professional writing
DESCRIPTION
Professional Writing. Notes to Anderson, Chapter 5. Planning for Persuasion. Two kinds of persuasion To influence other people’s attitudes and actions This is the persuasion most of us are familiar with—argument or case-making to change readers’ attitudes - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
NOTES TO ANDERSON, CHAPTER 5
PROFESSIONAL WRITING
PLANNING FOR PERSUASION
• Two kinds of persuasion1. To influence other people’s attitudes and actions
This is the persuasion most of us are familiar with—argument or case-making to change readers’ attitudes
2. To foster a collaborative environment that encourages speakers and listeners to explore ideas and possible courses of action
This is the persuasion common to group work such as brainstorming sessions—facility and flexibility to respond to ideas and keep communication channels open
• Most of our work will focus on the first type of persuasion
HOW PERSUASION WORKS
• Persuasion is shaping your reader’s attitudes• You might need to• Reverse an attitude you want your readers to abandon• Reinforce an attitude you want them to hold more firmly• Shape their attitude on a subject about which they
currently have no opinion
HOW PERSUASION WORKS
• What determines a person’s attitude towards an idea, object, or action?• Not a single thought or argument• The sum of various thoughts a person associates with the
idea, object, or action• For example• If you are in the market for a new car, how do you decide
what to buy?• Research• Prior experience with brands• Other people’s experience with brands or specific models• Personal associations with brands or specific models• Favorite color
• The list is nearly infinite—some of the attitudes are positive, some negative; some count for more than others
GUIDELINES FOR PERSUASION
1. Listen—and respond flexibly to what you hear2. Focus on your readers’ goals and values3. Address—and learn from—your readers’ concerns and
counterarguments4. Reason soundly5. Organize to create a favorable response6. Build an effective relationship with your readers7. Decide whether to appeal to your readers’ emotions8. Global guideline: Adapt your persuasive strategies to
your readers’ cultural background9. Ethics guideline: Employ ethical persuasive techniques
GUIDELINES FOR PERSUASION
1. Listen—and respond flexibly to what you hear
Successful persuasion relies on how well you listen as well as how well you write or speak
Listening well will help you successfully
2. Focus on your readers’ goals and values3. Address—and learn from—your readers’ concerns
and counterarguments
GUIDELINES FOR PERSUASION
2. Focus on your readers’ goals and values• Identify your readers’ goals• Determine how the ideas or actions you are
recommending can help your readers achieve their goals
• Focus on the ways your recommended actions and ideas can help your readers achieve their goals
GUIDELINES FOR PERSUASION
3. Address—and learn from—your readers’ concerns and counterarguments• Remember readers respond moment by moment
asking themselves questions and generating counterarguments
• Good persuasive writing anticipates readers’ questions and answers them satisfactorily
• Good persuasive writing anticipates counterarguments and provides reasons for relying on the author’s argument and not the counterargument
GUIDELINES FOR PERSUASION
The remaining key guidelines focus on the three main persuasive strategies identified by Aristotle in his Rhetoric
Logos4.Reason soundly
Ethos5.Organize to create a favorable response6.Build an effective relationship with your readers
Pathos7.Decide whether to appeal to your readers’ emotions
LOGOS
• How reasoning works (according to Stephen Toulmin at least)• Sound reasoning involves• A claim• Sufficient and reliable evidence supporting the claim• The line of reasoning that led the writer from the evidence to
the claim
EVIDENCEThe facts, observations, and other evidence that
supports your claim
CLAIMThe position you want your readers to accept
LINE OF REASONINGHow you (the writer) have and
they (the readers) should interpret the evidence so as to
arrive at the claim.
LOGOS
• To accept your claim, readers must be willing to put faith in both your evidence and your line of reasoning• Readers require sufficient and reliable evidence • And readers often need to see and understand
your line of reasoning
LOGOS
• Sufficient evidence:• Is there enough evidence to support your claim?• Have you provided the necessary details the reader wants?
• Reliable evidence:• What counts as “reliable” evidence varies from field to field• Widely accepted types of evidence include• Data—readers typically respond to claims supported by
numerical data• Expert testimony—people with credentials, firsthand
knowledge, or extensive experience are often credited with special understanding and insight
• Examples—specific instances can effectively support (and illustrate) general claims
LOGOS
• Explicitly justify your line of reasoning (when necessary)• Writers frequently leave out how they moved
from evidence to claim, thinking that the line of reasoning is obvious• When in doubt, be explicit—you can always revise
it out later
ETHOS
• Organize to create a favorable response• Direct organization• This organization is the one you have been taught since grade
school• Main point upfront (thesis statement) followed by evidence
supporting that point• The required organization for most academic writing• Usually the best choice for most kinds of writing, especially when
you can expect a favorable or at least open-minded response from your audience
• Indirect organization• The main point is postponed until later• The situation/problem is described, analyzed, and used as
evidence for reaching a specific conclusion (the main point)• Readers can be frustrated by this organization so use cautiously• Usually the best choice when you believe the readers will
respond negatively to your main point unless you prepare them for it first
ETHOS
• Organize to create a favorable response• Ensure that the parts fit together• Make connections for readers (do the work for them)
ETHOS
• Build an effective relationship with your readers• Present yourself as a credible person• Strategies for building credibility
•Expertise• Mention your credentials• Demonstrate command of the facts• Avoid oversimplifying• Call on experts so their expertise supports your position
ETHOS
• Build an effective relationship with your readers• Present yourself as a credible person• Strategies for building credibility
•Trustworthiness• Appear open and objective• Stress values and objectives that are important to your readers• Avoid drawing attention to yourself• Demonstrate knowledge of the concerns and perspectives of
others
ETHOS
• Build an effective relationship with your readers• Present yourself as a credible person• Strategies for building credibility
•Group membership• Draw attention to shared membership in groups• Appeal to group goals and objectives
•Dynamic appeal• Be confident in your message• Show enthusiasm for your ideas
•Power• If you are in a position of authority, note that• If not, try to associate yourself with authority
ETHOS
• Build an effective relationship with your readers• Present yourself as a friend not a foe• Praise your readers
• Mention recent accomplishments or something they take pride in
• Present yourself as your readers’ partner• Show that you understand your readers
• Even if you disagree with your readers, state their side fairly• Focus on areas of agreement
• Maintain a positive and helpful stance• Present yourself as wanting to help• Avoid criticizing and blaming
PATHOS
• Decide whether to appeal to your readers’ emotions• Pathos is commonplace and highly effective in many kinds of
communication• Advertising• Personal writing• Advocacy writing (press releases, public policy, editorials, and
other kinds of non-technical persuasive writing)• Pathos is considered highly inappropriate in most academic
writing and most business and technical communications• How to decide? • The more personal the writing, the more tolerant audiences will
be of pathos; the more impersonal the writing the less tolerant audiences will be.
• If the genre of the writing discourages evidence of the “personality” of the writer, then pathos will not be welcome.