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Barriers to IndependenceCommunicationInitiation*Generalization*Prompt Dependence*Behavior

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* (Hume, Loftin, & Lantz,2009, p. 1329)

CommunicationExpressive abilities ArticulationDelays in processingReceptive understanding


InitiationPlanning

Motor-preparing for/anticipating movementPlanning steps of activity or appropriate response

Processing SpeedAttention to relevant environmental cues/stimuliMotivation-is it worth it to try and initiate?Unclear expectationsNeed to specifically teach, prompt, & reinforce

this skill


* (Hume, Loftin, & Lantz,2009, p. 1330-31)

GeneralizationTrain and HopeOvergeneralize

Take one skill and apply it to inappropriate circumstances

Client learns hand motion for round and round and starts to do that in other settings/times that it is not appropriate

Faulty stimulus controlTarget behavior comes under the restricted

control of an irrelevant antecedent stimulusClient says red when he says a card with a

bent [email protected] www.beautifulmindsofprinceton.com 13

(Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007)

Prompt DependenceOver-reliance or dependence on adult supportCan be especially difficult when having 1:1

supportClient may not exhibit the behavior without some

form of a promptIn some cases, clients will guide adults to prompt

them indicating the client considers it part of the response

Also be aware of the client relying on adults for reinforcement rather than delivering it themselves


Behavior Inappropriate behaviorLack of appropriate behavior

Can overlap with other barriersMore of a positivity or lack of desired behavior

(e.g. not typically inappropriate, but not greeting others at job)

Little to no motivation

© BMOP 2011 www.beautifulmindsofprinceton.com 15

CommunicationNever to old to start teaching/shaping

communicationLook at latency- teach to fluency (quick & correct)Use of visual supports to communicate or

understandFinding means to communicate receptively Can work on articulation goals or consider teaching

a way to ask people if they understand or a way to augment communication with gestures/visuals

Technology can be very useful in facilitating all this


Self-MonitoringConsists of four steps

Choosing and defining target behavior (operational)

Deciding on system of self-monitoringIdentifying reinforcementTeaching individual system of self-monitoringTeaching self-management independence

Initially you may want to consider adding a bonus and/or have individual check-in with adult

Gradually release to individual


* (Hume, Loftin, & Lantz,2009, p. 1332)

Video Modeling (VM)VM involves watching a video demonstration and then imitating

the behavior of the model Models can be:

Self (video self-modeling) Positive self-review (PSR)

Edit video clips to show client engaging in appropriate behavior

Edit video clips to show client showing inappropriate behavior

Video feedforward takes skills client possesses and sequences them

correctly takes skills client can do with prompts, and edit out the

promptsPeer, Adult, Point of View modeling (seeing through

someone’s eyes)

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Integrated Work SystemsComponent of the TEACCH programVisually organized space Individuals independently practice skills that have

been previously mastered under the direct supervision of an adult.

A work system visually communicates at least four pieces of information to the client:

1. The tasks the client is supposed to do2. How much work there is to be completed3. How the client knows he/she is

finished/progress4. What to do he/she is finished?


Integrated Work SystemsSimilar to activity schedules but…Work systems do not require matching or

sequencing skillsInstead, work systems may use a ‘‘left-to-right’’

format where clients complete all activities placed to their left (in any order), and move them to ‘‘finished’’ location on the right

Strong emphasis of teaching concept of finished as a motivational tool

Requires well-organized and structured work space with few distractions that compete for a client’s attention.


Some Research Results


Increase in on-task behavior (including generalization not just during integrated work systems)

Decrease in adult promptingGeneralization of skills from special

education to general educationReducing latency between instruction

Strategy UseIssues of planning, problem-solving, goal

settingWork on not only what but HOWStrategies to consider teaching

Goal settingProblem-solving (including what to do if 1st try

fails)Self-advocacy


Time/Prompting AidsTime Timer

Visual representation of timeWith and without beepStand alone or watch

Motivaider Stand alone or clip on

Vibralite Vibrating WatchSmartphones


Guidelines to Facilitate GeneralizationTeach target behavior in natural settingTrain across individualsTrain in variety of settingsQuickly shift between artificial cues and

reinforcers to natural cues and reinforcersTransition from CRF to intermittent

reinforcementIncrease delays in delivery of reinforcementReinforce generalization

(Zirpoli & Melloy, 1993)

(Alberto & Troutman, 2009)

Generalization This is not an exhaustive list and there are

more strategies to considerIntroduce to Natural Maintaining

ContingenciesProgram common stimuli

Including typical features of the generalization setting into the instructional setting

Teach looselyRandomly varying noncritical aspects of the

instructional setting within and across teaching sessions


(Alberto & Troutman, 2009; Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007)

Training for GeneralizationTrain Sufficient Exemplars

General Case Programming: emphasizes using sufficient members of a class of stimuli to ensure that clients will be able to perform the task on any member of the class of stimuli

Using Multiple Settings, Teachers, and Activities: evidence that training in a variety of settings generalizes the skills taught to novel settings

Teaching the learner to respond to a subset of all of the possible stimulus & response examples then assessing the learner’s performance on untrained examples (referred to as a generalization probe)


Training for GeneralizationUse Indiscriminable Contingencies

Employ thin intermittent schedules of reinforcement

Make it difficult for the client to determine when contingencies of reinforcement are to occur.

Train to Generalize: Increase probability by reinforcing

generalization as a response class Lag schedule of reinforcement –

teacher provides reinforcement only for responses that are different from the previous response


Needs to ConsiderInadvertent prompts

Eye gazeSlight gestures (hands, head)Body language (orientation, leaning)

Over-preparing the environment (stimulus prompts)Getting everything out for individualPutting everything away for individual

Too helpful (time delays)Jumping in immediately


PromptingIn this case we are discussing prompts given after an

incorrect response is madeThis different than an Sd (usually a verbal command)When initially teaching a skill, it may be appropriate

to use a most-to-prompting strategy. With a client with prompt dependency issues, least to

most is recommendedLeast-to-Most

Written/VisualGestural (e.g. pointing)Model (show the individual what to do)Faded Physical Physical


Verbal PromptingIn general, verbal prompts should only be

used when a verbal response is required. Least-to-most

Written/VisualGestural (facial cues or expressions, tapping

lips)Faded verbal first soundFaded verbal wordsVerbal prompt


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Function of BehaviorLook at the function (why the behavior is

occurring)Four main functions

AttentionEscape/AvoidanceSensoryTangible (wants to get an item)

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Competing BehaviorsBuild plan around hypothesis statementIdentify desired and alternative behaviorsWork to make behavior

Irrelevant (antecedent) Inefficient (teaching new skills)Ineffective (consequence)

A way to brainstorm strategies to address the problem behavior at different stages


Other ConsiderationsReinforcement- needs to be individualized

and appropriateAllow for choice-making whenever possibleConsider individual preferences when

appropriateTake into account strengths and weaknessesFind a way to measure if the

intervention/plan is working. Can’t just rely on anecdotal info


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