes. It is the Bode plot and frequency

response that show this variability.

Active electronic realization

An active low-pass filter

Another type of electrical circuit is an active low-pass filter.

In the operational amplifier circuit shown in the figure, the cutoff frequency (in hertz) is

defined as:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radian

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(electronics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode_plot

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_response



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Active_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg



or equivalently (in radians per second):

The gain in the passband is −R2/R1, and the stopband drops off at −6 dB per octave (that is

−20 dB per decade) as it is a first-order filter.

Discrete-time realization

Many digital filters are designed to give low-pass characteristics. Both infinite impulse

response and finite impulse response low pass filters as well as filters using fourier

transforms are widely used.

Simple infinite impulse response filter

The effect of an infinite impulse response low-pass filter can be simulated on a

computer by analyzing an RC filter's behavior in the time domain, and then discretizing the

model.

A simple low-pass RC filter

Finite impulse response

Finite impulse response filters can be built that approximate to the ideal sinc time

domain response. In practice the time domain response must be time truncated and is often of

a simplified shape; in the simplest case, a running average can be used giving a square time

response.[3]

High Pass Filter

A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes high-frequency

signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies lower

than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency

varies from filter to filter. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-

invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter.[1] High-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stopband

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_impulse_response



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_impulse_response

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_signal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running_average

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter#cite_note-3


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_time-invariant_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_time-invariant_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-pass_filter#cite_note-Watkinson1998-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1st_Order_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg



pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-

zero average voltages or RF devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a

low-pass filter to make a bandpass filter.

First-order continuous-time implementation

Figure 1: A passive, analog, first-order high-pass filter, realized by an RC circuit

The simple first-order electronic high-pass filter shown in Figure 1 is

implemented by placing an input voltage across the series combination of a

capacitor and a resistor and using the voltage across the resistor as an output.

The product of the resistance and capacitance (R×C) is the time constant (τ); it

is inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency fc, that is,

where fc is in hertz, τ is in seconds, R is in ohms, and C is in farads.

Figure 2: An active high-pass filter

Figure 2 shows an active electronic implementation of a first-order high-pass

filter using an operational amplifier. In this case, the filter has a passband gain

of -R2/R1 and has a corner frequency of

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandpass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC_circuit



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_constant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm_(unit)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passband

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:High_pass_filter.svg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Active_Highpass_Filter_RC.png



Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity passband gain. That is, high-

frequency signals are inverted and amplified by R2/R1.

Advantages:

Low pass filter

1. The gain of integrater decreases with frequency whereas gain of differentiator increases

linearly with frequency,so it is easier to stabilize the output of integrators.

2. Due to limited B.W,integrator are less sensitive to noise voltage than differentiators.

3.It is more convenient to introduce the initial conditions in an integrator circuit.

Disadvantages:

For lower frequency reactance offered by capacitor C is very high & hence these frequencies

are not passed at output.

Low pass filter circuit using proteus:







15. Select the ‗graph mode‘ & choose analouge Analysis graph window.

16. Right click and select ‗add traces‘(input & output trace).


18. Observe and analyse input & output waveforms.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_(mathematics)



High pass filter using proteus

Result



Low pass filter using proteus:



Result



Conclusion:

We can understand working of low pass & high pass filter. By using proteus

we can observe simulation of circuit & analyses the waveform taken across capacitor

C1.

In Low pass filter the frequency is passes below cut off region And in high

pass filter the frequency passes above the cut off region.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 04

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Design ± 5V and ±12V regulated power supply using Proteus.

Aim:

Design and simulate the ± 5V and ±12V regulated power Supply.

Objectives:

To understand principal of working of regulated power supply.

To understand the circuit arrangement regulated power supply.

To understand the procedure of regulated power supply circuit using proteus.

To observe the simulation of circuit.

Outcomes:

Able to understand principal of working of regulated power supply circuit.

Able to understand the circuit arrangement of regulated power supply circuit.

Able to understand the procedure of regulated power supply.‖ circuit using

proteus.

Able to observe the simulation of circuit.










Principle:

7805 is a 5V fixed three terminal positive voltage regulator IC. The IC has features

such as safe operating area protection, thermal shut down, internal current limiting which

makes the IC very rugged. Output currents up to 1A can be drawn from the IC provided that

there is a proper heat sink. A 9V transformer steps down the main voltage, 1A bridge rectifies

it and capacitor C1 filters it and 7805 regulates it to produce a steady 5voltDC.

Introduction:

The stepdown transformer, down-converts the high voltage AC input (230V,50Hz) to

a 9V,2A; because the transformer we used here having a specification of 9V/A. The

alternating voltage from secondary terminal of the transformer is given to a bridge rectifier.

The bridge rectifier converts alternating voltage to unidirectional voltage with the switching

action of diodes. This voltage is finally fed to a 5V regulator IC through a 470uF,50v

electrolytic capacitor, which eliminates the ripples and make the output stable. After

regulation we get a 5V DC voltage at the output of 7805 IC.

Circuit Diagram:

http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/5v-regulator-using-7805.JPG




The circuit arrangement of IC 7805 is as shown in fig. It uses one IC 7805 to generate

+5V output . In this type of arrangement two resistors and two capacitors are used, the output

is taken across pin no 3 of IC 555 as shown in figure.

Theory:

Theory of IC 78XX

Transformer:-

A bridge rectifier coupled with a step down transformer is used for our design. The

voltage rating of transformer used is 0-12V and the current rating is 500mA. When AC

voltage of 230V is applied across the primary winding an output AC voltage of 12V is

obtained. One alteration of input causes the top of transformer to be positive and the bottom

negative. The next alteration will temporarily cause the reverse.

Rectifier:-

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid state diode.

Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily at one direction at proper biasing

condition. Bridge rectifiers of 4 diodes are used to achieve full wave rectification. Two

diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the other two will conduct during the

positive half cycle.

Filtering unit:-

Filter circuit which is usually a capacitor acts as a surge arrester always follows the

rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a bypass capacitor, is

used not only to short the ripple with frequency to ground but also leave the frequency of the

DC to appear at the output.

Regulators:-

The voltage regulators play an important role in any power supply unit. The primary

purpose of a regulator is to aid the rectifier and filter circuit in providing a constant DC

voltage to the device. Power supplies without regulators have an inherent problem of

changing DC voltage values due to variations in the load or due to fluctuations in the AC line

voltage. With a regulator connected to DC output, the voltage can be maintained within a

close tolerant region of the desired output. IC 7805 and 7812 regulators are used in this

project for providing a DC voltage of +5V and +12V respectively.

Technical Details:-

Transformer: 230/12 volts step down transformer, 1 ampere

Diodes: IN 4007

7805: The 7805 supplies 5 volts at 1 amp maximum with an input of 7-25 volts

Electrolytic Capacitors: 100pF, 330pF and 100μF, power rating of 25V.

Features:-

· Gives a well regulated +12V and +5V output voltages

· Built in overheating protection shuts down output when regulator IC gets too hot.

· Very stable output voltages, reliable operation



· The circuit has overload and thermal protection.

ADVANTAGES:

78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated

source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of

space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output

voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as

a switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to

implement.

78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They

have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most

applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide

protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.

DISADVANTAGES:

The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum

amount (typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some

devices from certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires

5 volts using 6-volt batteries will not work using a 7805).

As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the

same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output

voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the

78xx will be more than the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as

heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heatsink must be provided,

and also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the process,

rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input

voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a

7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue.

Even in larger packages, 78xx integrated circuits cannot supply as much power as many

designs which use discrete components, and are generally inappropriate for applications

requiring more than a few amperes of current.

Each specific model of 78xx is designed to produce only one fixed voltage output, so

they may not be suitable for applications requiring a configurable or varying output (For

such applications, the LM317 series of ICs are available, which are similar to 78xx ICs

but can produce a configurable voltage).

± 5V and ±12V regulated power supply using Proteus.

Component:

230V ac transformer, diodes, capacitor and IC 7805.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatsink

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LM317




1. From main page of Proteus, click on ‗P‘ to click device from library.


3. Then place the all components on the Proteus screen.

4. Right click the component properties to change the required value

5. Add voltage probe at input and output of diagram.

6. Select the graph mode & choose AC sweep analysis option

7. Right click in the graph window and select add traces(input & output trace).

8. Right click & activate simulate graph

9. Observe input & output waveforms and analysis the results.

CIRCUIT SIMULATION

Result



Conclusion:

By using ± 5V and ±12V regulated power supply using Proteus; we

understand that the voltage regulators play an important role in any power supply unit. The

primary

purpose of a regulator is to aid the rectifier and filter circuit in providing a constant DC

voltage. To avoid variations in the load or due to fluctuations in the AC

line voltage, IC 7805 and 7812 regulators are used.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 05

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Study and Analysis of Non inverting amplifier.

Aim:

Design, simulate and analyze non inverting amplifier using IC 741 using following

tools

1) Analogue analysis

2) Frequency analysis

3) Noise analysis

4) Distortion analysis

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of Non inverting amplifier

• To understand the circuit arrangement of Non inverting amplifier

• To understand the simulation procedure of Non inverting amplifier circuit

using proteus.

• To observe & analyze the output waveforms using different analysis tools.

Outcomes:

• Able to understand principal of working of Non inverting amplifier circuit.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Non inverting amplifier circuit.

• Able to understand the simulation procedure Non inverting amplifier circuit

using Proteus.

• Able to observe & analyse the circuit.




use modern engineering techniques , skills and tools to fulfill social needs

• To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer





Introduction:

Non-inverting amplifier is one of the most popular op amp circuits similar to Op amp

inverting amplifier circuit. It provides a gain to the input signal without any change in the

polarity. If a sine wave is fed to the input of this op amp non inverting amplifier, the output

will be an amplified sine wave with zero phase shift.

Here the input is applied to the non inverting terminal of the op amp. The non

inverting amplifier gain is given by the expression A=1+R3/R2 where R2 is the feedback

resistance and R3 is the input resistance. The input impedance of non-inverting amplifier is

extremely large, typically 100MΩ.

Working of Non- inverting Amplifier:-

The second basic configuration of an operational amplifier circuit is that of a Non-

inverting Amplifier. In this configuration, the input voltage signal, (Vin ) is applied

directly to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal which means that the output gain of

the amplifier becomes "Positive" in value. The result of this is that the output signal is

"in-phase" with the input signal.

Feedback control of the non-inverting amplifier is achieved by applying a small part

of the output voltage signal back to the inverting ( - ) input terminal via a R3- R2

voltage divider network, again producing negative feedback. This closed-loop

configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability, a

very high input impedance, R1 approaching infinity, as no current flows into the

positive input terminal, (ideal conditions) and a low output impedance, Rout as shown

below.

The working of non inverting amplifier is similar to that of inverting amplifier except

that the output has no phase shift here.

The resistors R2 and R3 form a voltage divider network.

A negative feedback is provided by applying a little of output voltage to the inverting

input terminal through the potential divider network R2 and R3.

The voltage gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratios of R3 and R2 since Gain,

A=1+R3/R2

So the amplitude of the output voltage signal can be varied by varying either of the

resistors R2 or R3

http://www.circuitsgallery.com/2012/04/op-amp-741-inverting-amplifier-circuit.html





Theory:-

• Closed loop configuration

1) Non-inverting amplifier

2) Inverting amplifier

3) Differential amplifier

1. Non-inverting amplifier

Non-inverting amplifier is voltage series feedback amplifier. The input signal is

given to the non-inverting terminal of op-amp & output signal is in same phase with input. So

it is called as non inverting amplifier.

• Closed loop voltage gain

The closed loop voltage gain is given by,

Af=Vo/Vin . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)

The output voltage Vo is given by,

Vo=A*(Vid)

=A*(V1-V2) . . . . . . . . . (2)

where V1=Vin

V2=Vf

Therefore feed back voltage Vf is given by,

Vf=(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo . . . . . . . . . . (3)



Therefore output voltage Vo is given by,

Vo=A*(Vin-Vf)

Vo=A*(Vin-R2*Vo/R2+Rf)

Vo(1+AR2/R2+Rf)=AVin

Vo/Vin=A/(R2+Rf+AR2/R2+Rf)

Af=A(R2+Rf)/(R2+Rf+AR2) . . . . .(4)

Generally A is very large.

Therfore AR2>>R2+Rf &

R2+Rf+AR2=AR2

Therefore Af=(R2+Rf)/R2

Af=1+Rf/R2 . . . . . . . . . . .(5)

The gain of voltage seriers feedback amplifier is determined by the two resistances R2& Rf.

• Closed loop voltage gain (Af) in terms of open loop gain(A)

The feedback voltage is given by,

Vf=(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo

Vf/Vo=R2/R2+Rf

Vf/Vo=B=R2/R2+Rf . . . . . . . . . . . .(6)

The closed loop gain (Af) is expressed as follows from Eq (4)

Af=A(R2+Rf)/(R2+Rf+AR2) . . . . . . (7)

Rearranging Eq (7),we get,

Af=A/(1+AB)

where B=R2/R2+Rf

• Input resistance with feedback

Input resistance of op-amp with feedback is the equivalent resistance which

observed from the non-inverting input.

Let Rf is the feedback resistance & Ri is the input resistance of op-amp.So the input

resistance of op-amp with feedback is given by,



Rif=Vin/Iin . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(8)

where Iin=Vid/Ri

Rif=Vin/(Vid/Ri) . . . . . . . . .(9)

However,

Vid=Vo/A & Vo=(A/1+AB)*Vin . . . . . .(10)

substitute the Eq (10) in Eq (9), we get,

Rif=Vin/(Vo/ARi)

=Ri*Vin/(Vo/A)

=Ri*Vin/((A/1+AB)*(Vin/A))

=Ri*(1+AB) . . . . . . . . .. . . (11)

So from Eq (11), we conclude that the input resistance of non-inverting amplifier with

feedback is (1+AB) times Ri.

• The output resistance (Ro) with feedback

The output resistance (Ro) wiyh feedback is the resistance that is observed backward

from the output terminal.

The analysis is done by using thevenin's theorem of circuit. In this the independant

source is reduced to zero and apply external voltage Vo and current Iois calculated.

Rof=Vo/Io . . .. . . . . . . .(12)

By applying kirchoff's current law,

Io=Ia+Ib . . . . . . . . .. . (13)

since (Rf+R2)||Ri>>Ro & Ia>>Ib

Therefore by applying kirchoff's voltage law for output loop,

vo-RoIo-AVid=0

Io=Vo-AVid/Ro . . . . . . . .(14)

However, Vid=V1-V2



where V1=0

V2=Vf

therefore Vid=-Vf

=-(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo

=-BVo . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)

substituting the value of Vid in Eq (14), we get,

Io=Vo-A(-BVo)/Ro

Io=Vo+ABVo/Ro . . . . . . . . (16)

substitute the value of Io from Eq (16) in Eq (12),

Rof=Vo/(Vo+ABVo/Ro)

=Ro/1+AB . . . . . . . . . . (17)

From Eq (17), we can conclude that the output resistance of voltage series

feedback amplifier is 1/1+AB times Ro.

Non-inverting amplifier circuit using Proteus

Components Required :

Name Description Number of components

required

IC IC 741 1

Multi cell

battery

Multi cell

battery(12V)

2

RES Resistor(10K) 3

PULSE As Input 1

GND Ground 1




Step 1:-Selection of components

1) Selection of OP-AMP:-

Activate component mode

Go to pick components (click on ‗P‘)

Type 741 in search section

Select IC 741

Place the component in circuit

2) Selection of Resistors:-

Again go to pick component section

And select three generic resistors

Place these 3 resistors in circuit at required place

Then go to edit properties by right clicking on that component

Set each resistor to 10 kilo ohm

3) Selection of batteries:-

Again go to pick component section

Then go to Miscellaneous

And select multi cell batteries

Place those batteries in circuit

Choosing edit properties option set batteries to 12V

4) Select sine generator from generator section

5) Do the connections (wiring)as per circuit diagram

6) Add voltage probe at the 6 th and pin of operational amplifier (741)

Step 2:-Simulation

Graph Analysis:-

Go to graphs option and select analogue

Drag that graph in circuit section

Insert voltage probe in graph section

Go to ‗add trace‘ and add the traces of input and output

Right click and activate simulate graph option

Repeat the same steps for noise , frequency , distortion analysis.



Conclusion:

we have studied operation of non-inverting amplifier. We have observed input and

output waveforms for the given gain parameter. Also with the help of analogue, frequency,

noise and distortion options and different graphs we have analysed the noninverting

amplifier.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 06

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Transient response analysis using RLC components.

Aim:

Design a simple circuit using RLC Component to observe transient response using

Proteus.

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of Transient Response of RLC Circuit

• To understand the circuit arrangement of Transient Response of RLC Circuit

• To understand the procedure of Transient Response of RLC Circuit circuit

using proteus.

• To observe the simulation of circuit

Outcomes:

• Able to study Transient Response of RLC Circuit.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Transient Response of RLC

Circuit.

• Able to understand the procedure of Transient Response of RLC Circuit in

proteus.

• Able to observe the simulation of circuit.





• To enable to innovate ,design and develop a variety of electronic and computer





Introduction-

An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit or CRL circuit or RCL circuit) is an electrical circuit

consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The

RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance,

inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current

and will resonate in a similar way as an LC circuit will. The main difference that the presence

of the resistor makes is that any oscillation induced in the circuit will die away over time if it

is not kept going by a source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of

the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency somewhat. Some resistance is

unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a component. A

pure LC circuit is an ideal which really only exists in theory.

There are many applications for this circuit. They are used in many different types

of oscillator circuits. Another important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or

television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient

radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can

be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter. The tuning

application, for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as

a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by

a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis

Circuit diagram –

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuit


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damping

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuner_(electronics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(radio)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_set

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-stop_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-pass_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation




The circuit arrangement of An RLC circuit as shown in fig. It uses one Resistor,

Inductor and Capacitor connected in series or in parallel. Output is taken across the capacitor

of 10uF.

Theory:

Transient response-

a transient response or natural response is the response of a system to a change from

equilibrium. The transient response is not necessarily tied to "on/off" events but to any event

that affects the equilibrium of the system. The impulse response and step response are

transient responses to a specific input (an impulse and a step, respectively

Plot showing underdamped and overdamped responses of a series RLC circuit. The critical

damping plot is the bold red curve. The plots are normalised for L=1, C=1 and

The differential equation for the circuit solves in three different ways depending on the value

of . These are underdamped ( ), overdamped ( ) and critically damped ( ). The

differential equation has the characteristic equation.

The roots of the equation in s are,

[6]

The general solution of the differential equation is an exponential in either root or a linear

superposition of both,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_response

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_response

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_differential_equation



The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined by the boundary conditions of the specific problem

being analysed. That is, they are set by the values of the currents and voltages in the circuit at

the onset of the transient and the presumed value they will settle to after infinite time.[7]

Properties-

Typical second order transient system properties

Rise time

Rise time refers to the time required for a signal to change from a specified low value

to a specified high value. Typically, these values are 10% and 90% of the step height.

Overshoot

Overshoot is when a signal or function exceeds its target. It is often associated with

ringing.

Settling time

Settling time is the time elapsed from the application of an ideal instantaneous step

input to the time at which the output has entered and remained within a specified error

band.

Delay time

The delay time is the time required for the response to reach half the final value the

very first time.

Peak time

The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of the

overshoot.

RLC circuit using Proteus

Components required:

Name Description Number of components

required

RES Resistor 1

CAP Capacitor 1

INDUC Inductor 1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_condition

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_time

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(signal)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringing_(signal)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settling_time

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Error_band&action=edit&redlink=1





PULSE As Input 1

GND Ground 1







6. Select the ‗graph mode‘ & choose analouge Analysis graph window.

7. Right click and select ‗add traces‘ (input & output trace).


9. Observe and analysis input & output waveforms.

Circuit Stimulation Using Proteus

RESULT



Conclusion:

We understand the transient response using RLC circuit in proteus software. We

observe the simulation of circuit & study the transient response.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 07

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Simulation of Astable Multivibrator using transistor using Proteus.

Aim:

Design & simulate the Astable Multivibrator using transistor.

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of Astable Multivibrator.

• To understand the circuit arrangement of Astable

Multivibrator

• To understand the procedure of Astable Multivibrator using transistor circuit

using proteus.

• To observe the waveforms and analyze the circuit

Outcomes:

• Able to study Astable Multivibrator using transistor.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Astable Multivibrator

• Able to understand the procedure of Astable Multivibrator using transistor

circuit using proteus.

• Able to observe the simulation and analysis of circuit.





• To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer



Introduction:

An astable multivibrator is a regenerative circuit consisting of two amplifying

stages connected in a positive feedback loop by two capacitive-resistive coupling networks.

The amplifying elements may be junction or field-effect transistors, vacuum tubes,operational

amplifier or other types of amplifier. The example diagram shows bipolar junction transistors.



The circuit is usually drawn in a symmetric form as a cross-coupled pair. Two

output terminals can be defined at the active devices, which will have complementary states;

one will have high voltage while the other has low voltage, (except during the brief

transitions from one state to the other)

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Operation:

The circuit has two stable states that change alternatively with maximum transition

rate because of the "accelerating" positive feedback. It is implemented by the coupling

capacitors that instantly transfer voltage changes because the voltage across a capacitor

cannot suddenly change. In each state, one transistor is switched on and the other is switched

off. Accordingly, one fully charged capacitor discharges (reverse charges) slowly thus

converting the time into an exponentially changing voltage. At the same time, the other

empty capacitor quickly charges thus restoring its charge (the first capacitor acts as a time-

setting capacitor and the second prepares to play this role in the next state). The circuit

operation is based on the fact that the forward-biased base-emitter junction of the switched-

on bipolar transistor can provide a path for the capacitor restoration

State 1 (Q1 is switched on, Q2 is switched off):

In the beginning, the capacitor C1 is fully charged (in the previous State 2) to the

power supply voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q1 is on and connects the left-

hand positive plate of C1 to ground. As its right-hand negative plate is connected to Q2 base,

a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2 firmly off. C1 begins

discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R2, so that the voltage of its



right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. As Q2

base-emitter junction is backward-biased, it does not conduct, so all the current from R2 goes

into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the

previous State 2) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R4 and Q1 forward-

biased base-emitter junction (because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2

restores its charge and prepares for the next State 2 when it will act as a time-setting

capacitor. Q1 is firmly saturated in the beginning by the "forcing" C2 charging current added

to R3 current; in the end, only R3 provides the needed input base current. The resistance R3

is chosen small enough to keep Q1 (not deeply) saturated after C2 is fully charged.

When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and

reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction begins diverting a part of R2 charging current. Q2

begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process as follows. Q2

collector voltage begins falling; this change transfers through the fully charged C2 to Q1 base

and Q1 begins cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising; this change transfers back

through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2 conduct more thus sustaining the

initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input change circulates along the feedback

loop and grows in an avalanche-like manner until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on.

The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V

and does not allow it to continue rising toward +V.

State 2 (Q1 is switched off, Q2 is switched on):

Now, the capacitor C2 is fully charged (in the previous State 1) to the power supply

voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q2 is on and connects the right-hand positive

plate of C2 to ground. As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base, a maximum

negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly off. C2 begins discharging

(reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R3, so that the voltage of its left-hand plate

(and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. Simultaneously, C1 that

is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly

charges via the low-value collector resistor R1 and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction

(because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges faster than C2). Thus C1 restores its charge and

prepares for the next State 1 when it will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on...

(the next explanations are a mirror copy of the second part of Step 1).

Output pulse shape

The output voltage has a shape that approximates a square waveform. It is

considered below for the transistor Q1.

During State 1, Q2 base-emitter junction is backward-biased and the capacitor C1 is

"unhooked" from ground. The output voltage of the switched-on transistor Q1 changes

rapidly from high to low since this low-resistive output is loaded by a high impedance load

(the series connected capacitor C1 and the high-resistive base resistor R2).

During State 2, Q2 base-emitter junction is forward-biased and the capacitor C1 is "hooked"

to ground. The output voltage of the switched-off transistor Q1 changes exponentially from

/l

/l



low to high since this relatively high resistive output is loaded by a low impedance load (the

capacitance C1). This is the output voltage of R1C1 integrating circuit.

To approach the needed square waveform, the collector resistors have to be low resistance.

The base resistors have to be low enough to make the transistors saturate in the end of the

restoration (RB < β.RC).

Astable Multivibrator using transistor circuit using proteus.

Component:


components required

RES Resistor 4

CAP Capacitor 2

VDC Dc voltage

source

1

TRANS. Transistor 2

GND Ground 1







4. Right clik the component properties to change the required value



7. Right click in the graph window and elect add traces(input & output trace).



CIRCUIT SIMULATION USING PROTES

RESULT



Conclusion:

We can understand the working of Astable Multivibrator . By using proteus we

can observe the simulation of circuit & analyse the waveforms taken across capacitor C2.

Astable multivibrator has no stable state. It generates square wave of predetermined

frequency. Hence it is a square wave generator.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 08

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Simulation of Astable Multivibrator using 555 using Proteus.

Aim:

Design & stimulate the Astable Multivibrator using 555.

Objectives:

To understand principal of working of Astable Multivibrator.

To understand the circuit arrangement of Astable

Multivibrator

To study Astable Multivibrator using IC 555.

To understand the procedure of ―Astable Multivibrator using IC 555‖ circuit

using proteus.


Outcomes:

Able to study Astable Multivibrator using IC 555.

Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Astable Multivibrator

Able to understand the procedure of ―Astable Multivibrator using IC 555‖




To enable student to analyse solve electronics engineering problem by applying



To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer





Introduction:

Astable Multivibrator can be designed by using 555 timer IC, Op Amps and also

using transistors. The 555 IC provide accurate time delay from mille seconds to hours. The

frequency of oscillation can be controlled manually by simple modification. It suitable for

circuit designers with a relatively stable, cheap, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both

monostableandAstableapplications.

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the

SE555/NE555. This is a simple 555 timer circuit project.

Astable Multivibrator is simply an oscillator circuit that produces continuous pulses. The

frequency can be controlled by changing the values of R1, R2 and C1. You can construct

Astable multivibrator using transistors also, but the 555 circuit is comparatively simple.

we have to design the Astable Multivibrator using proteus. It is easy to design on the

proteus.

The Astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is

determined by the circuit external to IC 555. The Astable multivibrator does not require any

external trigger to change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The

time during which the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a

capacitor which are externally connected to the 555 timer.

http://www.circuitsgallery.com/2012/03/astable-multivibrator-using-transistors.html



Circuit Diagram:

INTERNAL DIAGRAM OF IC 555




The circuit arrangement of Astable Multivibrator as shown in fig. It uses one IC

555 as an Astable multivibrator. In this type of arrangement two resistors and two capacitors

are used, the output is taken across pin no 3 of IC 555 as shown in figure.

Theory:

The circuit diagram for the Astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown here.

The astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by the

circuit external to IC 555. The Astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger to

change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The time during which

the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor which are

externally connected to the 555 timer.

The above figure shows the 555 timer connected as an Astable multivibrator.

Initially when the output is high capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through RA and RB.

However as soon as the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc ,

comparator1 triggers the flip-flop and the output switches to low state.

Now capacitor C discharges through RB and the transistor Q1. When voltage

across C equals 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2‘s output triggers the flip- flop and the output goes high.

Then the cycle repeats. The capacitor is periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 Vcc

and 1/3 Vcc respectively. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc

is equal to the time the output remains high and is given by

Tc =0.693(RA+RB)C

Where, RA and RB are in ohms and C is in Farads. Similarly the time during which

the capacitor discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc is equal to the time the output is low and is

given by

td =0.693(RB) C

Thus the total time period of the output waveform is

T=td+td=0.693(RA+2RB) C

Therefore the frequency of oscillation

f=1/T=1.45/ (RA+2RB) C

The output frequency, f is independent of the supply voltage Vcc



Working of Astable Multivibrator:

Principle of working:

The Astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by

the circuit external to IC 555. The Astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger

to change the state of the output. The time during which the output is either high or low is

determined by the two resistors and a capacitor which are externally connected to the 555

timer.

Consider the flip flop is initially cleared, when the power is switched on, then the

output of inverter will be HIGH.

Now the capacitor C1 starts charging through R1 and R2. (Discharge transistor Q1 is

OFF)

When the capacitor voltage exceeds 2/3 Vcc, the upper comparator output will be

High, it Reset the control flip flop.

So the Q output of control flip flop will be LOW and Q‘ will be High. So the final

output from Inverter is LOW

At the same time, the discharge transistor Q1 turns ON and the capacitor starts

discharge through R2

When the capacitor voltage less than 1/3 Vcc, the lower comparator output will be

high, then the control flip flop get set to High. (Q=1, Q‘=0, Final output=1)

Now the discharge transistor Q1 if OFF and then capacitor starts charging. This

process continues.

The LED connected at the output will glows according to the output status.

4th pin is Reset pin, a Low voltage at this pin resets the IC. The Low signal is applied

to the base terminal of reset transistor Q2. Then it turns ON followed by Discharge

capacitor Q1 and capacitor discharges.



Charging Discharging

Resetting

Advantages and Disadvantages of Astable Multivibrator:

(i)Advantages:

1. It is easy and quick to design an Astable using a 555 (also easy to troubleshoot).

2. The 555 timer can source or sink large amounts of current (some handle200mA).

3. It may require fewer devices or connections (1 IC, a cap and two resistors).

4. The 555 may have less frequency drift with temperature changes.

5. Some 555 timers have a wide input voltage range (3.5 to 18V).

555s have a large frequency range.

(ii)Disadvantages:

1.A disadvantage of the 555 is a poor rise and fall time which may cause problems for some

edge-triggered devices.

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cXurU2cWhsk/TzYc_NrvLMI/AAAAAAAAAn8/wNk28NiFfwU/s1600/555+Timer+IC+Block+Diagram+During+Charging.jpg

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rnq1suUvPy0/TzYdHMXAABI/AAAAAAAAAoE/ejpwq8h38M4/s1600/555+Timer+IC+Block+Diagram+During+discharge.jpg

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-L9lZKj_HhqE/TzYdNvLkdeI/AAAAAAAAAoM/zCJ64E3V-U0/s1600/555+Timer+IC+Block+Diagram+Resetting.jpg



Astable Multivibrator using IC 555 circuit using proteus.

Component:


components required

RES Resistor 2

CAP Capacitor 2

555 Timer 1

VDC Dc voltage

source

1

GND Ground 3

Specifications:

The most important characteristics which are required to be specified for a circuit are

given below :

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum) 200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature













CIRCUIT SIMULATION



Result

Conclusion:

We can understand the working of Astable Multivibrator as well as the

detailed circuit of IC 555.By using proteus we can observe the simulation of circuit & study

the waveforms taken across pin no.3 of IC 555.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 09

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Simulate simple RC circuit using AC sweep analysis.

Aim:

To simulate RC circuit (low pass filter) using Ac sweep analysis.

Objectives:

• To understand principal of working of RC circuit.

• To understand the circuit arrangement of RC circuit.

• To study simple RC circuit using Ac sweep analysis.

• To understand the procedure of simple RC circuit using Ac sweep circuit

using proteus.

• To observe the simulation of circuit.

Outcomes:

• Able to understand principal of working of simple RC circuit.

• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of simple RC circuit.

• Able to study simple RC circuit using Ac sweep analysis.

• Able to understand the procedure of simple Rc circuit using Ac sweep analysis


• Able to observe the simulation of circuit.

Program Education Objective(s) (PEO) Satisfied: 2, 3





based components and system for applications including signal processing,

communication, and computer network and control system.

Principle:

An simple RC circuit in which output taken across capacitor ‘c’. At low frequencies capacitor

will occur maximum reactance hence acts as an open circuit. Resulting in transferring low

frequency signal to the output at high frequencies capacitive reactance is negligible hence it

act as an short transfer to the output.



Circuit Diagram:


The circuit arrangement of simple RC circuit as shown in fig. it consists of resister

and capacitor. Output taken across capacitor as shown in fig. in these circuit Vr is voltage

across resister and Vc is voltage across capacitor.

Theory:

A capacitor is a device for storing charge. The ability of a capacitor to hold a charge is

measured by its capacitance C. For a capacitor, Q = CV, where Q is the charge on one of the

capacitor plates, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and V is the potential difference

maintained across the capacitor plates. The unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), where one

Farad equals one Coulomb per volt (1F = 1C/V).

If a capacitor is connected to a battery, it will cause a charge +Q to develop on one plate and

a charge -Q to develop on the other. If the battery is removed from the circuit the capacitor is

connected to a resistor, then the capacitor will discharge through the resistor. The voltage

across the resistor is given by V = IR, where I is the current through the resistor at a given

time, and R is the resistance of the resistor. Since V = Q/C, = we can also write

I = V/R = Q/RC

As the capacitor discharges, Q becomes smaller, and I also become smaller.

The current at any time t is given by:

I = I0e-t/RC

= I0e-t/τ

Where I0 = initial value of the current, ti = time elapsed in seconds since the discharging

began τ = RC = capacitive time constant for the RC circuit, and e = 2.71828... .

AC Sweep:

In simple RC circuit we can apply AC sweep. For Ac sweep analysis is nothing but it is

going to calculate to frequency response of the circuit. over range of frequencies the

frequency response is nothing but the magnitude Vs frequency and phase Vs frequency. If



the frequency is double it is called an octave. If the frequency is increased by the factor of

10 it is called as decay increase. The decade increase in frequency the magnitude changes by

-20 and the slope of magnitude block is -20db/dc there are different type of sweep analysis.

We have to consider following certain parameter in the frequency sweep. i.e. starting

frequency and ending frequency. We have to specify the scale both linear, octave and

decade.

• Linear sweep :

The frequency is sweep linearly from the starting frequency to the

ending frequency with a step (number of step) the next frequency generated by a

constant to a present value.

• Octave sweep :

The frequency is sweep logarithmically by octave the next frequency is

generated by octave the next frequency is generated by multiplying a present value

by a constant the larger than the unity octal sweep is use when frequency range is

wide.

• Decade sweep :

The frequency is sweep logarithmically by decade. Decade is used if

frequency range is widest.

How to do the AC Sweep Analysis using Proteus Simulation Tool?

Introduction:

• AC sweep analysis is nothing but a frequency response analysis.

• It is a linear analysis (small-signal analysis).

• It means it only considers the gain and phase response of the circuit; it does not limit

voltages or currents.

• The non linear devices (like transistor amplifier) must be liberalized to run the

analysis. To do this conversion, we have to

a. Compute the DC bias point for the circuit

b. Compute the complex impedance and/or transconductance values for each value for

each device at this bias point.

c. Perform the linear circuit analysis at the frequencies of interest by using simplifying

approximations.

• The Proteus tool will take care of all these activities.ie,

• The Proteus tool calculates the small-signal response of the circuit to a combination of

inputs by transforming it around the bias point and treating it as a linear circuit.



Working of a Simple RC Circuit:

When the toggle switch is in the open position shown in the diagram, the capacitor is

not connected the Electromotive Force, emf, and, unless the capacitor was previously

charged, there will be no charges stored in the capacitor (i.e., q = 0) and the potential

difference between the plates of the capacitor will correspondingly be zero as well.

If the switch is toggled so that it connects the capacitor to the Electromotive Force,

charges will tend to accumulate on the plates of the capacitor, + on one plate, _ on the

other. This will continue until the accumulated charge creates a potential difference

(Vc) between the two plates that is numerically equal to the electromotive force. That

is, when:

Vc = ,

Current flow through the connecting wires will cease (i.e., I = 0).

When the switch is toggled to its alternate position, (i) the emf is bypassed, (ii) the

two plates of the capacitor are connected, and (iii) the charges stored on the capacitor

will tend to pass through the connecting wire to the opposite plate. In other words,

the charged capacitor will discharge.

There are 2 important things to remember about the electrical properties of R-C

circuits:

1. When the capacitor (C) is fully charged, the following relationship

holds:

q = C Equation 1a

Where q is the total amount of charge stored by the capacitor, C is the capacitance of

the capacitor, and is the electromotive force that is actually charging the capacitor.

Note that q = 0 when the capacitor is discharged. Also note that the equation may be

rearranged thus:

q/C = = Vc Equation 1b

Meaning that placing excess + on one plate of the capacitor and excess – on the other

plate will generate a potential difference between the plates.

2. Because of the presence of a resistance (R) in the circuit, current flow through the

circuit is slowed. As a result, changing the amount of charge stored on the plates of

the capacitor requires time. For example, if you were to start with a completely



discharged capacitor (i.e., q = 0 and Vc = 0) and connect it to a battery, the charging

of the capacitor would be described by an exponential equation,

qt = C(1 e-t/RC

) Equation 2a

And if C = 1, = 10 and R = 1, the graph of qt vs. time would look like this:

Simple RC Circuit using AC sweep circuit using proteus.

Component:

Name Components Used Description Number of

components required

RES RC05 Resistor 2

CAP CAP Capacitor 2

GND SMB_SPL0 Ground 3




• From main page of Proteus, click on ‗P‘ to click device from library.

• In pick device, insert the component which has to be selected & click on ‗OK‘.

• Place the all components on the Proteus screen.

• Right click and select edit properties & select the proper value.

• Add voltage probe at input and output of circuit.

• Select the graph mode then add trace in graph window.

• Right click & select add traces (input & output trace).

• Right click & activate simulation graph

• Observe the input & output waveforms.

CIRCUIT SIMULATION USING PROTEUS



Conclusion:

We can conclude that ac sweep analysis is a linear analysis; it only considers

the gain and phase response of the circuit. It gives linear frequency response. The

frequency is swept linearly from the starting frequency to the ending frequency with

a step the next frequency generated by a constant to a present value.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 10

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Fourier and Audio analysis using Proteus

Aim:

To study Fourier & Audio analysis using Proteus.

Objectives:

To understand principal of working of Fourier Transform

To understand the circuit arrangement of Fourier Transform

To understand the concept of Fourier Transform using proteus.

To observe the simulation of circuit and analyze using Fourier Transform.

Outcomes:

Students will be able to study Fourier Transform.

Students will be able to understand the concept of Fourier Transform

Students will be able to observe the simulation of circuit using Fourier Transform and

its application.

Programme Educational Objective (PEO) Satisfied : 2,3

To enable student to analyse, solve electronics engineering problem by applying

basic principles of mathematics , sciences and engineering and also be able to use

modern engineering techniques , skills and tools to fulfill social needs

To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer based

components and system for applications including signal processing , communication

, computer network and control system.

Theory:-

Development of Fourier Transform From Fourier Series:-

The exponential form of Fourier series representation of a periodic signal is given by,

x(t)= 𝑐+∞−∞ n𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡

....1

Where,

x(t)= 1

𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑇2

−𝑇2

𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 d(t) ….2



In the Fourier representation using equation (1), the Cn for various values of

n are the spectral components of the signal x(t), located at intervals of fundamental frequency

𝛺. Therefore the frequency spectrum is discrete in nature.

The Fourier representation of a signal using equation (1) is applicable for

periodic signals. For Fourier representation of non periodic signals, let us consider that the

fundamental period tends to infinity, the fundamental frequency Ω tends to zero or becomes

very small. Since fundamental frequency Ω is very small, the spectral components will lie

very close to each other and so the frequency spectrum becomes continuous.

In order obtain the Fourier representation of non -periodic signal let us

consider that the fundamental frequency Ω0 is very small.

Let,

Ω0→ ∆ Ω0 .

On replacing Ω0 by ∆ Ω0 in equation (1) we get,

x(t)= 𝑐+∞−∞ n𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡

On substituting for Cn in the above equation (2). (By taking Ƭ as dummy variable for

integration ) .

we get,

x(t)= .+∞𝑛=−∞ [

1

𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑇2

−𝑇2

𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 d(t)] 𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ……(3).

We know that,

Ω0 =2𝜋f0=2𝜋

𝑇 ; ∴

1

𝑇=

Ω

2𝜋 …(4)

Since,

Ω0→ ∆ Ω0 . 1

𝑇=

Ω

2𝜋

On substituting for 1

𝑇 from equation (4) in equation (3) we get ,

x(t)= .+∞𝑛=−∞ [

1

𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑇2

−𝑇2

𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 d(t)] 𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 .

x(t)=1

2𝜋 .+∞

𝑛=−∞ [1

𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑇2

−𝑇2

𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 d(t)] 𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ∆ Ω.

Ω The fundamental period T tends to infinity. On letting limit T tends

to infinity in the above equation we get,



x (t)= 𝑡𝐿𝑡 ∞

1

2𝜋 .+∞

𝑛=−∞ [1

𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑇2

−𝑇2

𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 d(t)] 𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ∆ .

When T ∞ ; Σ ∫ ; ∆ Ω Ω.

x (t)= ( 𝑥(Ƭ)+∞

−∞

+∞

−∞𝑒−𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 dƬ ) 𝑒𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡

dΩ. …..(5)

x(t)= 𝑥(𝑗+∞

−∞Ω) 𝑒𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡

dΩ.

X(jΩ)= 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝑛∞𝑡+∞

−∞ dƬ …(6)

The equation (6) Fourier transform of x (t) and equation (5) is inverse

Fourier transform of x (t).

Since the equation (6) extracts the frequency component of the signal ,

transformation using equation (6) is also called as analysis of the signal x (t).Since the

equation (5) combines frequency components of the signal , the inverse transformation using

equation (5) is also called as synthesis of the signal x (t).

Definition of fourier transform :_-

Let, x (t) = Continuous time signal

X (jΩ) = Fourier transform of x(t)

The Fourier transform of continuous time signal, X(t) is defined as,

X(jΩ)= 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒−𝑗Ωt 𝐷𝑡+∞

−∞

Also, x(jΩ) is denoted as Fx(t) where ―F‖ is symbol used to denote the Fourier transform

operation.

𝐹𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)+∞

−∞𝑒−𝑗Ωtdt

Note:-Sometimes the Fourier Transform is expressed as a function of cylic frequency F,

rather than radian frequency Ω .The Fourier transform as a function of cyclic frequency F, is

defined as,

X(jF)= 𝑥(𝑡)+∞

−∞𝑒−𝑗2FПtdt

Condition for Existence of Fourier Transform :-

The Fourier transform of x(t) exists if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition.

1.The x(t) be absolutely integrable .

i.e. 𝑥 𝑡 < ∞+∞

−∞



2.The x(t) should have a finite number of Maxima and minima within any finite interval.

3. The x(t) can have a finite number of discontinuities within any interval.

Definition of inverse Fourier Transform:-

The inverse fourier transform of X(j )is defined as,

X(t)=F-1 X jΩ =1

2П 𝑋 𝑗Ω 𝑒𝑗Ω𝑡𝑑

+∞

−∞Ω

The signals x(t) and X(j) are called Fourier Transform pair and can be expressed as shown

below,

x(t)𝐹 𝑋(𝑗Ω)

Note:-

When Fourier transform is expressed as a function of cyclic frequency F,the inverse Fourier

transform is defined as,

X(t)=𝐹−1 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑥(𝑗𝐹)+∞

−∞𝑒𝑗2FПtdF

Frequency spectrum using Fourier Transform:-

The X(jΩ) is a complex function of Ω .Hence it can be expressed as a sum of real part and

imaginary part as given below.

X(jΩ)=𝑋𝑟 𝑗Ω + 𝑗𝑋 𝑗Ω

where ,

𝑋𝑟 𝑗Ω = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑋(𝑗Ω)

𝑋𝑖 𝑗Ω = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑋(𝑗Ω)

The magnitude of X(jΩ) is called Magnitude Spectrum.

Magnitude Spectrum, 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑋𝑟2(𝑗Ω) + 𝑋𝑖

2(𝑗Ω)

Or

Magnitude spectrum , 𝑋(𝑗Ω) = 𝑋 𝑗Ω 𝑋∗(𝑗Ω)

where , 𝑋∗ 𝑗Ω = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋(𝑗Ω)

The phase of X(jΩ) is called Phase spectrum.



Phase spectrum=<𝑋 𝑗Ω = tan−1 𝑋𝑖 𝑗Ω

𝑋𝑟 𝑗Ω

The magnitude spectrum will always have even symmetry and phase spectrum will

have Odd symmetry .The magnitude and phase spectrum together called Frequency spectrum.





4. Right click the component properties to change the required value

5. Add voltage probe at input and output circuit points.

6. Select the graph mode & choose Fourier & Audio analysis option.

7. Right click in the graph window and select add traces (input & output trace).

8. Right click & activate simulate graphs.

9. Observe output waveforms and analysis the results.

Circuit Simulation



Fourier analsis:-

Audio analysis:-

Conclusion:

We have understood the concept of Fourier Transform and audio analysis.We

can observe from waveforms that Fourier Transform is useful to find out major spectral

components from the given signals.





Budhgaon-416304


Circuit Simulation

Experiment No. : 11

Name of Experiment:

Roll Number :

Date Performed :

Date Checked :

Signature

(Batch In-charge)



Title:

Study of Decade Counter using IC 7490

Aim:

To study Decade Counter using IC-7490

Objectives:

To understand principal of working of decade counter using IC 7490.

To understand the circuit arrangement decade counter using IC 7490.

To understand the procedure of ―decade counter using IC7490‖ using proteus.


Outcomes:

Able to understand principal of working of decade counter using IC 7490

circuit.

Able to understand the circuit arrangement of decade counter using IC7490

circuit.

Able to understand the procedure of decade counter using IC7490 circuit using

proteus.


Programme Educational Objective (PEO) Satisfied : 2,3

To enable student to analyse, solve electronics engineering problem by applying

basic principles of mathematics , sciences and engineering and also be able to use

modern engineering techniques , skills and tools to fulfill social needs

To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer based

components and system for applications including signal processing , communication

, computer network and control system.

Theory:

A circuit used for counting the pulses is known as a Counter. Basically there

are two types of counter:

1. Asynchronous counter (ripple counter)

2. Synchronous counter

In case of asynchronous counter all the flip-flops are not clocked simultaneously,

whereas ,in a Synchronous counter all the flip-flops are clocked simultaneously. A Ring

counter and twisted ring counter is the examples of synchronous counter.



Figure below shows the internal structure of 7490.

Fig1. Internal Structure of 7490

It consists of four flip-flop internally connected to provide a mod-2 and a mod-5

Counter. The mod-2 and mod-5counters can be used independently or in Combination. There

are two reset inputs R1and R2 both of which are to be connected to logic 1level for clearing

all the flip-flops. The two inputs S1 and s2 when Connected to logic 1 level, are used for

setting the counter to 1001.

The 7490 integrated circuit counts the number of pulses arriving at its input.The

number of pulses counted (up to 9) appears in binary form on four pins of the ic.When the

tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and a single pulse

appears at another output pin.

So for ten pulses in there is one pulse out of this pin. The 7490 therefore divides

the frequency of the input by ten.If this pulse is applied to the input of a second 7490 then

this second ic will count the pulses from the first ic. It will give one pulse out after 100 pulses

have been applied to the first ic.The 7490 can be connected to divide by other values.

Pin Diagram

Circuit Diagram of Decade Counter



Decade Counter Truth Table

Clock

Count

Output bit Pattern Decimal

Value QD QC QB QA

1 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 1 1

3 0 0 1 0 2

4 0 0 1 1 3

5 0 1 0 0 4

6 0 1 0 1 5

7 0 1 1 0 6

8 0 1 1 1 7

9 1 0 0 0 8

10 1 0 0 1 9

11 Counter Resets its Outputs back to Zero



Timing diagram of decade counter

Advantages of decade counter

1. Decade counter are easier to design.

2. With all clock inputs wired together there is no inherent propagation delay.

3. Overall faster operation may be achieved compared to any counters

4. Decade counter are faster and more reliable as they use the same clock signal for all flip-

flops.

Disadvantages of decade Counters:

1. An extra "re-synchronizing" output flip-flop may be required.

2. To count a truncated sequence not equal to 2n, extra feedback logic is required.

3. Counting a large number of bits, propagation delay by successive stages may become

undesirably large.

4. This delay gives them the nickname of "Propagation Counters".

5. Counting errors occur at high clocking frequencies. Components:- IC 7490, IC

7447,resistors.













Decade Counter using proteus

Result



Conclusion:

We understand that the 7490 integrated circuit counts the number of pulses arriving

at its input. The number of pulses counted (up to 9) appears in binary form on four pins of

the IC When the tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and

a single pulse appears at another output pin.

proteus lab manual.pdf

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