Printing press

Recreated Gutenberg press at theInternational Printing Museum, Carson,California

Part of a series on theHistory of printing

Woodblock printing 200Movable type 1040Printing press c. 1440Etching c. 1515Mezzotint 1642Aquatint 1772Lithography 1796Chromolithography 1837Rotary press 1843Hectograph 1869Offset printing 1875Hot metal typesetting 1884Mimeograph 1886Photostat and Rectigraph 1907Screen printing 1910Spirit duplicator 1923Xerography 1938Phototypesetting 1949Inkjet printing 1951Dye-sublimation 1957Dot matrix printing 1968Laser printing 1969Thermal printing c. 19723D printing 1984Digital press 1993

v · t · e

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the history and technology of movable type, see Movable type.

A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon aprint medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. Typically used fortexts, the invention and spread of the printing press are widely regarded as the mostinfluential events in the second millennium[1] revolutionizing the way people conceiveand describe the world they live in, and ushering in the period of modernity.[2]

The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German JohannesGutenberg around 1440, based on existing screw presses. Gutenberg, a goldsmith byprofession, developed a complete printing system, which perfected the printingprocess through all of its stages by adapting existing technologies to the printingpurposes, as well as making groundbreaking inventions of his own. His newly devisedhand mould made for the first time possible the precise and rapid creation of metalmovable type in large quantities, a key element in the profitability of the whole printingenterprise.

The mechanization of bookmaking led to the first mass production of books in historyin assembly line-style.[3] A single Renaissance printing press could produce 3,600pages per workday,[4] compared to forty by typographic hand-printing and a few byhand-copying.[5] Books of bestselling authors like Luther or Erasmus were sold by thehundreds of thousands in their lifetime.[6]

From a single point of origin, Mainz, Germany, printing spread within several decades toover two hundred cities in a dozen European countries.[7] By 1500, printing presses inoperation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty millionvolumes.[7] In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rosetenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[7] The operation of a press became sosynonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to an entire new branch ofmedia, the press.[8] As early as 1620, the English statesman and philosopher Francis Baconcould write that typographical printing has "changed the whole face and state of thingsthroughout the world".[9]

From its beginnings, printing was practiced also as a true art form, setting a high aestheticand artistic standard, such as in the famous 42-line Bible. Today, incunables, that is booksprinted before 1501, are among the most prized possessions of modern libraries.

The unprecedented impact of Gutenberg-style printing on the long-term development ofmodern European and then world history is difficult to capture in its entirety. Attempts atanalysing its manifold effects include the notion of a proper Printing Revolution and thecreation of the Gutenberg Galaxy. The ready availability and affordability of the printed wordto the general public boosted the democratization of knowledge and laid the material basisfor the modern knowledge-based economy.

In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the eraof mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society: The relativelyunrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders,captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religiousauthorities; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite oneducation and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, theincreasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of theEuropean vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca.[10]

In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowedprinting on an industrial scale,[11] while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the solemedium for modern bulk printing.

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Medieval university class (1350s)

Early modern wine press. Suchscrew presses were applied in Europeto a wide range of uses and providedGutenberg with the model for hisprinting press.

Movable type sorted in a letter case

Contents [hide]

1 History1.1 Economic conditions and intellectual climate1.2 Technological factors

2 Function and approach3 Gutenberg's press4 The Printing Revolution

4.1 Mass production and spread of printed books4.2 Circulation of information and ideas

5 Book printing as art form6 Industrial printing presses7 Printing capacity8 Gallery9 See also10 Notes11 References12 External links

History

Economic conditions and intellectual climateSee also: History of capitalism and Medieval university

The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society inEurope created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg'sinvention: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made itsimpact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improvingthe efficiency of traditional work-processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning andliteracy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which thetime-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.[12]

Technological factorsSee also: History of Western typography and Medieval technology

At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes hadreached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands,combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by addinga number of inventions and innovations of his own:

The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on flat-plane was alreadyof great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks.[13]

Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed inagricultural production for pressing wine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of whichformed an integral part of the mediterranean and medieval diet.[14] The device wasalso used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printingpatterns.[15] Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which hadspread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked onthe same mechanical principles.[16]

Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process.[17]

Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing.Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platenon the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. Tospeed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a planesurface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.[18]

The concept of movable type was not entirelynew in the 15th century; sporadic evidencethat the typographical principle, the idea ofcreating a text by reusing individual

characters, was well understood and employed in pre-Gutenberg Europe had beencropping up since the 12th century and possibly before. The known examples rangefrom Germany (Prüfening inscription) to England (letter tiles) to Italy.[19] However, thevarious techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters)

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A paper codex of the acclaimed42-line Bible, Gutenberg's majorwork

This woodcut from 1568shows the left printerremoving a page from thepress while the one at rightinks the text-blocks. Such aduo could reach 14,000 handmovements per working day,printing around 3,600 pagesin the process.[4]

did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted.

Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as twoseparate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printingpurposes so well that it is still used today.[20] The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of aspecial hand mould, the matrix.[21] The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, incontrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of onlyaround two dozen different letters.[22]

Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in theRoman period.[23] Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex hadcompletely replaced the ancient scroll at the onset of the Middle Ages (500 AD).[24] The codex holds considerable practicaladvantages over the scroll format; it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), is more compact, less costly, and, inparticular, unlike the scroll, both recto and verso could be used for writing − and printing.[25]

A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizingpaper manufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certainevidence of which dates to 1282,[26] allowed for a massive expansion of production andreplaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[27] and Muslimpapermaking.[28] Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy,reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further;papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.[29]

Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much onthe rapid spread of movable-type printing.[30] It is notable that codices of parchment,which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material,[31] still had a substantial

share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible.[32] After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome thedifficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitablefor high-quality printing with metal type.[33]

Function and approachA printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to2.1 m) long, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and 7 feet (2.1 m) tall. Type, or small metal letters that havea raised letter on each end, is arranged into pages and placed in a frame to make a forme,which itself is placed onto a flat stone, 'bed,' or 'coffin.' The text is inked using two padsmounted on handles. These pads were stuffed with sheep's wool and were inked. This ink wasthen applied to the text evenly. One damp piece of paper was then taken from a heap ofpaper and placed on the tympan. The paper was damp as this lets the type 'bite' into thepaper better. Small pins hold the paper in place. The paper is now held between a frisket andtympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment).

These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed isrolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism. A small rotating handle is used calledthe 'rounce' to do this, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressurethrough the platen. To turn the screw the long handle attached to it is turned. This is knownas the bar or 'Devil's Tail.' Then the screw is reversed, the windlass turned again to move thebed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printedsheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presseswere developed, some of which could be operated by steam power.

Gutenberg's pressSee also: Letterpress printing

Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—aman who had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[34] However, it was not untila 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record existed; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, aninventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[34]

Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he hadlearned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producingdurable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other knownmaterials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions,[34] a specialmatrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to havecontained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks,and so forth.[35]

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Spread of printing in the 15thcentury from Mainz, Germany

The European book output rosefrom a few million to around one billioncopies within a span of less than fourcenturies.[39]

Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment). In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenbergmade a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies.[36] A later work, the MainzPsalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust andPeter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.[37]

The new era in print ushered in by the Internet is a distant mirror to Gutenberg's work which similarly revolutionized theprinting process.[38]

The Printing RevolutionThe phenomenon of the Printing Revolution can be approached from a quantitative perspective which has its focus on theprinting output and the spread of the related technology. It can also be analysed in terms of how the wide circulation ofinformation and ideas acted as an "agent of change" (Eisenstein) in Europe and global society in general.

Mass production and spread of printed booksSee also: Global spread of the printing press and List of early modern newspapers

The invention of mechanical movable typeprinting led to a huge increase of printingactivities across Europe within only a fewdecades. From a single print shop in Mainz,Germany, printing had spread to no less thanaround 270 cities in Central, Western andEastern Europe by the end of the 15thcentury.[40] As early as 1480, there wereprinters active in 110 different places inGermany, Italy, France, Spain, theNetherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England,Bohemia and Poland.[7] From that time on, it isassumed that "the printed book was inuniversal use in Europe".[7]

In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the followingcentury, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known tobe active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published inVenice.[41]

By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty millioncopies.[7] In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[7]

European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing 3,600 impressions per workday.[4] By comparison,movable type printing in East Asia, which did not know presses and was solely done by manually rubbing the back of thepaper to the page,[42] did not exceed an output of forty pages per day.[5]

The vast printing capacities meant that individual authors could now become true bestsellers: Of Erasmus's work, at least750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469–1536).[43] In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionarypotential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of booksin Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printedcopies.[44]

The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers(see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.[45]

A lasting legacy are the prized incunable, surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the mostprestigious libraries in Europe and North America.[46]

Circulation of information and ideasSee also: The Gutenberg Galaxy

The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate theirdiscoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientificrevolution.[citation needed] Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenlyimportant who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exactciting of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325).Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made inBologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.[citation needed]

Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents,

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"Modern Book Printing"sculpture, commemorating itsinventor Gutenberg on theoccasion of the 2006 WorldCup in Germany

Page-setting room (ca. 1920)

Koenig's 1814 steam-poweredprinting press

and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown.[citation needed]

The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oralreadings to silent, private reading.[citation needed] The wider availability of printed materials alsoled to a dramatic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.[citation needed]

The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge.[47][48]

Within 50 or 60 years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon hadbeen reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now thatmore people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss theseworks. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the firstcopyright laws were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual propertyrights.[citation needed] On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing thedissemination of information which may have been incorrect.[49][50]

A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as thelanguage of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area,increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify andstandardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability.This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited[who?] as one of the causes of the riseof nationalism in Europe.

Book printing as art formFor years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or theplacement of the characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passeddown from master to apprentice. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the"black art", in allusion to the ink-covered printers. It has largely been replaced bycomputer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quicklyand with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the wayGutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printersin Mainz, Germany.

Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an"alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of theimage from society. Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developmentsin printing have revitalized the role of illustrations.

Industrial printing pressesAt the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentiallyunchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printingefficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%,while doubling the size of the printed area.[51] With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, it doubled the output of the old stylepress.[52] Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious.

Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steampower for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbedwith the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfullyimplemented by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designsdevised between 1802 and 1818.[53] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soonmet Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.[51]

Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand pressconnected to a steam engine."[51] The first production trial of this model occurred inApril 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer AndreasFriedrich Bauer.

Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814,capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on 28 November 1814. They went on to perfect theearly model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapersavailable to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of bookproduction, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one ofthe world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.

The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe,[54] allowed millions ofcopies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, ascontinuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.

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Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable ofprinting small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable ofquick set-up (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-poweredjobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500iph often attained on simple envelope work).[citation needed] Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicatingsolution for commerce at this time.

By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Presswas capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.[citation needed]

Printing capacityThe table lists the maximum number of pages which various press designs could print per hour.

Hand-operated presses Steam-powered presses

Gutenberg-style

ca. 1600

Stanhopepress

ca. 1800

Koenig press1812

Koenig press1813

Koenig press1814

Koenig press1818

Impressions perhour

240 [4] 480 [52] 800 [55] 1,100 [56] 2,000 [53] 2,400 [53]

Gallery

Model of the CommonPress, used from 1650 to1850

Printing press from 1811

Stanhope press from1842

Imprenta Press V JohnSherwin from 1860

Hoe's 6-cylinder rotaryprinting press (1864)

The Miehle P.P. & Mfg.Co. (1905)

Press built in 1934 forDaily Mail

A late 1930s Platenprinting press model

Miehle press printing LeSamedi journal inMontreal (1939)

See alsoGeneral

ImprimaturPrintingTypography

Printing presses

Adana Printing Presses

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Albion pressColumbian Printing PressFlexographyVertical print press

Other inventions

Color printingLithographyOffset printingDesktop publishingElectronic publishingComputer printerComposing stick

Notes1. ^ See People of the Millennium for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their

"People of the Millennium" countdown . In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of thesecond millennium ; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking TheMen and Women Who Shaped The Millennium . The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes hisinvention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.

2. ^ McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 20023. ^ McLuhan 1962, p. 124:

The invention of typography confirmed and extended the new visual stress of applied knowledge, providing the firstuniformly repeatable commodity, the first assembly line, and the first mass production.

4. ̂a b c d Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.:

From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600, assuming a fifteen-hourworkday, was between 3,200 and 3,600 impressions per day.

5. ̂a b Ch'on Hye-bong 1993, p. 12:

This method almost doubled the printing speed and produced more than 40 copies a day. Printing technologyreached its peak at this point.

6. ^ Issawi 1980, pp. 492; Duchesne 2006, p. 837. ̂a b c d e f g Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976): "The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800", London:

New Left Books, quoted in: Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión delnacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 58f.

8. ^ Weber 2006, p. 387:

At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in theextended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born.

9. ^ Francis Bacon: "Novum Organum, Liber I, CXXIX" − Adapted from the 1863 translation:

Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout theworld; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerablechanges, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in humanaffairs than these mechanical discoveries.

10. ^ Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de culturaeconómica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp.63–76

11. ^ Gerhardt 1978, p. 21712. ^ Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 200213. ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 21–3514. ^ Onken 2009; White 1984, pp. 31f.; Schneider 2007, pp. 156–15915. ^ Schneider 2007, p. 15816. ^ Schulte 1939, p. 5617. ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39f.18. ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39–4619. ^ Germany: Brekle 1995, pp. 23–26; Brekle 1997, p. 62; Brekle 2005, p. 25; England: Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 93–97; Brekle

1997, p. 62; Italy: Lipinsky 1986, pp. 75–80; Koch 1994, p. 213. Lipinsky surmises that this typographical technique was knownin Constantinople from the 10th to 12th century and that the Venetians received it from there (p. 78).

20. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing", retrieved November 27, 200621. ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55

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22. ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55; Hellinga 2007, p. 208:

Gutenberg's invention took full advantage of the degree of abstraction in representing language forms that wasoffered by the alphabet and by the Western forms of script that were current in the fifteenth century.

23. ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 24–3024. ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 1, 38–67, 75:

The most momentous development in the history of the book until the invention of printing was the replacement ofthe roll by the codex; this we may define as a collection of sheets of any material, folded double and fastenedtogether at the back or spine, and usually protected by covers. (p. 1)

25. ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 45–53. Technically speaking, a scroll could be written on its back side, too, but the very few ancientspecimen found indicate that this was never considered a viable option. (p. 46)

26. ^ Burns 1996, p. 41827. ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Tsien 1985, p. 68−73; Lucas 2005, p. 28, fn. 7028. ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Burns 1996, pp. 414–41729. ^ Burns 1996, p. 41730. ^ Febvre & Martin 1997, pp. 41–44; Burns 1996, p. 419:

In the West, the only inhibiting expense in the production of writings for an increasingly literate market was themanual labor of the scribe himself. With his mechanization by movable-type printing in the 1440s, the manufactureof paper, until then relatively confined, began to spread very widely. The Paper Revolution of the thirteenth centurythus entered a new era.

31. ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 7f.:

Despite all that has been said above, even the strongest supporters of papyrus would not deny that parchment ofgood quality is the finest writing material ever devised by man. It is immensely strong, remains flexible indefinitelyunder normal conditions, does not deteriorate with age, and possesses a smooth, even surface which is bothpleasant to the eye and provides unlimited scope for the finest writing and illumination.

32. ^ The ratio between paper and parchment copies is estimated at around 150 to 30 (Hanebutt-Benz 2000, pp. 158–189).33. ^ Childress 2008, p. 6034. ̂a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-29198-635. ^ Mahnke 2009, p. 29036. ^ Kapr 1996, p. 17237. ^ Kapr 1996, p. 20338. ^ Zeigler, J. (1997). Gutenberg, the Scriptoria, and Websites. Journal Of Scholarly Publishing, 29(1), 36.39. ^ Buringh & van Zanden 2009, p. 417, table 240. ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue" . British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011.41. ^ Borsa 1976, p. 314; Borsa 1977, p. 166−16942. ^ Needham 1965, p. 211:

The outstanding difference between the two ends of the Old World was the absence of screw-presses from China,but this is only another manifestation of the fact that this basic mechanism was foreign to that culture.

Widmann 1974, p. 34, fn. 14:

In East Asia, both woodblock and movable type printing were manual reproduction techniques, that is hand printing.

Duchesne 2006, p. 83; Man 2002, pp. 112–115:

Chinese paper was suitable only for calligraphy or block-printing; there were no screw-based presses in the east,because they were not wine-drinkers, didn’t have olives, and used other means to dry their paper.

Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing":

The second necessary element was the concept of the printing press itself, an idea that had never been conceivedin the Far East.

43. ^ Issawi 1980, pp. 49244. ^ Duchesne 2006, p. 8345. ^ Weber 2006, pp. 387f.46. ^ The British Library Incunabula Short Title Catalogue gives 29,777 separate editions (not copies) as of 8th January 2008, which

however includes some print items from the 16th century (retrieved 11.03.2010). According to Bettina Wagner: "Das Second-Lifeder Wiegendrucke. Die Inkunabelsammlung der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek", in: Griebel, Rolf; Ceynowa, Klaus (eds.):"Information, Innovation, Inspiration. 450 Jahre Bayerische Staatsbibliothek", K G Saur, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-11772-5,pp. 207–224 (207f.), the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue lists 28,107 editions published before 1501.

47. ^ Malte Herwig, "Google's Total Library", Spiegel Online International, Mar. 28, 2007.48. ^ Howard Rheingold, "Moblogs Seen as a Crystal Ball for a New Era in Online Journalism", Online Journalism Review, Jul. 9,

2009.

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49. ^ Julia C. Crick; Alexandra Walsham (2004). The uses of script and print, 1300–1700 . Cambridge University Press. p. 20.ISBN 978-0-521-81063-0. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

50. ^ Nick Bilton (14 September 2010). I Live in the Future & Here's How It Works: Why Your World, Work, and Brain Are BeingCreatively Disrupted . Random House Digital, Inc. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-307-59111-1. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

51. ̂a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471-29198-652. ̂a b Bolza 1967, p. 8053. ̂a b c Bolza 1967, p. 8854. ^ Meggs, Philip B. (1998). A History of Graphic Design (Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5.55. ^ Bolza 1967, p. 8356. ^ Bolza 1967, p. 87

ReferencesOn the effects of the printing press

Boruchoff, David A. (2012), "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public", in Hock, Klaus, andMackenthun, Gesa, Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference, Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–163, ISBN 978-3-8309-2729-7Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009), "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe,A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History 69 (2): 409–445, doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29955-1Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (2005), The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2nd, rev. ed.), Cambridge UniversityPress, ISBN 0-521-60774-4 [More recent, abridged version]Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, London: Verso,ISBN 1-85984-108-2Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World, London:Headline Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of TorontoPress, ISBN 978-0-8020-6041-9

Technology of printing

Bechtel, G. (1992), Gutenberg et l'invention de l'imprimerie, Paris: Fayard, ISBN 2-213-02865-6Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine", Technikgeschichte 34 (1): 79–89Borsa, Gedeon (1976), "Druckorte in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 311–314Borsa, Gedeon (1977), "Drucker in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 166–169Brekle, Herbert E. (1995), "Eine weitere Spur einer typographischen Werkstatt beim Kloster Prüfening im 12.Jahrhundert", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch 70: 23–26Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung" , Gutenberg-Jahrbuch 72: 58–63Brekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische Untersuchung(brief summary) , Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN 3-937527-06-0Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800–1400", in Lindgren, Uta, Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9Childress, Diana (2008), Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press, Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books,ISBN 978-0-7613-4024-9Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp. 10–19Citation from The Encyclopedia of World History Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns (general editor), © 2001 The HoughtonMifflin Company, at Bartleby.com.Crompton, Samuel Willard (2004), The Printing Press. Transforming Power of Technology, Philadelphia: Chelsea HousePublishers, ISBN 0-7910-7451-XDuchesne, Ricardo (2006), "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society 6 (1): 69–91, doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00168.xFontaine, Jean-Paul (1999), L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours, Paris: Bibliothèque de l'imageGerhardt, Claus W. (1971), "Warum wurde die Gutenberg-Presse erst nach über 350 Jahren durch ein besseres Systemabgelöst?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 43–57Gerhardt, Claus W. (1978), "Besitzt Gutenbergs Erfindung heute noch einen Wert?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 212–217Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria (2000), "Gutenbergs Erfindungen", Gutenberg. Aventur und Kunst: Vom Geheimunternehmenzur ersten Medienrevolution, Mainz: Stadt Mainz, pp. 158–189Hellinga, Lotte (2007), "The Gutenberg Revolutions", in Eliot, Simon; Rose, Jonathan, A Companion to the History of theBook, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 207–220, ISBN 978-1-4051-2765-3Hind, Arthur M., An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted DoverPublications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0

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Issawi, Charles (1980), "Europe, the Middle East and the Shift in Power: Reflections on a Theme by Marshall Hodgson",Comparative Studies in Society and History 22 (4): 487–504, doi:10.1017/s001041750000949xKapr, Albert (1996), Johannes Gutenberg. The Man and his Invention, Aldershot: Scolar, ISBN 1-85928-114-1Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985–1991), MonumentaGermaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3-88612-114-4Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 93–97Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni concaratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto 24: 75–80Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for anIndustrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026Mahnke, Helmut (2009), Der kunstreiche Johannes Gutenberg und die Frühzeit der Druckkunst, Norderstedt: Books onDemand, ISBN 978-3-8370-5041-7Needham, Joseph: "Science and Civilisation in China", Physics and Physical Technology (Vol. 4), Mechanical Engineering(Part 2), Cambridge University Press, 1965Onken, Björn (2009), "Presses", in Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth, Brill's New PaulyEncyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing". Retrieved 27 November 2006Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983), The Birth of the Codex, London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-726024-1Schneider, Helmuth (2007), "Technology", in Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard, The Cambridge EconomicHistory of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 144–171, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7Schulte, Alfred (1939), "Papierpresse, Druckerpresse und Kelter", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 52–56Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 314:167–176, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.xTsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology(Vol. 5, Part 1), Cambridge University PressWeber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History 24 (3): 387–412,doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oaWhite, K. D. (1984), Greek and Roman Technology, London: Thames and HudsonWidmann, Hans (1974), "Der koreanische Buchdruck und Gutenbergs Erfindung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 32–34Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974), Geschichte der Druckpressen (1st ed.), Frankfurt/Main: Interprint

External linksCentre for the History of the BookGutenberg printing − Photos of Incunabula and the Gutenberg Bible (1455)Internet Archive: Printing (1947) − a film from the Prelinger Archives explainingthe printing industry

Letterpress printing

History of printing • Printer

Relief printingMovable type Type casting · Type metal · Punchcutter · Matrix

Blocks and plates Stereotype · Logographic printing · Wood engraving · Electrotype ·Zinc etching

TypesettingManual typesetting Type case · Composing stick · Sort · Slug · Strut · Reglet · Furniture ·

Leading · Quoin · Chase · Forme · Hellbox

Hot metal typesetting Linotype machine · Monotype System · Ludlow Typograph ·Intertype Machine · Paige Compositor

Printing press

Parts of a press Platen · Frisket · Tympan · Bed

Inking Ink ball · Composition roller

Types of pressesHand press (Stanhope • Columbian • Albion) · Jobbing press(Golding & Company • Chandler & Price • Colt's Armory) · Cylinder press ·Rotary press

Other equipment Folding machine · Paper cutter · Addressograph

Related arts: Typography • Bookbinding • Printmaking • Papermaking

Categories: Printing Johannes Gutenberg 1445 introductions Textual scholarship

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