Priority issues

Developmental activities in India havebeen pursued without giving much attentionon environmental issues. This has resulted inpressure on its finite natural resources, be-sides creating impacts on human health andwell being. 5 priority issues are discussed inthe report. The priority issues identified are1) land degradation 2) biodiversity 3) airpollution with special reference to vehicularpollution in urban cities 4) management offresh water and 5) hazardous waste withspecial reference to municipal solid wastemanagement. These priority issues are ana-lyzed by following the pressure-state-impact-response framework. Conscious efforts needto be made to integrate the environmentalplanning into development planning toachieve the sustainable development.

��������

����������

Land degradation�

Introduction

Of India’s total geographical area of 328.73million hectare (mha), 304.89 mha comprisethe reporting area and 264.5 mha only isunder use for agriculture, forestry, pasture andother biomass production. Since 1970/71, thenet area sown has remained around 140 mha(Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation1992) and was 142.22 mha during 1998/99.

India supports approximately 16% of theworld’s human population and 20% of theworld’s livestock population on merely 2.5% ofthe world’s geographical area. The steadygrowth of human as well as livestock popula-tion, the widespread incidence of poverty, andthe current phase of economic and tradeliberalisation, are exerting heavy pressures onIndia’s limited land resources for competinguses in forestry, agriculture, pastures, humansettlements and industries. This has led to verysignificant land degradation. According to thelatest estimates (Sehgal and Abrol 1994),about 187.8 mha (57% approximately) out of328.73 mha of land area has been degraded inone way or the other. It appears therefore, thatmost of our land is degraded, is undergoingdegradation or is at the risk of getting de-graded.

Among the different categories, landsunder cultivation face the biggest problemfollowed by grazing land and pastures, forests,barren lands, and unculturable lands in de-creasing order.

The negative effects of land degradationare telling very heavily on India’s environmentand economy, which are causes of grave con-cern.

Pressure

Land in India suffers from varying degrees andtypes of degradation stemming mainly fromunstable use and inappropriate managementpractices. Loss of vegetation occurs due todeforestation, cutting beyond thesilviculturally permissible limit, unsustainablefuelwood and fodder extraction, shifting culti-vation, encroachment into forest lands, forestfires and over grazing all of which subject theland to degradational forces. Other importantfactors responsible for large-scale degradationare the extension of cultivation to lands of lowpotential or high natural hazards, non-adop-tion of adequate soil conservation measures,improper crop rotation, indiscriminate use ofagro-chemicals such as fertilisers and pesti-cides, improper planning and management ofirrigation systems and extraction of groundwater in excess of the recharge capacity. Inaddition, there are a few underlying or indirectpressures such as land shortage, short-term orinsecure land tenancy, open access resource,economic status and poverty of the agriculturedependent people, which are also instrumentalto a significant extent, in the degradation ofthe land.

Land degradation manifest itself chiefly inthe form of water erosion, followed by winderosion, biophysical, and chemical deteriora-tion.

DirDirDirDirDirect prect prect prect prect pressuressuressuressuressureseseseses� Deforestation is both, a type of degradation

by itself, and a cause for other types ofdegradation, principally, water erosion.Deforestation causes degradation firstly,

������������������������ ������������

when the land cleared is steeply sloping, orhas shallow or easily erodible soils; andsecondly, where the clearance is not fol-lowed by good land management (Photo8.1). Between 1980 and 1990, forests weredepleted at the rate of about 0.34 mhaannually while, afforestation efforts coveredabout one mha of area annually during thesame period (MoEF 1999). Forests in Indiahave also been shrinking owing to pressuresfrom user groups.

������ � ����� ���������� ���� �� �� �������

������ �� ����� ���������� ���� �� ������

� Impoverishment of the natural woodycover of trees and shrubs is a major factorresponsible for wind and water erosion,which occurs because the per capita forestland in the country is only 0.08 ha againstthe requirement of 0.47 ha to meet basicneeds, creating excessive pressure on forestlands (Photo 8.2). This gap has resulted in

unpermissible levels of timber, firewood,and fodder extraction from the forests. Thedemand for commercial timber comesfrom industries including pulp and paper,plywood, packaging, housing, matchwood,sports goods, furniture, agricultural imple-ments and railway-coaches (FSI 1987). Thetotal demand for timber, including smalltimber, was estimated at 64.4 million cumfor 1996 with a growth rate of 5% perannum (FSI 1995).

� Although, officially, extraction from theforests is organised so as to maintain asustainable yield yet, in practice, theextraction far exceeds the limit resultingin a rapid depletion of forest stock.According to the State of Forest Report(FSI 1987), against the demand ofmore than 27 million cubic metre, thepermissible felling of timber was only12 million cubic metre creating an excessfelling of about 15 million cubic metre overthe permissible limit with a consequent lossof vegetative cover so essential for thehealth of the land.

� Firewood extraction from forests has beenfar exceeding the silviculturally permissiblelimit resulting in a rapid depletion of theforests (Photo 8.3). Extraction of woodfrom forests for fuel is believed to be oneof the most important causes of forest

������ �� �������� �������

������������������������ ������������

�����������������������

degradation in India. Fuelwoodconsumption was estimated at 260 millioncubic metre in 1997 as against the sustain-able supply of 52.6 million cubic metre andhas grown at a rate of about 2.4% perannum between 1980 and 1994 (Pachauriand Sridharan 1998). This has beenhappening especially in the semi-arid andarid environments of India wherefuelwood shortages are often severe andrecurrent.

� A livestock population of 467 milliongrazes on 11 mha of pastures. This impliesan average of 42 animals grazing in ahectare of land against the threshold levelof 5 animals per hectare (Sahay 2000). Inthe absence of adequate grazing land,nearly a third of the fodder requirement ismet from forests in the form of grazingand cut fodder for stall-feeding (MoEF1999). An estimated 100 million cow unitsgraze in forests against a sustainable levelof 31 million per annum (Photo 8.4). Asample survey by the FSI estimates that theimpact of grazing affects approximately78% of India’s forests. Overgrazing andover extraction of green fodder, both leadto forest and land degradation through aloss of vegetation and physicaldeterioration in the form of compactionand reduced infiltration, and increase insoil erodibility.

� Shifting cultivation is traditionally prac-tised in 13 states of the country and moreextensively in the northeastern hill states,Orissa and the Eastern Ghats on anestimated forest area of about 4.35 mha.This contribute significantly towards forestland degradation With the progressivereduction in the land to population ratio,the fallow period between cultivations hasfallen from 30 years to about 2 to 3 years.This in turn does not permit the naturalprocesses of recuperation to repair thedisturbed ecosystem resulting in erosionand a decline of soil fertility.

� An estimated 0.7 mha of forest lands areencroached upon for agriculture by thepeople who live in their vicinity, such landsare mostly of a marginal nature, susceptibleto degradation.

� The occurrence of frequent forest fires hasbeen a major cause of degradation of forestland in many parts of India. Apart from thedestruction of vegetation, high intensityforest fires alter the physico-chemical andbiological properties of the surface soil andleave the land prone to erosion and with alowering of soil quality.

� The extension of cultivation to land oflower potential and fertility, with greaternatural degradation hazards such as steepslopes areas of shallow or sandy soils, orwith laterite crusts, arid or semi-arid landbordering to deserts, which are calledfragile or marginal lands, in many parts ofthe country has resulted in their degrada-tion.

� The use of agrochemicals has becomeessential for modern agriculture, but they,together with sewage sludge and compostedmunicipal wastes are used improperly andindiscriminately, leading to the contamina-tion of soil and water with toxic substancesand heavy metals. This problem is wide-spread over the country although there isno exact estimate of the area affected.

������ �� �������� � � �����

�����������������������

������������������������ ������������

� The expansion of canal irrigation has beenassociated with widespread waterloggingand salinity problems in command areas.Disturbances of the hydrological equilib-rium resulting from excessive rechargebecause of inefficient use of irrigationwater, poor land development, seepage fromunlined water courses, non-conjunctive useof surface and ground water resources andpoor drainage have all resulted in a rise ofthe water table in most canal commandareas. Where the water table approaches thesurface, waterlogging occurs associated withsalinisation and/or sodification. Such phe-nomena have occurred on a large scale inseveral parts of canal command areas suchas the Indo-Gangetic plains and the IndiraGandhi Nahar Project. In arid, semi-aridand sub-humid tracts of the country, largeareas have been rendered barren due to thedevelopment of saline-sodic soils because ofunhealthy land management in respect ofirrigation, drainage and crop husbandry. Anestimated 11 mha of land has thus beenaffected by varying degrees of salinity andsodicity in different parts of the country.

� An increase in industrialisation, urbanisa-tion and infrastructural development isprogressively taking away considerable areasof land from agriculture, forestry,grasslands and pastures, and unused landswith wild vegetation, resulting in environ-mental disturbances. Regional plans do notbuild in environmental components toprovide zones for the above compatible withsurrounding land uses. This process hasresulted in the degradation of land directlythrough changed land use and also throughthe negative impacts of waste disposal.

� Land degradation is the inevitable result ofany form of mining, particularly opencastmining, which thoroughly disturbs thephysical, chemical, and biological featuresof the soil and alters the socioeconomicfeatures of the area (Photos 8.5 and 8.6).Although there are no data available for thearea actually affected by mining and quar-

rying, mining lease area is approximately0.8 mha, which may be taken as degradeddirectly due to mining activities in additionto the areas affected indirectly.

� Water erosion across the country is themajor cause of topsoil loss (in 132 mha)and terrain deformation (in 16.4 mha).Wind erosion is dominant in the westernpart of the country causing a loss of topsoil and terrain deformation in 13 mha

������ �� � ����������� ������ �� �����

������ � ����� ���������� ���� �� ����� �����

������������������������ ������������

����������������������

(Sehgal and Abrol 1994). Landmanagement practices are often not gearedto check water erosion on slopes and winderosion on level lands of dry regionsleading to considerable deterioration.Often, it is neither the environment nor thetype of land use that necessarily leads todegradation, but the standard of landmanagement.

IndirIndirIndirIndirIndirect or underlying prect or underlying prect or underlying prect or underlying prect or underlying pressuressuressuressuressuresesesesesTogether with an increase in population landshortage in India has also increased in thealready small per capita agricultural lands. Asa result of fragmentation the number of landholdings has increased from 48 million in1960 to 105 million in 1990 and is still moretoday. Most holdings (> 75%) are less than 2ha (small and marginal). While there is virtu-ally no culturable unused land in the countrythe population to be supported from this finiteland resource is growing fast. The direct andindirect causes of land degradation are linkedby a chain of cause and effect, or the causalnexus. The external, or driving forces arelimited land resources and an increase in ruralpopulation. They combine to produce landshortages, resulting in small farms, low pro-duction per person and increasing landlessnesswhose consequence in term, is poverty. Landshortage and poverty, taken together, lead tonon-sustainable land management practices,the direct causes of degradation. This has theeffect of increasing land shortage, a viciouscycle of cause and effect.

State - Impacts

According to the estimates of actual land-useand vegetation cover by the National RemoteSensing Agency and the Forest Survey ofIndia based on satellite imagery, 80 mha outof 142 mha under cultivation is substantiallydegraded and about 40 mha out of 75 mhaunder the forest departments has a canopy

cover of less than 40% (Gadgil 1993). Nearly11 mha of pasturelands is also substantiallydegraded. Thus, a total of 131 mha, represent-ing about 40% of the country’s landmass, hasa productivity well below its potential. According toWastelands Atlas of India 2000 (1:50,000 scalemap), the total wastelands area covered in 584districts is 63.85 million which accounts 20.17% ofthe total geographical area.

India supports approximately 16% of theworld’s human and 20% of livestock popula-tion on a mere 2.5% of the world’s geographicalarea. The pressure on the country’s land resources isobvious. Further, competing uses of land forforestry, agriculture, pastures, human settlements,and industries exert an enormous pressure on thecountry’s finite land resources. This is mainlybecause the country has not been implement-ing a well-defined integrated land use policyand land management has largely been unsci-entific and arbitrary both of which have resulted inthe current phase of degradation.

Land degradation in India has beenbrought about largely through i) displacementof soil materials and their deposition, and, ii)in situ degradation. Top soil loss and terraindeformation through water and wind erosionand also overblowing through wind erosionare manifestations of the first category andchemical degradation involving loss ofnutrients and/or organic matter, salinisationand pollution, and physical degradation in theform of waterlogging, mass movement, landslides, compaction, crusting and sealing, inthe second.

Soil erosionThe fertility status and the productivity of soilas a medium for biomass production dependslargely on the top soil which, besides being aproducer of biomass, is important for manyother well-known important functions.Soil erosion, by wind or water, affects thesefunctions adversely and has produced consid-erable negative impacts both on-site as well asoff-site. Out of the total estimated degraded

������������������������ ������������

land of the country, about 162.4 mha isdue to displacement of soil material bywater and wind and 21.7 mha is due to in situprocesses as salinity and waterlogging.The remaining 4 mha is affected by thedepletion of nutrients (CSWCRTI 1994)(Photo 8.7).

Soil erosion by water results largely in theloss of top soil and terrain deformation, beinga function of geological formation, rainfall,susceptibility to erosion, length and steepnessof slope, cultural practices, vegetative cover,

land, forest fire and over grazing are mainlyresponsible for the degradation of forest lands(some estimates are given in the section onpressures). Obviously the governance is notproperly geared to regulate and control thefactors mentioned above and adequate en-forcement is conspicuous by its absence(Photo 8.8).

Narayana and Ram Babu (1983) analysedthe existing data on soil loss and concluded,as a first approximation, that soil was beingeroded at an annual average rate of 16.35tonnes per hectare, yielding a figure of 5.3

������ �� ���� ������ ������ �� ������ ���������� ���� ���� ������� �� ���� ����

������ ������� �

������ ����� !������ ������� "##$%#&

and conservation measures being followed.Soil erosion accounts for 87% of the totaldegraded land in India. Erosion due to wateris greater in regions, which receive heavyrainfall over short periods than in places withlow-intensity rainfall.

Non-adoption of proper soil and waterconservation measures, improper crop rotationand extension of cultivation onto lands of lowpotential or high natural hazards, are some ofimportant reasons contributing to soil erosionin lands under cultivation. Similarly, loss ofvegetation due to deforestation, over cuttingbeyond silviculturally permissible limit, un-sustainable fuel and fodder extraction,shifting cultivation, encroachment into forest

billion tonnes a year for the entire country Ofthat, nearly 29% is permanently lost to the sea;about 10% is deposited in reservoirs (therebydecreasing their storage capacity by 2% annually);and the remaining 61% is merely displaced.

Gurmel Singh, Ram Babu, Narain, andothers (1990) estimated that the annual ero-sion rate ranges from less than 5 tonnes/ha fordense forests, snow-clad cold deserts, andarid regions of western Rajasthan to morethan 80 tonnes/ha in the Shiwalik hills. Thesingle largest category is moderate erosion (5to 10 tonnes/ha annually). The annual loss ofsoil amounts to nearly 5 billion tonnes, of

������������������������ ������������

�����������������������

ing from felling, excessive grazing, extensionof agriculture to marginal areas, and thedepletion of organic matter because ofunsuitable cropping patterns, has been themajor cause of accelerated wind erosion dueto human activities. Structureless sandy soils,low in organic matter and water holdingcapacity, are vulnerable to strong desiccatingwinds. Wind erosion is a serious problem inarid and semi-arid regions and coastal areas,where soils are sandy, and in the cold desertregions of Leh in the extreme north of India.The threshold velocity for initiating winderosion has been estimated at 10 km/hour.

The arid and semi-arid regions of thenorth-west cover 28 600 square kilometres, ofwhich the sand dunes and sandy plains ofwestern Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, andGujarat account for 66% (Gupta 1990). Se-vere wind erosion is observed mostly in theextreme western sectors of the country. It isreported that the removal and deposition ofsand during a 100-day period from April toJune ranges between 1449 and 5560 tonnes/ha(Gurmel Singh, Ram Babu, Narain, andothers 1990). The latest estimates show thatarea affected by wind erosion is 13.5 mha(4.1% of the total geographical area). The lossof topsoil accounts for 1.9% of the total areaunder soil degradation; terrain deformationfor 1.2%; and shifting of sand dunes another0.5% (Sehgat and Abrol 1994).

On-site impacts of erosionIn more than three-quarters of the area thatsuffers from soil erosion, productivity islowered by 5% to more than 50% because theloss of productivity is directly linked to itsseverity. Different crops vary in their responseto soil erosion - groundnut suffers the mostand cotton the least. The difference inresponse is largely due to the differences inthe rooting patterns of individual crops.Productivity loss is also influenced by thedepth of soil - the shallower the soil, the

���� � !�� �������� � � ���� ���������� �� '���

������� ����������

( ���� ���������� ������ ������ ������

����������� ")&*#

���������� "+*,

(��� "-.*)

������������/������� "0*"

����%������ ""*-

1������ ������ ��� +*$

(��� "&$*&

which 3.2 billion tonnes (64%) is contributedby highly eroded to very severely erodedareas, such as the Shiwalik hills, the WesternGhats, black and red soil areas, the north-eastern states and other ravinous tracts.

The loss of natural vegetative cover result-

�����������������������

������������������������ ������������

greater the loss. According to a World Bankstudy (Brandon, Hommann, and Kishor1995) the annual loss in production of majorcrops due to soil erosion in India has beenestimated to be 13.5 million tonnes by Bansil(1990) and 7.2 million tonnes by UNDP,FAO and UNEP (1993). The loss inproduction of eleven major crops amountedto 1.7% of the total production of these cropsin 1992/93 (UNDP, FAO, and UNEP 1993),and 4.1% of the total production in 1985/86(Bansil 1990).

However, the current (one-year only)influence of past soil degradation actuallyundervalues the total loss resulting from thedegradation. Erosion-induced productivitylosses are not confined to a terminal year, butaccumulate throughout most or all of theintervening period.

Loss of nutrients and/or organic matterThe loss of topsoil due to erosion depletes theproductive substrate since a major portion ofthe essential plant nutrients are present there.Soils over much of the sub-continent are alsohighly deficient in Soil Organic Matter (SOM)with an associated proneness to degradation.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey andLand Use Planning (Sehgal and Abrol 1994)data show that nearly 3.7 million ha sufferfrom nutrient loss and/or depletion of organicmatter. The problem is widespread in thecultivated areas of the subtropical belt, includ-ing areas under shifting cultivation orjhumming in the northeastern states.

Efforts have been made to estimate the lossof available nutrients by using the averagecontent of nutrients in the top soil of each ofthe 24 soil types in India, the land area undereach type, and the annual erosion rates inthese soils estimated by the Central Soil andWater Conservation Research and TrainingInstitute, ICAR. India loses nearly 74 milliontonnes of major nutrients due to erosion

annually. However, nearly 61% of the erodedsoil is merely moved, and the effective loss isthe remaining 39%. Thus, the country loses0.8 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1.8 milliontonnes of phosphorus, and 26.3 million tonnesof potassium every year. However, accordingto the Government of India, the quantity ofnutrients lost due to erosion each year rangesfrom 5.8 to 8.4 million tonnes.

Off-site impacts of erosionHigher erosion rates have resulted in thesedimentation of river beds, siltation of drain-age channels, irrigation canals, and reservoirs.Siltation has changed the hydrology of severalwatersheds of the country, resulting in agreater frequency and severity of floods, andreducing water availability in dry season. Thestorage capacity of many reservoirs has beenreduced drastically due to accelerated erosionand deposition. Siltation of major river coursesand spillover sections due to excessive deposi-tion of silt is observed extensively in Bihar andUttar Pradesh since many flood-prone riversflow through them. The total area affected bythis problem is estimated to be 2.73 mha (Das1977, Mukherjee et al. 1985). The Ganga andBrahmaputra carry the maximum sedimentload, about 586 and 470 million tonnes, re-spectively, every year. Approximately 6 000 to12 000 million tonnes of fertile soil are erodedannually and a significant proportion of it isdeposited in the reservoirs resulting in a re-duction of their storage capacity by 1%–2%.

The siltation rate of reservoirs in India hasbeen estimated to be much higher than thevalues assumed at the time of designing. Thishas drastically reduced the life of projects,which involved huge investments. River valleyprojects reservoirs are prematurely gettingsilted up due to deposition of eroded soil.Against the designed rates of siltation (tonnes/ha/year) of 0.29 (Nizamsagar) to 4.29(Ramganga), the actual siltation rates vary

�����������������������

from 6.57 (Nizamsagar) to 17.3 (Ramganga).The siltation rate of the Mayurakshi reservoiris 20.09 against the designed rate of 3.61 (Bali1994). The annual sediment load inflow intomany reservoirs ranges from 0.6 to 122.7 ha-m/ 10 000 ha.

FloodingThe increasing frequency of floods in India islargely due to deforestation in the catchmentareas, destruction of surface vegetation,changes in land-use, increased urbanisation,and other developmental activities. Processesleading to flooding are becoming more com-mon due to increased sedimentation andreduced capacity of drainage systems. In-creased gully erosion and ravine formationresults in increased run-off and peak dischargefor any given rainfall from watersheds. In-creased sedimentation in streams, canals andrivers reduces their capacity but increases theirwidth. Satellite imagery of Himalayan torrentshows that between 1990 and 1997 the widthof torrents has increased by 106% and that ofrivers by 36%. Consequently, streams andrivers overflow their banks, flooding the down-stream areas.

These are of frequent occurrence in manyparts of India, especially in hilly terrain, caus-ing a disruption of normal life and considerabledamage to the productive land system. Theproblem of human-induced waterlogging in Indiais more common in canal command areas (surfaceirrigation) because irrigation facilities are oftenintroduced without adequate provision for drainageresulting in a rise of the water table.

Chemical degradationLoss of plant nutrients. India has, over the pastfour decades, increased its annual food pro-duction from about 50 million tonnes in1950/51 to 193.6 million tonnes in 1995/96.The increase in production is largely becauseof increased inputs – mainly nutrients and

water – and partly because of an expandedcultivated area. Although the use of fertilisershas increased several fold, the overall con-sumption continues to be low in most parts ofthe country. Several studies have shown thatin most regions there is a net negative balanceof nutrients and a gradual depletion of theorganic matter content of soil

It is estimated that every year, 20.2 milliontonnes of the three major nutrients –nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium – isremoved by growing crops (Tandon 1992) butthe corresponding addition through chemicalfertilisers and organic manures falls short ofthis figure. It was determined that only 23%of the applied fertiliser is consumed by plants;the remaining 77% is either leached outbeyond the root zone or lost by volatilisation,etc. Thus, out of 20.2 million tonnes ofnutrients removed by plants, only 2.66 milliontonnes comes from fertilisers and nearly 3million tonnes from organic sources. Thisleaves a little less than 14 million tonnes,which is obviously contributed by soil. If theloss of nutrients due to soil erosion isincluded the loss of nutrients from the topsoil is 43 million tonnes, which amounts to0.24% of the nutrient reserves of the soils.According to Brandon, Hommann, andKishor (1995), the annual loss in productionof eleven major crops in India due todepletion of nutrient as a result of unsuitableagricultural practices amounts to 0.5 to 1.3million tonnes. This estimate, however, doesnot take into account the loss due to erosion.The problem of maintaining the nutrientbalance and preventive the consequentnutrient deficiencies will be a major concernin most cultivated areas.

Salininisation. Salt-affected soils arewidespread in the arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid zones of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.Alkali soils dominate in areas with a meanannual rainfall of more than 600 mm, while

������������������������ ������������

saline soils are dominant in the arid, semi-arid, and coastal regions. About 7 mha issalt-affected, of which 2.5 mha represents thealkali soils in the Indo-Gangetic Plain andnearly 50% of the canal-irrigated areas asaffected by salinisation and/or alkalisationdue to inadequate drainage, inefficient use ofavailable water resources, and socio-politicalreasons. Typical examples of salinisationcaused by the rise in ground water areobserved in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Arecent study by Sehgal and Abrol (1994)shows that a total of 10.1 mha is affected bysalinity-alkalinity, of which about 2.5 mhaoccurs in the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Improperplanning and management of surfaceirrigation systems contributes heavily towardssalt affectation especially in canal commandareas.

Salinity/sodicity directly affects the pro-ductivity of soils by making the soilunfavourable for good crop growth.Indirectly, it lowers productivity throughadverse effects on the availability of nutrientsand on the beneficial activities of soilmicroflora. According to Brandon,Hommann, and Kishor (1995), the loss incrop production due to salinity in Indiaamounts to 6.2 million tonnes (FAO data)and 9.7 million tonnes (Indian data).

PollutionHeavy metals. The pollution of soil with heavymetals due to improper disposal of industrialeffluents, use of domestic and municipalwastes and pesticides, is becoming a majorconcern. Though no reliable estimates areavailable of the extent and degree of this typeof soil degradation, it is believed that theproblem is extensive and its effects are signifi-cant. Some commercial fertilisers also containappreciable quantities of heavy metals, whichhave undesirable effects on the environment.The indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals suchas fertilisers and pesticides is often responsiblefor land degradation.

Crusting and sealing are results of theimpact of raindrops on bare soil. Red and blacksoils are especially vulnerable. Soil structure,infiltration and permeability characteristics areaffected adversely to a considerable extent dueto excessive grazing, fire and mismanagement ofsoil under cultivation but the data are toosketchy to arrive at even a rough estimate of thetotal area affected.

Response

A reclamation of the nearly 187 mha of exist-ing degraded land in the country andconcurrent efforts to arrest further degrada-tion, as estimated, are of the utmostimportance. Combating further land degrada-tion and investing in conservation of land forthe present as well as future generations willbe a major task involving the promotion ofsustainable development and nature conser-vation. This will be a major challenge in thecoming decades that will involve a paradigmshift from the purely technical to a moreholistic sustainable land management systemthat will be environmentally responsible,socially beneficial and economically viable.

Existing rExisting rExisting rExisting rExisting responseesponseesponseesponseesponse� Watershed management programmes have

been taken up extensively in the recent past.The Soil and Water Conservation Divisionin the Ministry of Agriculture has beenplaying a key role in implementing inte-grated watershed management programmeswith a plan to cover 86 mha. 26 mha (27river valley catchments and 8 in flood pronerivers) are considered highly critical andhave been given a priority under 35 cen-trally-sponsored projects. Over 30 000hectares of shifting and semi-stable sanddunes have been treated with shelter beltsand strip cropping (ESCAP 1995).

����������������������

� The National Bureau of Soil Survey &Land Use Planning and the Central Soiland Water Conservation Research andTraining Institute, ICAR, have jointlyinitiated the preparation of soil erosionmaps of different states using the compo-nents of Universal Soil Loss Equation. Asimilar assessment needs to be carried outfor other degradational processes also. Inaddition the All-India Soil and Land UseSurvey, MoA, is engaged in generatingspatial and non-spatial information on thesoils of India and preparing of thematicmaps like land capability classification,hydrological soil grouping irrigability classifica-tion, etc. The state governments are alsoworking on various aspects of soil conser-vation following the guidelines of thecentre.

Policy gapPolicy gapPolicy gapPolicy gapPolicy gapLand management has been largelyunsystematic, arbitrary and, by no means,sustainable. So far the country has not imple-mented a well-defined integrated land usepolicy. This lacuna has largely been responsi-ble for the current phase of land degradation.To make things worse, there is no ruralfuelwood as well as grazing and fodder policyalso at the national level with the result, thatgrazing is far beyond the carrying capacity andextraction of fuel and fodder from forests isalso far beyond the sustainable limits, creatingenormous negative impacts on the forests andland.

Knowledge/information/data gapAlthough land degradation is recognised as aserious problem, information available on theseverity as also the area affected by variousforms of degradation is limited, highlyvariable and sketchy.

Policy recommendations� A well-defined integrated land use policy

at the implementable level should be devel-oped at the earliest, as also rural fuelwoodand grazing and fodder policies to guidemanagement of land and forestscientifically and sustainably.

� A National Land Use Commission en-trusted with the responsibility of layingdown such policies, implementing strategiesand monitoring guidelines with supportfrom the existing All-India Soil and LandUse Survey, National Bureau of SoilSurvey and Land Use Planning and theForest Survey of India under thestewardship of the Planning Commissionwill go a long way to address most of land-related issues.

� To ensure that land is put under right kindof use guarding against any deleteriouseffects, it is imperative that it is put to useaccording to its capability. For this purpose,guidance from the USDA Land CapabilityClassification with modifications to suitIndian conditions can be taken, which alongwith scientifically sound land managementpractices would address land degradationproblems and maintain land quality forsustainable use.

� Land management in conjunction withwater management needs to be the core ofany agenda for national development as thetwo resources are absolutely inter-depend-ent and cannot be dealt with independentof the other. As far as possible, land shouldbe managed on a natural watershed basis asit presents an ideal unit for most effectivemanagement and rational utilisation of landand water resources for optimum produc-tion with minimum hazard to theresources.

� Increasing the utilisation of irrigationpotential, promoting water conservationand efficient water management along withexpansion of irrigation facilities, especially

������������������������ ������������

in drought-prone areas, need urgent atten-tion to enhance production withoutharming land and soil. To ensuresustainability of production in rainfedareas, in situ soil and moisture conservationon mini-watershed basis, irrespective ofwhether they belong to forest department,private bodies or local communities, shouldbe a major thrust area for increasing pro-ductivity levels.

� A correct assessment of the nature andextent of the existing degraded landthrough a rapid inventory using remotesensing techniques and GIS needs to becarried out as early as possible with scien-tifically sound criteria and indicators.Advantage of the Soil and Terrain Database(SOTER) and Global Assessment of Hu-man-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD)can also be taken. This will enable theadoption of measures to counter varioustypes of degradation at the right time andplace.

� Ministries or departments such as theMoEF, MoA, MoRD, MoWR, MoM, MoI,etc., at both the national as well as statelevel, are involved in land use in the coun-try. The Land Use Commission shouldinvolve them, NGOs and other stakeholdersto develop a coordinated approach for landuse and management and for resolvingrelated cross-cutting issues.

� Policy issues in sustainable land manage-ment may include coordination of landtitling, economic policy, nature conserva-tion policy, and population policy. Therefore,national strategies for sustainable use of landresources need to thoroughly harmonise, adapt,and integrate the different strategies and policiesof governments, which are directly or indirectlylinked to the use of land by stakeholders.

� Soil nutrient mining results in serious soilhealth and ecological problems, whichneeds urgent attention. Integrated PlantNutrient System (IPNS), have to be

adopted to improve fertiliser use efficiencyand reduce the potential danger of pollu-tion from higher nutrient use inagriculture.

� A systematic monitoring mechanism needsto be developed to assess the balance be-tween input and withdrawal of nutrients toguard against possible nutrient depletion(Sarkar et al. 1991). Also, there is a need todefine the threshold values for such addi-tions and for promoting a balance with useof organic manure, chemical fertilisers,bio-fertilisers and agrochemicals to ensuresustainability and increased production.

� Domestic and municipal wastes, sludges,pesticides, industrial wastes, etc. need to beused with utmost caution to avoid thepossibility of pollution of soil throughheavy metals and other toxic substanceswhich are often present in them.

� Shifting cultivation with a short fallowcycle does not allow enough time for theland to recuperate naturally and isresponsible for large-scale (about 4.5 mha)land degradation in several parts of thecountry. The practice, a socio-economicoutlet, needs to be discouraged andalternatives to the people engaged in thepractice need to be provided in a phasedmanner for their livelihood.

� Limited land resources and an increase inrural population, both produce land short-ages through fragmentation of holdingsresulting in small farms, low production perperson and increase in landlessness, whichleads to poverty. Land shortages and pov-erty farther lead to non-sustainable landmanagement practices, one of the impor-tant causes and effect nexuses of landdegradation. The major challenge in theagriculture sector is to check the fragmenta-tion of land holdings which can beachieved by: providing security of landrights and land tenure; encouraging theefficient use of marginal lands; developing

�����������������������

areas of untapped potential therebycorrecting uneven utilisation of land; andusing the irrigation potential efficiently. Atenure regime should be clear, flexible andsecure.

� Implementation of land-related policies is acomplex and sensitive task. It would requiregovernment as well as non-governmentalsectors such as communities, private bodiesto come to a common platform. Addition-ally, the steps, mechanisms and institutionalstructures for policy implementation needto be drafted along with a detailed actionplan clearly designating responsibilities andtaking into consideration the intrinsiccharacter of land, the concerned usergroups and future possibilities.

� Improvements in sustainable land use anddevelopment impinge on the interests of allstakeholders—both individuals and groups.Therefore, a multi-level stakeholder ap-proach for the planning process is essentialto obtain socially balanced results in whichthe economic and ecological objectives areboth given due weightage. All stakeholderssuch as farmers/conservationists, owners/tenants, individuals/communities as well asadministrators, planners, governments, etc.should participate in problem analysis,express and evaluate their needs, interestsand aims, and then negotiate options andpriorities for action. This approach impliesdemocratic and, to some extent, formalisedprocedures, but which are based on a soundinformation foundation that includes dataon the properties of the land, the land usesand their functions in the recovery of theecosystem. In a multi-stakeholder approach,three principles must converge—good landhusbandry, sustainable land use, and anenabling institutional environment. Tech-nology transfer and training needs forfarmers, especially women, small and mar-ginal farmers and other disadvantagedsections of rural society are of paramountimportance.

� Failure of land-users and communityleaders to recognise or to be educatedabout the causes, urgency, seriousness, andfull consequences of degradation oftenworks against any measures to counterdegradation. In this context, the negotiatedparticipatory approach needs to be adoptedto mitigate some of these adverse effects.

� An increase in industrialisation, urbanisa-tion, mining and infrastructure development istaking away considerable areas of land fromagriculture, forestry, grassland, pasture, etc.resulting in environmental disturbances. Toharmonise such developmental activities andmake them compatible with surroundingland use and guard against any form of landdegradation,an Area-wide Environment Quality Manage-ment (AEQM) approach needs to be adopted.

� The agricultural extension system of thecountry needs revamping to make it moreefficient and far-reaching and the lab-to-land concept needs to be translated topractice so that multidisciplinary technicalinformation, viable land use options andalternatives identified for various agro-ecological and socio-economic units andcrop combinations and crop rotationssuitable for them, as suggested by theICAR, can be advanced to the land usersfor more vigourous and effective land man-agement results.

� Education, training, research, and technol-ogy development would enable to focus onanalysing and adapting conditions andprinciples for sustainable land use as well asresource conservation technologies andpractices. Research institutes should lookfor ways of working closely with land usersand communities.

� Informal and formal institutions andorganisations – from farmer groups, localNGOs and communities to ministries,government policies, and legislations canonly be sustained, if they are accepted and

������������������������ ������������

supported by their respective populations.This means that local knowledge systems,norms and values, must be respected.Negotiation processes among allstakeholders, which must be a part of goodgovernance and administrativemanagement, can be enhanced by betterinformation and knowledge about landuser’s visions, options and needs withrespect to sustainable land management.

References

Bansil, P.C. (1990) Agricultural Statistical Compen-dium. New Delhi: Techno-economic ResearchInstitute. 1: 581 pp.

Bali, J.S. (1994) ‘Soil and land use policy’. InNatural Resources Management for SustainableAgriculture and Environment. Eds. Deb, D.L.,New Delhi: Angkor Publishers Ltd.

Brandon, C.; Hommann, K.; Kishor, N.M. (1995)‘The Cost of Inaction: valuing the economy-wide cost of environmental degradation in India’.46 pp. A paper presented at the UNU conferenceon the Sustainable Future of the Global System.Tokyo, Japan October 16–18, 1995

CSWCRTI (1994) Annual report (1994/95). DehraDun: Central Soil and Water ConservationResearch and Training Institute. 195 pp.

Das, D.C. (1977) ‘Soil conservation practices anderosion control in India – a case study’. FAOSoils Bulletin 33: 11–50

ESCAP (1995) The State of Environment in Asia andthe Pacific (1995). Bangkok: Economic andSocial Council for Asia and the Pacific

FSI (1987) The State of Forest Report. Dehra Dun:Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environmentand Forests, GoI, New Delhi

FSI (1995) The State of Forest Report. Dehra Dun:Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environmentand Forests, GoI, New Delhi

Gadgil, M. (1993) ‘Biodiversity and India’s degradedlands’. Ambio 22: 167-172

Gupta, J.P. (1990) ‘Sand dunes and theirstabilisation’. In Technologies for wasteland develop-ment, edited by Abrol I P and Narayana V V D.New Delhi: Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch. 253 pp.

Gurmel Singh; Ram Babu; Narain, P.; Bhusan, L.S.;Abrol, I.P. (1990) ‘Soil erosion rates in India’Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 47(1): 97–99

MoEF (1999) National Forestry Action Programme.Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. ofIndia, New Delhi, Vol. I, pp. 79

MoAC (1992) Indian Agriculture in Brief, 24th ed.,New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Coop-eration, Ministry of Agriculture, 328 pp.

Mukherjee, B.K.; Das, D.C.; Shamsher Singh;Prasad, C.S.; Samuel, J.C. (1985) Statistics: soiland water conservation – watershed management,land resources and land reclamation. Soil andWater Conservation Division, Ministry of Agri-culture and Rural Development, GoI, NewDelhi. p 21.

Narayan, V.V.D.; Ram Babu. (1993) ‘Estimation ofsoil erosion in India’. In Soil and Water Conserva-tion Research in India. Eds. Narayan, V.V.D., NewDelhi: ICAR Publication

Pachauri, R.K.; Sridharan, P.V. (1998) Looking Backto Think Ahead: growth with resource enhancementof environment and nature. New Delhi: TataEnergy Research Institute. 346 pp.

Sahay, K.B. (2000) ‘Problem of livestock popula-tion’. Delhi: The Tribune, 11 April 2000

Sarkar, M.C.; Banerjee, N.K; Rana, D.S.; Uppal,K.S. (1991) ‘Field measurement of ammoniavolatilisation losses of nitrogen from urea appliedto wheat’. Fertiliser News. 36 (11): 25–29

����������������������

Sehgal, J.; Abrol, I.P. (1994) Soil degradation inIndia: status and impact. New Delhi: Oxford andIBH. 80 pp.

TERI (1995) State of the Environment India (1995).New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute.369 pp.

Tandon, H.L.S. (1992) ‘Fertilisers and their integra-tion with organics and biofertilisers’. In FertiliserOrganic Manure Recyclable Wastes and Biofertilisers,Fertiliser DevelopmentConsultation Organisation, New Delhi

UNDP; FAO; UNEP. (1993) Land degradation inSouth Asia: its severity, causes, and effects upon thepeople [World soils research report no. 78]. Rome:FAO, 100 pp.