professional security education in africa

Henry Kubai Kahara [email protected]

Professional Security Education in Africa

Introduction

The quest for security has an end goal of realizing sustainable peace. Hence in order to

effectively address the goal of peace there is a need for a holistic and multidisciplinary approach

rooted in critical appreciation and understanding of the multifaceted sources of insecurity and

their dynamics. Further this should be matched with an understanding of various instruments

available for addressing such insecurities and how to best enable enhance their preventive and

response capacities.

In the current security environment, much of what was traditionally viewed as non-security

issues have emerged as significant sources of security threats.1 The concept of what constitutes

security has undergone rapid transformation especially in the post cold war period. Indeed the

end of cold war marked a watershed in security development. This is because, the shattering of

the veneer of stability based on bipolarity and balance of power exposed multiple security threats

most of which were initially interpreted through cold war logic.

In most regions, the withdrawal of super powers protection or collapse as was the case with the

Soviet Union generated brutal civil wars as citizens rejected authoritarian regimes and fought for

democratization, sought to re-assert their identities which took the form of violent ethnic

nationalism and secessionist agendas or in the absences of super power patronage, the hitherto

authoritarian regimes split into warring factions.2 The outcome was huge influx of

internationalized civil wars characterized by immense human suffering, state collapse and rise of

multiple armed non-statutory groups whose sustenance depended on the ensuing anarchy.

Significantly, the prior subdued security epistemic communities found a space to articulate more

progressive and expansive security agendas based on the understanding that security is not only

about defending of state and its territorial integrity. Rather, it entails a more inclusive framework

capable of securing the state and citizens from threats emanating in military, political, economic,

environmental and societal sectors. This progress led to the concerns with human security and a

gradual shift from predominantly militarized state centric frameworks of security.3

Consequently, the current understanding and practice of security demands that security sector

institutions must be equipped with capacities to deal with a broad spectrum of issues ranging

from militarized, developmental and governance ones. This demand makes professional security

education a critical need within the entities, particularly those legally mandated to deal with

national security namely disciplined forces.

Defining Professional Security Education

Though there are various definition of a profession, a more comprehensive one has been

provided by the Australian Council of Professions. It refers to a disciplined group of individuals

1 M. Renner, `State of World 2005: Redefining Security` in Mwagiru, M and Oculli, O (eds), Rethinking Global

security: An African Perspective. Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation, 2006, pp.1-11 2 Examples abound in Africa and Eastern Europe.

3 See for instance United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report. New York: UN Publication,

1994, p.22 and Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now: Protecting and Empowering People. New

York: UN Publications, 2003


who adhere to high ethical standards and uphold themselves to, and are accepted by, the public

as possessing special knowledge and skills in a widely recognized, organized body of learning

derived from education and training at a high level, and who are prepared to exercise this

knowledge and these skills in the interest of others.4 Inherent in this definition is the concept that

the responsibility for the welfare of the users of professional services shall take precedence over

other considerations. Additionally, it implies a long sustained process of education with a goal of

inculcating expertise required for effective and efficient performance of responsibilities assigned.

Thus to qualify as a professional, there is a need for education which is able to improve the

knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors of people in a profession in order to enhance their

capacities to effectively and efficiently provide services for the common good. This need equally

applies to professional security education which entails systematic instruction of government’s

security personnel in subjects enhancing their knowledge on security issues and how to best deal

with them. Similar to other professions such as medicine, it requires a prolonged and rigorous

exposure to academic knowledge so as to develop a critical mass of expertise and competence on

security issues across and within different security services.

Indeed, the primary purpose of professional security education is the development of the

intellectual ability of security personnel for the benefits of the individual, society, state, and the

international system. In this education, the goal is to enable the disciplined security services to

identify, deter and defeat threats across the entire spectrum of security. Currently, the need for

such education is more urgent than ever before in the face of vastly changing and complex

security terrain.

Parameters for PSE

Professionals are grown and developed over a long period of time in expertise and

responsibilities.5 In the growth process, each stage requires explicit attention and the question of

the parameters in terms of goals, knowledge and skills needed is paramount. In order to have

efficient and effective security personnel, the education they are exposed to must meet the

following broad requirements at all levels:

1. It must be performance based with clearly set out and measurable goals.

2. It must inculcate the learners with the knowledge commensurate with various levels of

responsibility in order to avoid knowledge-responsibility gaps which undermine organizational

and individual performance.

3. It must be based on systemic approach at the earliest possible level so that the learners will be

able to have a strategic view of the security environment, its dynamics and how they interact and

importantly how to deal complexities therein. This will engender leadership growth across all

levels and enhance the overall organizational capacities for undertaking their mission.

4. The learning should be conducted in a safe, open and trusting environment that allows

participation, collaboration, exploration, critical thinking, self reflection and feedback. It should

4 Australian council of professions, www.accc.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/

5 M. L. Cook, Professional Military Ethic across the Career Spectrum’, in Wiggins, H. M and Dabeck, L, (eds),

Exploring the Professional Ethics. Kansas: Fort Leavenworth Ethics Symposium on 15th

-17th

November, 2010

http://www.accc.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/


also involve multiple modes of learning in a way which enables learners to match theory and

practice.

5. It must inculcate the desire for continuous self-learning so that the security personnel can operate

at the cutting edge of knowledge. This is more significant in the current complex, and highly

dynamic security environment which demands quickness of mind, resourcefulness, creativity and

adaptability in coping with new and varied situations.

6. The education provided must be based on meritocratic selection and it should have a talent

management process which rewards high potential individuals. Such a process enhances

utilization of knowledge for the purpose of realizing the mission set. More so, it engenders

professional pride whose absence leads to lethargic and rogue security agencies.

Core Content of Professional Security Education (PSE)

Though the substance of professional security education varies globally depending on specific

needs, availability of resources and levels of development, there are substantive issues which are

critical if the goal of professionalism in security agencies is to be achieved especially in states

which are either emerging from violent conflicts, have highly politicized and rogue security

forces, are faced by fragile institutions or faced by complex security environments which

challenges personnel’s’ professional values, expertise and knowledge. Subsequently, the

following fields should form the core of PSE.

Professional values and ethics

The foundation of any professional security agency is a set of values and ethics which defines the

limit of conduct, required attitudes and establishes a normative system of adherence. In absence

of such values, security agencies turn to be a threat to the responsibilities they are mandated to

perform. In extreme, the line between such agencies and armed organized criminals is blurred.

This is best exemplified by the term Sobels coined by the Sierra Leoneans and Liberians during

the violent conflicts which engulfed their states in the last decade. The term referred to security

personnel who were soldiers by day, rebels by night.6 Currently, the armed forces of Democratic

Republic which have been responsible for systematic use of rape and looting epitomize the

lethargy posed by unethical security agencies.7

To avoid such pitfalls, right from the point of entry, the recruits must be introduced to a core set

of values based on the understanding that at all times they embody the principles and values

contained in the constitution. Such values include respect for the constitution, their professional

hierarchy and duties, subordination to civilian authority, respect for human rights and

humanitarian laws. Additionally, they should be inculcated with strong sense of professional

pride and commitment to their occupation as a long term vocation.

6 See United Nations’ Security Council, Progress Report of the Secretary General on ways to Combat Sub -Regional

and Cross Border Problems in West Africa. (S/2005/86) New York, 111th

Feb, 2005. 7 R. solhjell, ‘Gendering the Security Sector: Protecting the Civilians against Sexual and Gender Based Violence in

Democratic Republic of Congo’, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, NOPI working paper 769, 2010


Strategy

In the current complex security environment, the need for knowledge on strategy is no longer

limited to the senior security and political authorities. This is because personnel at all levels are

constantly faced with security situations where procedures and techniques are inadequate and to

effectively deploy resources to achieve desired ends they must be able to think strategically and

employ various instruments at their disposal.8

The demand for strategic competencies is best exemplified by the demands generated at all

levels-tactical, operational and strategic-by irregular warfare which has become dominant in the

post-cold war period. Unlike the classical force-on-force where an army confronts another, these

irregular wars are waged by non-state actors ranging from narco-insurgents, terrorists, economic

warlords, ethnic militias and various forms of privatized armies. Importantly, they are waged

within civilian population, the line between combatants and non-combatants is blurred, and these

actors largely rely on non-conventional methods and rarely respect the laws of war.9 Further all

of them can be operating in the same space.

Consequently to defeat such groups, the goal is not only to secure military victory, but also to

engage the hearts and minds of the population as key allies. This requires a combination of

various resources such as political negotiations, humanitarian support and provision of public

services usually at village levels. How to effectively and simultaneously deploy resources needed

to perform these tasks is an issue of strategy rather than tactics. Often needs varies from one

locality to another and the best versed group on local dynamics is the unit in a specific locality.

For such a unit to make such critical decisions, it must be equipped with strategic competencies.

However, strategic competencies must be matched with the responsibilities assigned since

resources are scarce and thus must be rationalized and prudentially deployed. Whereas lower

hierarchies do not require advanced education on strategy, at higher levels, this is a key need.

This is because senior officials must be strategic artists well grounded in the art of strategy.

According to General Chilcoat, senior officers must be strategic leaders, theorists and

practitioners. As strategic leaders, they are required to coordinate ends, ways and means whereas

as strategic theorists they are supposed to formulate ways, ends and means to fulfill requirements

of national security. As practitioners they are required to execute the strategy made.10

In order to

perform these tasks well, they must be thoroughly versed with advanced and holistic knowledge

of how to orchestrate and utilize instruments of national power to achieve specific ends.

Civil-Military Relations

Civil-military relations refer to the web of relations between the military and the society within

which it operates and of which it is necessarily a part. Such relations encompass the role of

8 For instance see R. Kennedy, ‘The Element of Strategic Thinking: A practical Guide’, in Marcella, G (ed),

Teaching Strategy: Challenge and Response. Carlisle PA: Strategic Studies Institute, March, 2010, p.20 9 See R. Jackson, ‘Violent Internal Conflict and the Africa – State- Towards a Framework of Analysis’, Journal of

Contemporary African Studies, 20, 1, 2002, Munkler, H., ‘The Wars of the 21st Century’, International Review of

the Red Cross, March, 2003 10

R. Chilcoat, Strategic Art: The New Discipline of 21st Century Leaders. Carlisle PA: Strategic Studies Institute,

1995


military as a professional, social, economic and political institution in the entire spectrum of the

national life. It concerns with the role of the military relation to the state and society, military

attitudes toward the civilian society and society perceptions about the military.11

These aspects

apply to other disciplined forces within the state.

The importance of educating security agencies on these relations cannot be gainsaid. This is

because as witnessed in Africa ‘civilianization’ and politicization of the military has had tragic

outcomes especially the erosion of professionalism, coup d’états, factionalism and abuse of

security agencies by section of the political class to achieve parochial interests and suppress

democratization process. To avoid these pitfalls, all security personnel must be educated on the

need to obey the constitution and constitutionalism, human rights and good governance, and

significantly sub-ordination to legitimate civil institutions.

Legal Knowledge

A solid grounding on legal knowledge forms core component of security personnel. This is

because their existence, mandate, ethics and values are founded on a legal base enshrined in the

constitution, legal statutes and standing orders. More so in their day-to-day activities, their

legitimacy hinges on operating within the limits set by laws. Additionally, security agencies

which are law abiding are largely immune to politicization and manipulation by civilian actors.

Further, they are able to avoid actions such as human rights violations which essentially negate

their purpose.

To meet the requirements of legal knowledge, PSE should incorporate aspects of law governing

the conduct of various disciplined services. Additionally, today’s high tempo security

environment leads to extreme pressure to deliver security to various actors, making the personnel

vulnerable to the ‘end justifies the means’ posture. Such a posture ends up undermining the very

ends set, exposes the personnel to negative publicity and propaganda, and reverses the gains

made especially in situations where civilians are highly suspicious and apathetic towards security

personnel. To avoid such risks, personnel need to be educated on human rights and humanitarian

law as well as other instruments governing the operations of disciplined forces.

Cultural Capabilities and Competencies

In any security environment, culture is a pervasive phenomenon which determines the prism

through which individuals’ views and interprets the activities of security agencies. This is more

so especially in multi-cultural settings characterized by cross-cultural clashes. In such settings,

culture plays a decisive role in determining whether the analysis of security problems and

methods used to address them will achieve the desired ends. Abbe and Halpin have captured this

aspect noting that cultural knowledge and competence are critical and may determine whether

security efforts will generate the desired ends or will lead to failure.12

11

A. Ebo, Towards a Code of Conduct for Armed and Security Forces in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges.

Geneva: Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Policy Paper, March, 2010, p.1 12

A. Abbe and S.M. Halpin, ‘The Cultural Imperative for Professional Military Education’, Parameters, Winter,

2009/10


The centrality of culture in security planning and operations makes cultural education imperative

so as to equip security personnel with competencies in inter-personal interactions, languages,

cultural analysis and self-awareness in order to be able to operate in different cultural settings

and avoid costly ethnocentric biases. Importantly, cultural knowledge enables personnel to rely

more on soft tactics to achieve the desired goals rather than resorting to arms since they are

capable of identifying the core cultural resources in the target community which can be utilized

to achieve set goals. Further, such competencies are critical in positively engaging the hearts and

minds of the populations in areas of operation in furtherance of desired ends.

Role of Professional Security Education

1. Increased democratic control of the security agencies: Professionalized security agencies are

more willing to accept governance requirements demanded in a democratic society. Central to

this is the acceptance of civilian supremacy over the disciplined services. In most of states in

Africa such acceptance has paved way for the continued improvement of democracy which

would have been impossible in the face of highly politically intrusive and unaccountable

disciplined services.

Importantly the secrecy surrounding the operations of security agencies has diminished since like

any other state agency, they must account to the citizens for their actions usually through various

parliamentary oversight committees.13

As a result, there is more transparency in how resources

are used and accountability regarding operations. This has contributed towards decline in

impunity which characterized security agencies during decades of authoritarian rule.

2. Growth of security agencies committed to the protection of the state and society rather

than preoccupation with regime security and selfish interests: There is no doubt that during

the colonial period security agencies served the interests of colonial masters such as suppression

of dissent, forced expropriation and extraction of resources from the society and other interests

whose core goal was to subjugate the colonial subjects. In immediate post-independence period

the goal was predominantly regime security.14

Rather than security agencies serving as just and

fair providers of security as a public good, they became an extension of authoritarian regimes

primarily acting like political militias, actively suppressing demands for good governance and

punishing regime opponents. In this arrangement, loyalty to the regime became the standard of

recruitment and promotions as opposed to talent and merit eroding the overall levels of

professionalism and competencies to provide security.

Currently more and more security agencies have progressively re-oriented their approach to

security by focusing on state and society as the most important subjects of security. Though the

transformation rates are varied across Africa, states with higher levels of professionalism such as

Kenya, South Africa, Ghana and Botswana have security agencies which are more committed to

13

In Kenya all security agencies are subject to audit by parliamentary Oversight committees and various civil

society actors. 14

Kieh jnr, G.K and Agbese, p. (eds), The Military and Politics in Africa: From Engagement to Democratic and

Constitutional Control. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2004; Houngnikpo, M.C., Guarding the Guardians: Civil-

Military Relations and Democratic Governance in Africa. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2010


the state and society than to the regimes in power especially the military. The commitment

limits the extent which a regime in power can go in its quest for self preservation. It cannot for

instance blatantly manipulate the security agencies to serve parochial interests or force them to

pursue agendas which erode professionalism. This is because there is a consensus on the rules of

the game based on the constitution and other laws.

3. Ability to deal with wide spectrum of security threats especially internal ones: As observed

security threats are highly complex and demands resourcefulness, creativity and in-depth

knowledge in responding to them. In absence of PSE, security agencies are only equipped with a

hammer and every problem becomes a nail. Their style of responding to threats is often counter-

productive. In case of policing, highly aggressive and brutal forms of maintaining law and order

often engender human rights violations, extra-judicial processes and importantly alienation from

the society in effect depriving police services, public partnership, which is a critical requirement

for success.15

In contrast, a police service equipped with knowledge on policing a modern

democratic society applies brain rather than brawn and this yields better results.

The importance of knowledge is best exemplified in counter-terrorism. Due to the complex and

dynamic nature of terrorism, a holistic understanding of this phenomenon is paramount. In

absence of such knowledge, disciplined services are bound to exacerbate the problem through

insensitive strategies and tactics which alienate key constituencies, lead to sympathy toward

terrorism and create a fertile environment for recruitment.

4. Ability to attract, recruit and retain quality and multicultural personnel which in turns

add to the overall standards in such security agencies: In Africa the colonial state bequeathed

Africa with largely uneducated and ethinicized security agencies since during colonialism the

concern was social control through repression. As such physical strength was preferred over

knowledge because the mode of control relied on brute force. Further, there was tendency to

recruit from defined ‘martial tribes’ which led to domination of security agencies by persons

from ethnic groups identified with militarism.16

This tendency persisted in the post colonial period since the officers’ leadership and much of the

rank and file were drawn from the colonial security agencies. This led to low levels of

professionalism which was compounded by post-colonial authoritarian regimes which were more

comfortable with largely uneducated and factionalized security agencies. This made security

agencies especially the police services to attract low quality recruits incapable of dealing with

security challenges or even foster progressive organisational changes to suit the changed

environment.

However, with increased focus on PSE as a key component of modern security sector, the

agencies are able to attract talented and knowledgeable recruits capable of holistically

responding to today’s threats. This in turn boosts professionalism since such individuals are self

15

See an example of past policing in Kenya, Kenya National Human Rights commission, The Cry of Blood: A

Report on the Extra Judicial Killings and Disappearance. Nairobi: KNHRC, 2008 16

Houngnikpo, M.C., Guarding the Guardians: Civil-Military Relations and Democratic Governance in Africa, Op

cit


motivated to learn, research and generate cutting edge solutions compatible with security

demands of a modern society.17

Further they join the services as their first option and are more

likely to have a higher degree of professional pride and integrity compared to previous security

agencies.

5. Increased legitimacy from the society: As a rule the legitimacy of security agencies is

dependent on the degree of their professionalism. How effective and efficient they serve the

common public good within the limits set by law influences the citizens’ perceptions and

acceptance of such institutions as crucial for their welfare. The ability to do so is dependent on

the critical knowledge and expertise they posses enabling them to correctly and timely identify

threats, craft solutions and implement them in a way which satisfies both the legal mandate and

client’s (public, legitimate governments and international community) expectations.

In absence of PSE, failure and loss of legitimacy is guaranteed. Security agencies will adopt the

‘end justifies the means’ posture, employ extra-legal methods or become a part of the problem.

Indeed, in some societies unprofessional security agencies are similar to state sanctioned

criminal gangs preying on the people they are supposed to serve.18

Consequently, they are

viewed as illegitimate and enemies of the common good.

6. National Development through research, policy making and implementation: The expansion

of security has brought on board previously ‘non-security’ issues best exemplified by increased

securitization of development (recognition of development as security issue) and

‘developmentalisation’ of security( the recognition that security agencies can and should on

occasion contribute directly or indirectly to development). These issues cannot be addressed

through traditional methods yet they are increasingly coming under the realm of security

agencies. To effectively generate appropriate solutions, security agencies need specialised

knowledge in multiple academic fields.

Through progress and diversification of PSE, security agencies are able to develop specialists in

various fields capable of conducting research, developing and implementing appropriate

solutions.19

Consequently, they are transformed into developmental actors participating in

infrastructural development, environmental management, provision of amenities and other

crucial economic roles. Significantly, they are equipped with competencies needed for

generating policy relevant research required for long-term development strategy. These efforts

have a huge positive impact on human security.

Development of PSE in Africa

Africa is an extremely diverse continent with different cultures, histories and development

trajectories. Thus any attempt at generalization is fraught with risks especially in the security

17

In Kenya, the academic qualification for military recruits is the same as the one required for joining university. 18

See the case of Democratic Republic of Congo, R. Solhjell, ‘Gendering the Security Sector: Protecting the

Civilians against Sexual and Gender Based Violence in Democratic Republic of Congo’, Norwegian Institute of

International Affairs, NOPI working paper 769, 2010

19

In Kenya, the National Defence College was key in the generation of a long term development strategy popularly

called ‘Vision 2030’.


sector. Whereas some states have relatively well developed and democratically managed security

sector (e.g. Kenya, Botswana), others are either under personalised/authoritarian systems (e.g.

Gabon) or in a reconstruction phase after decades of violence (Democratic Republic of Congo

and Republic of Southern Sudan) or are in a state of protracted collapse (e.g. Somalia) or are

faced by chronic instability (e.g. Guinea Bissau). However, there are three major phases which

broadly define the trajectory of professional security education in Africa as outlined below.

Colonial Phase

Professional security education during the colonial period was largely non-existent. The colonial

state was largely rudimentary and geared towards extraction of resources with limited

development of institutions. Consequently, the goal of security agencies was not to provide

security as a public good but to protect the colonial and settlers’ interest and suppress the

colonised populations.

An overview of security agencies during this period shows some general characteristics. One,

they were geared towards repressive social control of the African population. Two, they engaged

in brutal and systematic egregious human rights violations. Three, they were racially stratified

with senior ranks being occupied by officers from the metropole while Africans formed the bulk

of rank and file. Four, educational qualifications were secondary since recruitment was based on

a romantic notion of ‘martial tribes’. Essentially qualification was based on presumed warrior

culture of some ethnic groups. Fifth, the training aimed at alienating security agencies from the

society, whereby civilians were the enemies, creating an enduring schism between these agencies

and the civilians. Sixth, unquestioned loyalty was the main ethical requirement since security

agencies were fused with political authorities. 20

These attributes made the security agencies

highly unprofessional lacking clearly stated code of conduct, operating with impunity and for the

services of narrow political interests.

Post-Colonial Authoritarian Phase

This period which ran from late 1950s to early 1990s was marked more by continuities than

discontinuities. This is because the post-independence state did not have established security

tradition. Where decolonisation was peaceful, the colonial security agencies were retained with

minimal adjustments mainly focused on africanisation of senior ranks whereas in polities where

violent decolonisation occurred revolutionary security agencies emerged. However, they too

adopted the models that existed prior to independence.

The defining characteristic of this period was absence of serious professionalization of security

agencies. Security agencies were still viewed through the colonial prism whereby their main role

was regime maintenance. Within this prism, coupled with the disastrous consequences of

‘modernizing’ political interventions by the security agencies notably the military, security

agencies were largely viewed as threats to the society and paradoxically to regimes in power.

Consequently to counter these interventionary tendencies, the goal of civilian leadership was to

20

Houngnikpo, M.C., Guarding the Guardians: Civil-Military Relations and Democratic Governance in Africa, Op

cit


develop rival security agencies and militias, factionalize and undermine the more threatening

ones especially the military and prioritise on loyalty rather than professionalism. This led to

highly de-professionalized agencies engaged in coup d’états, suppression of political opposition,

expropriation of state resources, selfish individual and corporate interests, and organised criminal

activities.

Further this period coincided with the cold-war period which was characterised by militarised

and politicised conception of security. The concerns were territorial integrity, maintenance of

ideologically-capitalism and communism- friendly regimes and destabilizing rival spheres of

influence through revolutionary wars, coups and assassinations. Subsequently, non-military and

human security issues were glossed over since governments in Africa drew their legitimacy from

their cold war patrons- who were only concerned with their own security goals- rather than the

citizens.21

The outcome was lack of professionalism and inability of security agencies to identify

and deal with concerns which in the democratisation phase became the main source of threats.

Post-Colonial Democratisation Phase

The post-colonial democratisation phase coincided with the end of cold war and paradoxically

represents the golden age of professional security education in Africa. The phase is paradoxical

because on one hand it marked the most insecure period in Africa due to violent explosion of

internalised threats which had remained latent during the cold war period epitomised by violent

civil wars.22

On the other hand, it ushered in democratisation process which provided a space for

articulation of the professional needs and roles of security agencies in a democratic polity. This

shift was contemporaneous with a more radical and expansive conceptualisation of security

which brought to the centre previously peripheral concerns under the umbrella concept of human

security.23

Security agencies had to rediscover their relevance under the rubric of a modern democratic

society advocating for a professional approach to security. Critical was the need to maintain the

boundary between civilian and military authorities, enhance internal and external governance of

security agencies, re-orient security issues towards a more inclusive and progressive framework

and engender rule of law and dynamicity in the face of a fast changing security terrain.

Essentially these agencies had to become professional.

To do so, professional security education became and still is central to this great transformation.

In numerous states, security staff colleges have either been established or rejuvenated and

expanded with an objective of producing professional and knowledgeable personnel.

Importantly, curriculums have been re-developed to include education in areas key to modern

democratic security sector. Such areas include constitution and constitutionalism, rule of law,

21

See for example J. L, Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold-War History. Oxford: OUP,1997 22

See for instance, C. Allen, Warfare, Endemic Violence and State Collapse in Africa` Review of African Political

Economy, vol 26, No 81, 1999 23

On human security see Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now: Protecting and Empowering

People. New York: UN Publications, 2003


human and humanitarian laws, progressive security studies, professional ethics, democratic

civilian-security relations, diplomacy, conflict management, development and cultural studies.

The outline of the trajectory of PSE in Africa show that though ossified during the colonial and

authoritarian phases, it has enjoyed resurgence during the democratisation phase. The wide

acceptance of reforms and progress towards professional and democratic security sector

evidences the need to break away from the past. However, as earlier noted Africa is diverse and

hence generalisations are fraught with risks. This is because, though some states such as South

Africa, Kenya, Ghana and Botswana have made commendable progress, others are still grappling

with how to establish a functional security sector.

professional security education in africa

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