Programming Interface

Main Points

• Process Concept• Creating and managing processes

– fork, exec, wait• Communicating between processes• Example: implementing a shell

Objectives• To introduce the notion of a process --

a program in execution, which forms the basis of all computation

• To describe the various features of processes, including scheduling, creation and termination, and communication

Process vs. Program• Review:

– Program

• Process is an instance of an executing program.

• Relationship:– Program can create many processes– Many processes can be running the same program

Process Concept

• An operating system executes a variety of programs:

– Batch system – jobs– Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks

• Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably

Operating System View of Process

• At start of process, the Operating System’s duties include:– Load program into memory– Allocate memory for program data– Set up kernel bookkeeping:

Process ID Priority User IDs Process State

Address of executing instruction

Address of return instruction

Typical Process Layout

• Libraries provide the glue between user processes and the OS– libc linked in with all C

programs– Provides printf, malloc,

and a whole slew of other routines necessary for programs

OBJECT1OBJECT2

Stack

Heap

Data

Text

HELLO WORLDGO BIG RED CS!

printf(char * fmt, …) { create the string to be printed SYSCALL 80}malloc() { … }strcmp() { … }

main() { printf (“HELLO WORLD”); printf(“GO BIG RED CS”);! Program

Library

Activation Records

Stack and Stack Framessquare (int x){ return x*x }

doCalc(int val) { printf (“square is %d\n”,

square(val) }

main (int x, int y) { key = 9999

doCalc (key) }

STACK

Frames for C run-time start up functions

Frame for main

Frame for doCalc

Frame for square

Process in Memory

Full System Layout

• The OS is omnipresent and steps in where necessary to aid application execution– Typically resides in high

memory

• When an application needs to perform a privileged operation, it needs to invoke the OS

OBJECT1OBJECT2

Stack

HeapDataHELLO WORLD

GO BIG RED CS!printf(char * fmt, …) {

main() { … }

Program

Library

Activation Records

USER OBJECT1OBJECT2

OS Stack

OS HeapOS DataLINUX

syscall_entry_point() { … }

OS Text

Kernel Activation Records

Process State

• As a process executes, it changes state– new: The process is being created– running: Instructions are being executed– waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur– ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor– terminated: The process has finished execution

Diagram of Process State

Process Creation

Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes

UNIX examples fork system call creates new process

Child process is almost an exact duplicate of parent processexec system call used after a fork to replace the process’

memory space with a new program

Process Creation (Cont)

• Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)

• Resource sharing– Parent and children share all resources– Children share subset of parent’s resources– Parent and child share no resources

• Execution– Parent and children execute concurrently– Parent waits until children terminate

• Address space– Child duplicate of parent– Child has a program loaded into it

Process Termination• Process executes last statement and asks the

operating system to delete it (exit)– Output data from child to parent (via wait)– Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system

• Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)– Child has exceeded allocated resources– Task assigned to child is no longer required– If parent is exiting

• Some operating system do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates

– All children terminated - cascading termination

Process Termination

Parent ProcessIt is useful for the parent to know how and when the child terminates Waiting on a child process:

Wait() system call waits for one (any one) of the child processes to end Returns the process ID (PID) of the child being terminated Returns status of the child Kernel adds the process CPU times and resource statistic to the running total

for all children of the parent process Releases resources held by child to system pool

SIGCHLD signal Q.E.D.

Orphans and ZombiesOrphan

Parents ends before Child process Who becomes the parent?

INIT, the ancestor of all processes. INIT will periodically clean up orphans

Zombie Child terminates before the parent performs wait()

Kernel turns process into ZOMBIE Most resources held by child are returned to the system pool Un-killable processes – Are waiting for their parent to issue wait()

Wait for parents to exit when they will become orphans Big problem for daemons.

Process Control Block (PCB)Bookkeeping/Management of a processIncludes:

• Process ID• Program Counter• CPU Registers• CPU scheduling information• Priority• Process state• Memory management information• Accounting information• List of I/O devices allocated to process

Process Control Block (PCB)

UNIX Process Management

• UNIX fork – system call to create a copy of the current process, and start it running– No arguments!

• UNIX exec – system call to change the program being run by the current process

• UNIX wait – system call to wait for a process to finish

• UNIX signal – system call to send a notification to another process

Process CreationParent my perform other actions here

Memory of parent copied to child

Child statuses passed to parent

Kernel restarts parent

C Program Forking Separate Process

int main(){pid_t pid;

/* fork another process */pid = fork();if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */

fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");exit(-1);

}else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */

execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);}else { /* parent process */

/* parent will wait for the child to complete */

wait (NULL);printf ("Child Complete");exit(0);

}}

UNIX Process Management

Question: What does this code print?

int child_pid = fork();if (child_pid == 0) { // I'm the child process printf("I am process #%d\n", getpid()); return 0;} else { // I'm the parent process printf("I am parent of process #%d\n", child_pid); return 0;}

Implementing UNIX fork

Steps to implement UNIX fork– Create and initialize the process control block (PCB)

in the kernel– Create a new address space– Initialize the address space with a copy of the entire

contents of the address space of the parent– Inherit the execution context of the parent (e.g.,

any open files)– Inform the scheduler that the new process is ready

to run

Implementing UNIX exec

• Steps to implement UNIX fork– Load the program into the current address space– Copy arguments into memory in the address space– Initialize the hardware context to start execution

at ``start''

Windows CreateProcess

• System call to create a new process to run a program– Create and initialize the process control block (PCB) in the

kernel– Create and initialize a new address space– Load the program into the address space– Copy arguments into memory in the address space– Initialize the hardware context to start execution at

``start'’– Inform the scheduler that the new process is ready to run

Windows CreateProcess API(simplified)

if (!CreateProcess( NULL, // No module name (use command line) argv[1], // Command line NULL, // Process handle not inheritable NULL, // Thread handle not inheritable FALSE, // Set handle inheritance to FALSE 0, // No creation flags NULL, // Use parent's environment block NULL, // Use parent's starting directory &si, // Pointer to STARTUPINFO structure &pi ) // Pointer to PROCESS_INFORMATION structure)

Context Switch• When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the

state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process via a context switch

• Context of a process represented in the PCB• Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work

while switching• Time dependent on hardware support

CPU Switch From Process to Process

CPU Switch From Process to Process

Process Scheduling

• Multiprogramming

• To have CPU always active, we switch between processes.

• Process Scheduler– Select an available process from a set of processes for

program execution.– May force a process to become idle, so another can

run.

Process Scheduling Queues• Job queue – set of all processes in the system• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main

memory, ready and waiting to execute• Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O

device• Processes migrate among the various queues

Representation of Process Scheduling

Interprocess Communication• Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes,

including sharing data• Reasons for cooperating processes:

– Information sharing– Computation speedup– Modularity– Convenience

• Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)• Two models of IPC

– Shared memory– Data Transfer

Cooperating Processes

• Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process

• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process

• Advantages of process cooperation– Information sharing – Computation speed-up– Modularity– Convenience

Communications Models

Message Passing Shared Memory

Producer-Consumer Problem• Paradigm for cooperating processes,

producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process

IPC Data Transfer – Message Passing

• Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions

• Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables

• IPC facility provides two operations:– send(message) – message size fixed or variable – receive(message)

• If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:– establish a communication link between them– exchange messages via send/receive

• Implementation of communication link– physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)– logical (e.g., logical properties)

Implementation Questions

• How are links established?• Can a link be associated with more than two

processes?• How many links can there be between every

pair of communicating processes?• What is the capacity of a link?• Is the size of a message that the link can

accommodate fixed or variable?• Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?

Direct Communication

• Processes must name each other explicitly:– send (P, message) – send a message to process P– receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q

• Properties of communication link– Links are established automatically– A link is associated with exactly one pair of

communicating processes– Between each pair there exists exactly one link– The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-

directional

Indirect Communication• Messages are directed and received from mailboxes

(also referred to as ports)– Each mailbox has a unique id– Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox

• Properties of communication link– Link established only if processes share a common mailbox– A link may be associated with many processes– Each pair of processes may share several communication

links– Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional

Indirect Communication• Operations

– create a new mailbox– send and receive messages through mailbox– destroy a mailbox

• Primitives are defined as:send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox Areceive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A

Indirect Communication

• Mailbox sharing– P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A

– P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive– Who gets the message?

• Solutions– Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes– Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive

operation– Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver.

Sender is notified who the receiver was.

Synchronization• Message passing may be either blocking or non-

blocking• Blocking is considered synchronous

– Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received

– Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available

• Non-blocking is considered asynchronous– Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and

continue– Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid

message or null

Buffering• Queue of messages attached to the link;

implemented in one of three ways1.Zero capacity – 0 messages

Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)2.Bounded capacity – finite length of n

messagesSender must wait if link full

3.Unbounded capacity – infinite length Sender never waits

Examples of IPC System PIPES

Data streaming Direct communication

Ordinary pipesProducer – Consumer fashionCannot be accessed outside the process that creates it.Usually Parent – Child communication Deleted when process terminates

Named pipes Alias: FIFO in unix Appear as typical files in the system

Examples of IPC SystemsShared Memory

• POSIX Shared Memory– Process first creates shared memory segmentsegment id = shmget(IPC PRIVATE, size, S IRUSR | S IWUSR);

– Process wanting access to that shared memory must attach to itshared memory = (char *) shmat(id, NULL, 0);– Now the process could write to the shared memorysprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory");

– When done a process can detach the shared memory from its address space

shmdt(shared memory);

Examples of IPC Systems - Mach

• Mach communication is message based– Even system calls are messages– Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and

Notify– Only three system calls needed for message transfermsg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc()– Mailboxes needed for commuication, created viaport_allocate()

Examples of IPC Systems – Windows XP

• Message-passing centric via local procedure call (LPC) facility– Only works between processes on the same system– Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain

communication channels– Communication works as follows:

• The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object• The client sends a connection request• The server creates two private communication ports and returns

the handle to one of them to the client• The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send

messages or callbacks and to listen for replies

Examples of IPC Systems - POSIXPOSIX Message PassingProcesses can exchange messages by using four system calls: msgget(mailbox_name, IPC_CREAT) Converts a mailbox name to a message queue ID (msqid). It will create the mailbox if necessary. Returns the msqid.

msgsnd(msqid, message@, message_size) Sends the message to the mailbox

msgrcv( msqid, message@, message_size, priority, synch/asynch)Receives the message from the mailbox

msgctl(msqid, IPC_RMID, dummyParam@)Release the mailbox from process resources

Communications in Client-Server Systems

• Sockets• Remote Procedure Calls

Sockets• A socket is defined as an endpoint for

communication• Concatenation of IP address and port• The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to

port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8• Communication consists between a

pair of sockets

Socket Communication

Socket Communication

P1 P2

Socket Socket

Remote Procedure Calls

• Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between processes on networked systems

• Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server

• The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters

• The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled parameters, and peforms the procedure on the server

Execution of RPC

System Call : fork()

• Create a child process• Returns to both the child and parent

System Call : exec()

• Run application in current process exec(prog, args)

Execl( pathname, arg[0], arg[1]…. 0)Excelp(arg[0], arg[1]…. 0)

http://www.yolinux.com/TUTORIALS/ForkExecProcesses.html

System Call: wait()

• Pause until child process has exited

wait(): Blocks calling process until the child process terminates. If child process has already teminated, the wait() call returns immediately. if the calling process has multiple child processes, the function returns when one returns.

waitpid(): Options available to block calling process for a particular child process not the first one• http://

www.yolinux.com/TUTORIALS/ForkExecProcesses.html

System call : system()

• Invokes the command processor to execute a command.

• Uses fork() exec() and wait()

• The call "blocks" and waits for the task to be performed before continuing.system(“ls –l”);

UNIX Signal

• Facility for one process to send another instant notification

• Send an interrupt to a processsignal(processID, type)

• Signal Handling example– http://www.yolinux.com/TUTORIALS/C++

Signals.html

System Call : dup2()

• Replace the tofileDesc file descriptor with a copy of the fromfiledesc file descriptor. Used for replacing stdin or stdout or both in a child processdup2(fromFileDesc, toFileDesc)

• Example:http://www.cs.loyola.edu/~jglenn/702/S2005/Examples/pipe.html

Shell

• A shell is a job control system – Allows programmer to create and manage a set of

programs to do some task– Windows, MacOS, Linux all have shells

• Example: to compile a C programcc –c sourcefile1.ccc –c sourcefile2.cln –o program sourcefile1.o sourcefile2.o

Implementing a Shellchar *prog, **args;int child_pid;

// Read and parse the input a line at a timewhile (readAndParseCmdLine(&prog, &args)) { child_pid = fork(); // create a child process if (child_pid == 0) { exec(prog, args); // I'm the child process. Run program // NOT REACHED } else { wait(child_pid); // I'm the parent, wait for child return 0; }}

POSIX

• POSIX, an acronym for "Portable Operating System Interface", is a family of standards specified by the IEEE for maintaining compatibility between operating systems. POSIX defines the application programming interface (API), along with command line shells and utility interfaces, for software compatibility with variants of Unix and other operating systems.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX