private higher education in china: history, legislation ... 2016... · huimin & xiang private...
TRANSCRIPT
Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future
3
PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA: HISTORY,
LEGISLATION AND FUTURE
Prof Qin Huimin Dr Zhou Xiang Renmin University of China Renmin University of China Beijing, China Beijing, China
Abstract: This article gives a brief introduction to the development of Chinese private
higher education and summarizes the unique tradition from history. Based on the realities
and complex culture, the article gives a framework for analyzing the legislation related to
private higher education in China and provides an overview of the legislation related to
private education on all levels. The conclusions reached are that legislators and policy
makers will focus on the for-profit universities and for-profit behaviors of education
institutes in the future. The non-government-run university will receive support from the
public and more Sino-foreign joint universities will be built in the next decade in different
forms. However the paper identifies that there is no legal space for establishment of sole
foreign higher education corporations in the current political and economic landscape.
Keywords: Private Higher Education, Chinese Education, Education Law, Legislation on
Private Higher Education, Revising the Law.
An overview: Chinese culture and the rising of modern private higher education
A good education has always been highly valued in China. The Chinese people believe
that education ensures not only the future development of individuals but also promotes the
family and country's prosperity as a whole. The idea came from the Confucius value in Han
Dynasty. When Confucian ideas became the national moral value that dominated the
Chinese empire under the king’s order, it subsequently became the fundamental base of
Chinese culture. This moral value strongly affected the Chinese Legal System's cultural
spirit and its implementation. Education actions in China are deeply merged with the basic
value of Chinese moral standard, ensuring the family can last for a long time. Education
will always be the only core issue in ordinary Chinese people's life. Educating family
members are the most important family issue and it has become the guidance or golden rule
for allocating family resources, even social resources.
Confucius classics expressed that 'it is a pleasure to learn something and to try it out at
intervals'(学而时习之,不亦乐乎). Education is promoted in normal life for every child
in China. Similarly, numerous students have been convinced that 'reading books excels all
other careers”. (万般皆下品,惟有读书高) Reading and learning would lead to a brilliant
career for students, that is the first original explanation of the purpose for higher learning
in Chinese society. The most important value of learning is that it will lead to a position in
government, and that is the definition of higher learning in China.
As far back as the Shang Dynasty (16th century BC - 11th century BC),the inscriptions on
tortoise shells were the special form of higher education, only identified by a small group
of experts in royal temples, sometimes the royal teachers of the king and princes. The
contemporary archaeologists even found the scripts of teaching, learning and university in
these tortoise shells. The higher learning in China was fully controlled by government.
ANZELA Conference 2016
4
In the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC - 771 BC) Shang nobles built schools to
educate their children, as their offspring would be in charge of the country's future. The
gifted student from poor families could go to school run by government via a special
selection process under the name of the Empire. The national aims of cultivating high talent
students for the governmental system led to a form of national wide evaluation system and
official selecting procedure. Even the study in private school would lead to the national
examination for officials. The Imperial Examination which survived from the Sui Dynasty
(589 - 618) to the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) was the most important way to identify top
talented people in China and recruited them as governmental officers, which became the
original prototype of the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) in China that
still remains.
The Chinese modern higher education system dated from 1898. The Yan-ching College,
first empire higher learning institute was modeled from the western countries and strongly
recommended by the reformists in late Qing Dynasty. It started a whole new era in China.
It combined educating, evaluating and managing functions all together, becoming the first
department in charge of Education in China. Since then, the Chinese government focused
on promoting the higher learning via various modern institutes. Even the private firm. Yan-
ching College is at the top of newly designed higher learning institutional hierarchy. It is
the predecessor of Peking University. The purpose of higher education is gathering more
talented people for the future purpose of Qing Dynasty modernization.
According to statistics in 1949, there were 84 registered private higher education institutes
in China, 41% of the whole HEIs. After the establishment of the People's Republic of
China, the old form of higher learning including the religious universities and individual
invested private colleges established by individuals were all transferred into public
institutions without exemption between 1950 and 1952. Even the public universities were
adjusted into different professional colleges. The national policies made all private forms
of education vanish in China. For a long time, public universities and institutes were the
only process available for higher learning, till the end of Cultural Revolution. There is no
space for legislating private higher education. All students graduated from universities are
identified as governmental officials. The universities followed the orders from central and
local government allocating students to different positions all round China.
During the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese Government temporally stopped Gaokao and
universities focused on ideology modifications. The university students during that period
were selected by recommendation of: all unites around China; farms; factories and
military. After 1978, the leaders from the top noticed the neglect of abandoning Gaokao
and the chaos caused by the higher education system. The modernization changed Chinese
higher education. After economic reform started in 1978, the new market development
needed more and more well educated workers in the new incoming information society.
Not only did the government rebuild the National Entrance Examination for Colleges, but
also the private processes of higher education emerged concurrently. The Non-government
run sectors in economic fields grew rapidly and the clerks inside government also needed
self-improvement for the huge changes of job definition. Some individuals started the
privately run institutions for educating workers and adults. Even government officials tried
learning at night, which was a new origin and advocate for private higher education in
China.
Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future
5
The private sector proved eager and flexible enough to absorb some of the new demand1.
In 2001, the event of becoming a WTO member changed the legal standing of private higher
education in China, including new identification of legal standing for future foreign
investment. Education was to be considered a regular service to be traded freely. A few
months later, the legislation of Promoting Private Education Act (Promotion Law) was
passed by National Congress. Since then, higher education in China adopted new methods
and new ideas from Europe and America combined with the deep Chinese tradition of
learning and ruling.
The first law on regulating private schools and its impact
In the early 2000, private schools developed rapidly in China at different levels including
kindergartens, primary schools, high schools, colleges and vocational training, causing
many problems and arguments and conflicting public and private interests. The private
education reached it temporal peak at the beginning of new century. In 2001, considering
the newly situation in educational development and the pressures of globalization, Chinese
government started drafting its first law on private schools encouraging the development
of private education resources. This law was examined by the National People's Congress,
which is the top legislative organ in China. After passed in 2002, the said law provided a
basic legal framework for the development of private sectors investment in the field of
educational. It became one of the eight education laws passed by the National People's
Congress. After decades of development since the beginning of 1980s, the private
education was acknowledged by law for the first time in modern China, which is the most
significant event in Chinese public oriented education system.
According to statistics from the Education, Science, Culture and Health Committee of the
NPC, about 54,000 private schools had been set up in China by the end of 2000, with 6.93
million registered students at all level. At the end of 2015, the number of private institutes
in is 162.7K, with 45.7million students enrolled in total. Thanks to the Private-Run
Education Promotion Law, China expanded the education resources at all levels. The higher
education expanded in all aspects.
After 2002, based on the legislation, private schools enjoyed the same treatment as
government-run public education institutes. The law also protected the rights of teachers
and students in private schools, colleges and universities. After the implementation of
private promotion law, the environment of private education changed, giving a boost to the
healthy growth of private colleges, which are expected to become an important part of the
China educational system. Private institutes hold the same legal standing according to the
law and meet the mass demands of higher learning tradition in China.
Although local governments at different levels have multiple ways of supporting public
education, government-run schools can't meet the mass needs due to the large population
and the educational tradition of China. The shortage of education services requires more
privately-run and independent schools and provides many opportunities for private
investors making more profit. On other hand, students are eager to pursue higher education
after finishing high school, and there is demand since top universities can't recruit all of the
talented ones. Due to these circumstances, more and more students choose studying aboard
1 Y Cao, D Levy. China's Private Higher Education: The Impact of Public-Sector Privatization. International higher
education, 2015.
ANZELA Conference 2016
6
as the first choice for higher education. Hence the traditional understanding of higher
learning in China has been effected by global education market.
The number of private schools is considerably small compared to public universities. Under
the origin promotion law, private schools will receive more preferential policies as tax
exemptions. Although all Chinese schools are considered as non-profit making institutes
according to the Education Law, private schools will be allowed to gain a reasonable
returns, which blurred the boundary of non-for-profit and for-profit in practice in the
education field.
In 2003, the government permitted private schools to partner with public universities.
Although still self-funded and self-governed, these new “independent schools (colleges)”
gained some prestige through the associations while also helping public universities deal
with overflow.2 This is the unique cooperative experiment between public and private
sector in the higher education field.
After 15 year’s development, the private higher education was a large portion in Chinese
higher education sector that made a great contribution to the progress of mass higher
education. The private higher education sector became a significant part of Chinese
education development. From 1998 to 2015, the higher education attendance rate rose from
less than 10% to 40%, and the scale of Chinese higher education became the largest in the
world. It caused many problems. Gaps of equality between public and private higher
education institutes expanded, some of the articles in the regulation are out of date and
could not fit the huge changes in education. The online course and MOOCs (Massive open
online courses) changed to an efficient way to promote private education, and it is hard to
control and regulate under current laws. The actual environment pushed the legislators and
administrators to investigate private education
Table-1 National Level Education Laws
Act Name Issued Date
Latest Revised
Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China
1980.2.12 2004.8.28
Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1986.4.12 2006.6.29
Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1995.3.18 2015.12.27
Teachers Law of the People’s Republic of China 1993.10.31 2009.8.27
Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1996.5.15 ——
Higher Education Law of the People's Republic of China 1998.8.29 2015.12.27
Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language of the People’s Republic of China
2000.10.31 ——
Law on the Promotion Of Non-public Schools of the People’s Republic of China
2002.12.28 ——
The hot issues in legislation of private higher education and its future
The promotion law encouraged individuals and social organizations investing in private
higher education. In 1999, one year after passing of Higher Education Law, four years after
passing of Education Law, the authoritarian government decided to revise the restrictions
on the private higher education in an effort to propel economic growth due to the already
existing private actions around the country. During last two decades, Independent Colleges
2 https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-china-private-colleges-universities-multiply-to-meet-higher-
education-demand/2012/02/07/gIQAf1ey8Q_story.html
Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future
7
became a unique phenomenon in Chinese higher education history, existing for only two
decades of practice, Independent colleges carried unclear ownership and property rights. It
became a signification experiment of mixed ownership in educational field . In 2008, after
5 years of experiment, a new rule was passed by the Ministry of Education (MOE) requiring
all independent colleges to clarify their cooperation with public partners, transferring to a
purely private institute having only one controlling group. According to the MOE
regulations, all independent colleges would be perished before 2013,which means the
ownership will pass to private parties without any public ownership.
In 2017, the national policy will have new changes, since the National Entrance
Examination for College cancelled the 3rd catalog (Independent College) of enrollment.
Independent College will no longer be on the national enrollment list. All the independent
colleges secured the Non-Government Run legal identity afterwards. More people will
receive a more varied and better education and the educational structure will be improved
after a fundamental reform in higher education in future years. Without the support of
public universities’ reputations, more independent colleges will focus on improvement of
teaching and living qualities. Better jobs after graduation will attract more students taking
Non-government Run institutes. Consumerism will be a dominant value in this type of
higher education. With regard to legal aspects, the following issues are hot issues in terms
of regulatory improvement, with impact on the communication and cooperation within the
private sector and potential foreign investment.
The conflicts and confusions of the concept of private education
Technically speaking, Chinese policies and regulations have not had the legal meaning or
definition of PRIVATE for a long period after establishment of People’s Republic of China.
The specific notion for private in china is Private-Run. Eventually, the Non-Government
Run Education Promotion Law allows the investors or sponsors of private sectors to obtain
reasonable amounts of requital. That is the general motivation for individuals and enterprise
investing in education. But the government documents do not clarify the property of
schools and colleges. According to the explanation of the National People's Congress, it
intended allowing reasonable amounts of requital as a preferential policy attracting and
encouraging nongovernmental sectors to invest more in the educational field. Since the
governmental resources supporting education were limited at the beginning of new the
century, this promotion policy attracted many enterprises investment and resources in
education, which contributed the growth of Private education. However, the National
People's Congress stressed that reasonable amounts of requital were conditional and limited
under the administrative regulation and that expression is not a legal term regulating for-
profit action. Until now, the administrative organ did not release specific articles on
REASONABLE REQUITAL. That is the origin and cause of an unclear policy context for
private education.
According to the Education Law and Higher Education Law, all the education institutes in
China should not aim to be for-profit. The specific rules for regulating requital should
passed by administrative regulation by the top administrative agency, the state council.
Until now, the State Council passed no rules giving a clear regulation on dealing with the
surplus income and asset increment inside private education institutes. In this situation,
many private education institutes transferred some profit by renting assets from mother
companies or making higher payment to the administrative team. The private institutes in
China kept the concept of stakeholder to obtain requital. On the other hand, due to the
confusion about the definition of the Reasonable Requital, private education in China held
ANZELA Conference 2016
8
the title of public service and practiced under uncertain taxation status. Because there is
huge demand of higher learning, the private institutes can easily have students enrolled and
claim taxation decrement from government which causes a lot of problems and debate
about for-profit risks in the Non-government Run Education.sector The legal risk is abuse
of public resources. The situation has already triggered the national investigation.
The Promotion Law is applicable to two types of operating for private investors to choose.
One is the purely nonprofit institutes that operate under private donations and tuition fee.
The non-for-profit private schools are forbidden to obtain requital. Their legal identity
should be a non-for-profit foundation. The other form is schools or institutes that are run
by company investment, where students’ tuition, is allowed to obtain requital under
Promotion Law. They are managed more like businesses as companies. Most of the training
institutions are in second catalog registered in the Department of Industry and Commerce
and operate under its supervision. All private universities and colleges including
independent colleges chose the second catalog for daily operating as a non-for-profit
organization.
The unclear legal personality and ownership
The Promotion Law includes the following principles about legal identity of private
education institutes: First, it clearly specifies the concept of “ownership as legal persons”,
which is the general understanding of “corporation”. All private education institutes have
the origin and ownership of legal person assets. After establishment of the private colleges,
all legal titles should transfer to and only to the college. But, according to the policies, when
the colleges are terminated and dissolved, after cleaning debts, original investors could
withdraw their initial investment. The government grant shall belong to the government,
the donations colleges received from nongovernmental sectors and all increased assets
belong to the private education institutes themselves. Since the colleges are under the
process of terminating, these assets will reallocated by educational authorities for the same
use for public educational welfare purposes.
Second, the Promotion Law specifies the nature and use of assets of Non-government Run
Education. The assets of private education are not for business ends, and they are different
from enterprises’ assets. College assets can be used only for the said schools and shall not
be transferred or mortgaged. Practically, a few colleges will transfer their assets to the
colleges, and some universities still could get mortgages from banks. Many colleges rent
buildings avoiding the property problems.
Third, the Promotion Law clarified the ownership of school assets which is separated from
the right of decision making. To be more specific, in Chinese culture, it is very hard to
understand operating an entity not belonging to the operator. In Chinese traditional legal
culture, an investor in a school is the owner of the school without any doubt. But according
to the law, investors’ ownership of the assets put into the schools is separated from the right
to manage and dispose of them. They lose the legal standing of owning the school as soon
as they establish the school. No organizations or individuals, including investors, may
withdraw their assets at will or alter the use of their assets, and the schools have the right
to use and manage all of their own assets. The conflict is deeply rooted in the Chinese
understanding of ownership and the Chinese common value of education.
Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future
9
Under the current Chinese laws and China’s commitments to the World Trade
Organization, higher education is considered as a commercial service which could trade
across the board. But the Chinese government does not allow foreign organizations or
institutions to run their wholly-owned schools in China. However, it allows them to
cooperate with Chinese education institutions in running schools. The main purpose of the
policy is to improve educational quality by cooperating with best universities and colleges
in western countries.
In accordance with the Regulations on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation Running Schools
promulgated in 2003, Chinese-foreign cooperation running schools are also public welfare
undertakings, under the parallel control of Private Education Promotion Law and all other
administrative regulations. The Chinese government’s basic need for establishing Chinese-
foreign cooperation running colleges and universities is bringing more excellent
educational resources from other developed countries. The state council and Ministry of
Education encourage the best use of world class resources at the level of higher education
. It encourages Chinese-foreign cooperation in providing good quality of higher education
under the name of top universities. For example, the establish of Shanghai-NYU is a big
event in Chinese higher education development, drawing much attention to the institute
announcement of its curriculum structure and all English teaching and living environment.
It also encourages Chinese colleges and universities to run departments in collaboration
with famous foreign colleges and universities in provincial level. Many provincial
governments announced their strategy of cooperation. This is strongly supported by the
local government who need to improve their higher education quality and cultivate many
talented workers and researchers supporting the local economy growth. The example would
be the high level construction plan of Shenzhen City in Guangdong. They are planning
eight cooperative programs with eight different world class universities.
According to the updated regulation, this joint type of universities are considered and
regulated as private universities under a special control of international affairs department
in the Ministry of Education. Chinese and their foreign partners may establish all types of
schools at all levels except schools for compulsory education, and for military, police,
political or special education (Article 6). Since China has about 3000 higher education
institutes, there are many good opportunities for the foreign higher education corporations
who aimed to engage with the Chinese market.
Independent College: A Unique Private Higher Education Experiment
The unclear legal standing of Independent Colleges has caused many problems in the
development of private education, which is the unique experiment in education law
practice. After 2003, the Chinese government promoted an Independent Colleges
movement in China and setup more than 300 colleges of the said type. All the independent
colleges had to fit certain conditions requested by the government, including the minimum
investment and one quota rule (one private entity can only invest one independent college).
The private partners of independent colleges can be enterprises, institutions, public
organizations, individuals or other competent agencies. But most of them in practice are
enterprises or relevant to enterprises, which having a natural conflict of interest in the
educational field. The public partner will always be a public university and have a sound
reputation in province level. Essentially, the form of public-private cooperation is not an
environment for fair competition and common development for higher education as a
whole.
ANZELA Conference 2016
10
The Indecent College held the advantages of public universities and did not pay as much
taxation as other private universities. Most of the teachers in independent colleges are from
public universities, which would be an abuse of public resource. It is hard for institutes to
evaluate the standard salary for them, regarding the conflict in the human resource
assessment system between market oriented and public interest judgement. Teachers from
public universities are considered as public servants, the salary levels are regulated by the
government, and normally they are not allowed to have a full-time job in another
educational institutes. But the additional works in cooperated independent college could
lead to a re-allocating workload in different institutes and additional payments from
government grants. According to Promotion Law, the non-government/private colleges
which have a longer history and offer a higher level of education are qualified to be
promoted as regular public undergraduate colleges or universities and must be treated
equally as independent colleges.3 Some of the non-government run colleges think the
promoting policy is good for their development, and they have the same legal standing
inside the Chinese educational legal framework. But the promotion law has no impact on
other legislations outside education at the same level. If the taxation legislation did not
change, it was impossible for private higher education institutes get any government grant.
Practically, the national-wide policy helps public colleges and universities to compete with
non-government/private colleges recruiting new students. The private colleges are always
in second level of enrollment policy and independent colleges are even worse. It is
conducive to unfair competition between the private sector and the public sector.4
The Unsolved Questions and the future of private higher education in China
Clarify Identity of college teacher
During last decade, the non-government/private education sector grew fast. Great changes
have taken place not only in the quantity and scale, but also in quality and inequity of them.
As a result, Non-government run education plays a more important role in progress of mass
higher education and has greater effect on the whole national education system.
In recent years, the number of private institute is increasing steadily and its proportion in
the whole education system is heightening gradually. The different area and levels
attracting private investment are unbalanced. The more developed a province is, the more
it is attracting private capital, which broadens the gap of educational resources between
east and west provinces.
In December 2002, the National People's Congress passed the Promotion Law and the
Regulations on Implementing the Promotion Law. The private education have entered a
new stage of development. According to the law, the both public and private university
teachers have the same legal right and standings in China. But it is just in theory. Before
the Promotion Law, China did not have an official definition for teachers working in non-
government run institutes. Especially in the countryside, many counties supported their
own elementary school inside the villages. These teachers in such elementary schools do
not have equal rights when compared with their counterparts in public schools. The same
situation happened in higher education. The teachers in higher learning training colleges
3 Mou Yangchun, “Independent college: the historical selection of new development of higher education in china”,
Exploring Education Development (Shanghai), 2004.4. 4 Pan Maoyuan, “Connecting with the Capital Market,” Education Development Research, Shanghai, No. 3, 2004.
Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future
11
have part-time jobs. Because of the unclear title of private university teachers, they may
not have the tenure-track insurance for their academic jobs. Some of the teachers could not
get the same salary level as in public universities. Their contracts are more like commercial
contacts.
The Chinese State Council passed the Regulations on Schools Run by Non-governmental
Sectors in 1997, just one year before the Higher Education Law. After the huge enrollment
expansion in 1999, these regulations are becoming increasingly limited. Five years later,
the Promotion Law and the Implementation Regulations improved the legal position and
environment of private education. The Chinese government passed 4 laws in 8 years
regulating education nationwide. In addition, the Promotion Law is China’s first education
law with “promotion” in its name, showing that the positive value orientation of
government enthusiastically encouraging and strongly supporting Non-government Run
Education.
In China, the first law regulating teachers passed in 1993, ten years before the promotion
law. The situation changed a lot, the new promotion law could not give a clear definition
for private teacher since the general Teacher Law did not change. Since the numbers of the
higher institutions and students increased several times, the Ministry of Education started
the procedures for Package Revising Education Laws. But until now, the Teachers Law is
not in this package. The protection for teacher would be the next urgent issue in Chinese
educational reform, which will depend on the revision of the general rule of teachers.
Facing the Equality Argument in Higher Education Enrollment
Because of the high risk of National Entrance Examination for Colleges (Gao Kao), only
less than 10% population could enter the higher learning system before 1998. After 1998,
the government adopted a new enrollment strategy, expanding the number of the students
learning in college and universities, which changed the structure of higher education. The
age grade(18-22) currently enrolled in all forms of postsecondary education raised to 40%
in 2015, five years ahead of original planning. It is the same situation of higher educational
development in U.S. after WWII. Not like the growth of America Higher Education which
caused a growth in numbers of non-traditional students, the Chinese culture of learning
extended the traditional students enrolled in higher education just after the graduation from
high school, which raised a totally different question for higher education development.
With the growth of Chinese higher education, more and more colleges and universities
adopted the basic values of open and globalized. The government is promoting the
cooperative program between the partners abroad. Just like Shanghai-New York, Ningbo-
Nottingham, the local and central government are eager to promote the joint universities.
To regular universities, the summer school has become a regular cultivation program and
students and professors are coming from abroad every summer term, which has increased
the cost of private higher education.
More Lawsuit Consent about the Student Right
After the expansion of higher education in China, the relationship between students and
universities has changed. Before 1998, the chance to be a college student was a privilege.
All the university graduates were automatically became government officers. The legal
identity of university is as a governmental corporation not a civic institute. The first legal
case of a student suiting a university in Chinese history happened in 1998, which gave the
ANZELA Conference 2016
12
university a practical legal standing in a lawsuit the first time. The private higher education
faced the same situation in development and more regulation will focus on the basic right
of equality of access to higher learning resources.
Conclusion
In accordance with the 2010-2020 Reform and Plan for Chinese Education Development
promulgated by the Ministry of Education, the Chinese government will continually focus
on the revision of the essential structure of private education. The fundamental change will
be to put the two types of private education into practice. This policy will probably be re-
considered and be passed in National Council this year. The modification of Promoting
Private Education Law would be a turning point for Chinese education legislation, which
will complete the framework of Chinese education, giving the private education a full legal
standing within suitable and reasonable statues. The significance of revising private
education law would be to reconsider the position of private education. After revision, the
private education is not an educational issue anymore. Changes on Promotion Law will
result from revising the corporation law and taxation regulations at the same time, which
fit the intention of comprehensive reform happening all around China now.
Without any doubt, the incoming regulations on private education including the joint
universities with foreign counterparts, would be an ideal policy making orientation and
procedure combined with the deep educational value within Chinese culture, which makes
the control of private higher education focus on both quantity and quality.
There are many changes for the vocational training and higher learning field, especially the
online postsecondary education attracted attention of all other traditional industries. The
revising of private education law provide basic guidance for investing and operating private
colleges in China, with coexisting challenges and opportunities. The changes to private
education law will give Chinese students more choices of higher education resources, more
private investment would join the arena, and broaden the demands of education law as a
profession.
References:
Department of development & planning, Ministry of education of china, Educational
Academy of Shanghai. 2002 Green Paper on Non-governmental Education in China.
Educational press of Shanghai, 2003.
National Center of Educational Development Research. 2001 Green Paper on Education
in China。Educational Science Publishing House, Beijing, 2001.
Huang Teng, Qifang Series of Books on Non-government/private Education, China Social
Science Press, 2003
Hu Dabai, Zhang Xihou, Tang Baomei. The Swift Rise and Develping Tendency of China’s
Civilian-run Higher Education. Journal of Huanghe S&T University. 2004.3.
Shen Jianguang. The strategic Transformation and Policy Response of the Development of
Non-Governmental Education. Educational Research. 2009.8