preface - higher education | pearson · 2 chapter 1 / middle and secondary social studies civic...

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Preface

Hi, hi. This is the informal greeting that is used frequently for emails when you do not know the individual personally. I extend a welcome to you, the reader of this text. For this fourth edition, I have made more changes than in any previous edition, probably reflecting the increasing role of technology in the schools. But the many changes also made me more optimistic about the teaching of social studies. Challenges do continue to exist for every social studies teacher, especially for beginning teachers. But there is also hope that social studies, a most important subject area, can be taught well and that your students can benefit from your teaching.

new to this Edition

Focused on the goal of social studies—civic education—the revisions of this new fourth edition reflect the recent trends affecting the teaching of social studies across the nation. In this age of Common Core State Standards and accountability, middle and secondary social studies classes face the challenge of meeting the needs of all students in a changing global world. All the revisions in this text strive to teach social studies creatively and thoughtfully to better serve the needs of all students so that they can become engaged in learning in their social studies classrooms. Technology is also integrated throughout all chapters.

● Chapter 1, “Middle and Secondary Social Studies,” brings up to date the many fac-tors that are transforming the social studies curriculum, such as the Common Core State Standards, the No Child Left Behind legislation, the success rate of social studies Advanced Placement courses, and newer technology: blended learning, flipped classrooms, social media, wiki research, and ebooks.

● Chapter 2, “Planning for the Social Studies,” gives increased attention to differ-entiated instruction and culturally responsive instruction, offers a new discussion on scaffolding, provides a more comprehensive treatment of curriculum design, especially Understanding by Design, and presents additional information on using computer resources and the Internet.

● Chapter 3, “Basic Teacher Instructional Methods,” provides more coverage of class-room management, classroom discussion, interactive whiteboards, blogs, and aca-demic English.

● Chapter 4, “Active, Student-Centered Strategies,” presents new classroom activities and strategies, including fishbowl design, Cross the Room, and the Taba approach. The chapter also offers detailed discussions of video games, creativity, and the new social studies.

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xiv Preface

● Chapter 5, “Using Multiple Assessments and Evaluation,” includes new material on Common Core State Testing, student response systems, NAEP testing, and value-added modeling for teachers.

● Chapter 6, “Teaching History,” provides new coverage of the NAEP 2010 History Report Card, the Khan Academy, History Assessments of Thinking, and graphic novels. The chapter also offers expanded discussions on historical thinking and on teaching about the Holocaust and comparative genocide.

● Chapter 7, “Teaching Civic Education and Global Education,” emphasizes the vital need for student engagement. The chapter also highlights the NAEP 2012 Civics Report Card and offers new material on stereotype threat, modified debates but global service learning, and iCivics.

● Chapters 8 and 9 offer expanded coverage of material previously included in a sin-gle chapter. The new Chapter 8, “Teaching Geography,” discusses the NAEP 2010 Geography results, the revised 2012 geography standards and provides several new exercises.

● Chapter 9, “Teaching Economics and the Behavioral Sciences,” examines the NAEP 2012 Economics test results and the revised 2010 economics standards and presents new material on personal finance, teaching resources, and classroom activities. The updated behavioral sciences section considers the revised 2011 psychology stan-dards and explores the “new” multiple literacies.

● In the curriculum areas of history, civic education, geography, and economics, updates on the NAEP assessments and other national assessments, state standards, and transcript analysis are noted.

● Research in the social studies is updated with about 40 new references.

organization of text

Let us look at the organization of this text. The first chapter discusses the basic middle school and high school social studies curriculum. Then, for clarity, the next four chapters can be considered as a unit. Chapter 2 focuses on planning, Chapters 3 and 4 on instruc-tional strategies, and Chapter 5 on assessment. In practice, all are interrelated. When you start to think of what content or skill you choose, you have to decide how you are going to teach it (methods) and then how you will assess what has been taught. The emphases on history, civics, geography, and economics are the main thrust of most states’ social studies standards, and this text aims to help teachers in these important curriculum areas. There-fore, the next four chapters focus on the teaching of history; civic education and global education; geography; and economics and the behavioral sciences.

to the Student

You, like most individuals preparing to become a middle or secondary social studies teacher, already believe that the major goal of social studies education is civic education. You recognize the importance of this goal and that all students must be prepared to interact


Preface xv

with the increasing diversity of their communities and the nation, as well as with the com-plexity of global issues that are shaping the world. Although we are all unique individuals, we share the responsibility of helping to develop knowledgeable and responsible citizens who act on core values and beliefs. How to incorporate the best teaching practices and cre-ative enthusiasm in the classroom is the main focus of this textbook. Lesson plans, units, and instructional resources listed throughout the text suggest activities you can try as you participate in the classroom. The small group and individual exercises integrated into all the chapters can help you more thoroughly explore the key issues the text introduces. The text encourages you to be a more active teacher in the hope that the students in your class-rooms will also be encouraged to play active rather than passive roles. At the end of each chapter, a controversial issue is summarized to expose you to current issues in education.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the countless students and colleagues who have contributed to this text. I owe a great intellectual debt to all of them. What they have given makes me proud to be a social studies teacher. Special praise to Ray McHugh, who has throughout many years always patiently and carefully critiqued my professional work. Our reviewers, in particu-lar, served an important role in improving and updating this text for the fourth edition: William G. Reeves, Piedmont College; Curby Alexander, Curby Alexander; Kimberlee A. Sharp, Ed.D., Morehead State University.

June R. Chapin


In this chapter, we examine the many factors that are transforming the social studies curriculum, including the Common Core State Standards and newer technologies such as social media, as well as the traditional topics of civic goals, national curriculum patterns, and values.

Middle and Secondary Social

Studies

● Civic Goals for the Social Studies

● Curriculum Standards and National Curriculum Patterns

● Technologies and Textbooks

● Values, Character, and Moral Education

Chapter Outline

C h a p t e r 1

Annie Pickert Fuller/Pearson Education Ltd.

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2 C h a p t e r 1 / Middle and Secondary Social Studies

Civic Goals for the Social Studies

Why Become a Social Studies Teacher?Welcome to teaching in the field of social studies. In this text, the term social studies teacher broadly includes those teaching history, civics, geography, economics, and the other social sciences. What factors influenced your decision to become a social studies teacher? Jot down how some of the following were influential, and to what extent:

● Had inspiring and interesting social studies teachers● Family member(s) was a teacher● Want to be of service to others● Like to read historical novels● Care about children/young people● Like the subject matter● Enjoy visiting historical sites and other travel● Received good grades in social studies courses● Interested in political issues● Member of student council or other organizations such as Model UN● Worked with youth groups such as those sponsored by churches● Always wanted to be a teacher and join an important profession● Desire to change or reform present system● Schedule of hours and summer vacation can permit family activities, travel, hob-

bies, and the like

Importance of Quality TeachersResearch indicates that teachers have an impact on student learning. Students assigned to three highly effective teachers in a row show greater achievement when compared to the dismal performance of students assigned to three ineffective teachers. To close racial/ethnic/poverty achievement gaps, more attention is being given to having quality teachers in high- poverty schools. Attracting more high- quality teachers to these low- performing schools is a priority.

One problem is teacher misassignment. Almost all teachers, 92 percent, have full, regular teaching certificates (Ingersoll, 2003). But experts identified a serious problem: too many teachers were teaching “out of their subject field.” At the middle school level, some teachers did not have enough educational units in the subject they were teaching. At the sec-ondary level, about one- fifth of classes in math, science, English, and social studies were taught by teachers who lacked full teaching certificates in those subjects. Disadvantaged schools were more likely to have misassigned teachers, and these teachers were most likely to be concentrated in the lower- tracked classes.

When you finish your program, you will be a “highly qualified” social studies or middle school teacher because you will have a college degree, a teaching certificate, and competence in a subject(s). However, each state is charged with determining what con-stitutes a highly qualified teacher in the different subject areas and grade levels for that state. Each state defines how many units constitute a major and what is required for teacher

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Civic Goals for the Social Studies 3

certification as well as what courses should be required in history, geography, political sci-ence, economics, and in some cases psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Not every-one is satisfied with these certification requirements. For example, conservatives (Stotsky, 2004) and a few teacher educators believe that many of our history teachers do not know enough history and therefore depend too much on textbooks.

Forty- eight states require some form of a general knowledge or specific subject matter test. The main effort to improve teacher quality is through entry- level testing of basic skills such as reading and math. Over half of the states require high school teachers to pass a sub-ject knowledge test to receive a license. The rationale for this is that knowledge of subject matter is essential for successful teaching. The more a teacher knows and the more skill a teacher has, the more likely the students are to learn. But there is no guarantee that passing tests or a higher grade point average makes for a quality teacher.

In addition, pedagogical (teaching methods) knowledge is tested in about half of the states. However, it is recognized that tests of content and pedagogical knowledge are incomplete measures for evaluating a teacher. Therefore, a student- teaching assignment

Small Group Work 1.1

Who Should Be a Social Studies Teacher? Does Facebook Count?Share your list with other members of the class. The list contains some characteristics of teachers in general as well as some more specific to social studies teachers. Yet we all know that

teachers are diverse and come from varied backgrounds with many motives for wanting to teach. Every teacher is unique. There may be different motivations for women, minority groups, and second- career teachers. Age may also make a difference.

After sharing your list, think about what criteria there should be for individuals wanting to teach social studies. Do you think there should be different standards for middle school social studies teachers? For high school? A common observation is that many middle school teachers lack subject matter competency and that many high school teachers need to use better educational methods to motivate student learning.

Now compare your criteria with those required for the certification of social studies teachers by your state. Note that states want good “moral character” and screen applicants who have committed law violations.

Students also have their views on what makes a good social studies teacher. Negative remarks are not just limited to one’s peer group on Facebook, other social media, and online. What, if anything, should teachers do about these negative comments? In 2012, North Carolina was the first state to pass a law aimed at students bullying their teachers online. This law targets comments that “intimidate or torment a school employee.” However, free- speech advocates are worried about infringements on the rights of students. ●

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or internship to prepare students to deal with the realities of the classroom is required in almost all states. “Out in the field,” the human dimensions of the prospective teacher, such as caring and perseverance, are really assessed. Does the teacher exhibit positive personal interactions with students? Does the candidate command the attention and respect of stu-dents? Is the teacher enthusiastic? Can the beginning social studies teacher guide students’ understanding and deepen their insights into the subject? These and other questions are the true test for successful teaching. Increasingly, states are requiring a more careful assess-ment of the student- teaching or internship experience, as well as of the qualifications of candidates seeking alternative entry to the teaching profession.

Your Background as an InfluenceYour background is important, especially now when teachers are expected to teach an increasingly diverse population (Figure 1.1). All teachers, both preservice and experienced, need to reflect on identifying their own culture and experiences to note similarities and differences to other cultures. Many new teachers, both elementary and secondary, report that they are ill prepared for classroom diversity and special needs students (National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality and Public Agenda, 2008). Even new teachers in upscale suburban schools have mentioned the wide range of their student populations, ranging from origins in Latin America to Asia, the Indian subcontinent, eastern Europe, and the Middle East. Less than one- third of the teachers in upscale school districts found that their education courses or training for working in diverse classrooms had been use-ful. In addition, almost all teachers reported having some students with special needs, with only 5 percent reporting none. More inclusive classrooms with students with special edu-cational needs are becoming the norm. However, only 47 percent of new teachers said that their training for helping special needs students helped “a lot.”

Teacher

Values, Background, Experiences

Context of Teaching

Students, School, Community

ContentKnowledge

TeachingMethods

F i g u r e 1 . 1 Influences on teaching

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Blame should not be placed on teacher preparation alone; the realities of new teach-ers assigned to hard- to- teach classes and the lack of support in some schools would daunt candidates from even the best teacher- preparation programs. Moreover, as Catherine Cornbleth (2008) has reported, additional problems arise from the difficulties that pre-dominantly white middle- and upper- middle- class preservice teachers have in working in racially diverse schools. Like Gloria Ladson- Billings (2006), Cornbleth advises design-ing instruction that maximizes students’ assets. However, culturally responsive instruction does not just focus on methods that diverse students are comfortable and familiar with. For example, gradually all students have to learn how to work on their own during individual or independent work time. Working independently is valued both in the school and the work setting. However, it is not always easy for students to engage and be successful in a new behavior. For example, after engaging in a new activity, students are helped by a discussion on how to improve their performance the next time. Too often, however, teach-ers end up feeling that students “just don’t care” and then go into a cycle of low expecta-tions, providing few meaningful learning opportunities and then blaming students for not responding to their teaching.

GoalsFrom your examination of “What Did You Like Best?,” you can see that teachers have dif-ferent understandings of what a good social studies program is and what methods should be used to achieve social studies goals. However, almost everyone agrees that the primary

On Your Own/Journal Writing 1.1

Facing YourselfThink about the characteristics of effective teachers. Here are some that are often mentioned:

● Prepared to teach every day● Positive attitude● High expectations for all students● Sense of humor● Fair treatment and grading of students; respect for students● Effort to overcome any bias or prejudice● Ability to work with parents/guardians● Enthusiasm for the content● Ability to work with students learning English or those having special needs or

poor academic skills● Ability to create a personalized and orderly learning environment

You can add others such as being creative, a good team member, or making students comfortable in your classes. What do you see as your strengths? Any areas that you think you should try to improve? ●

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purpose, mission, rationale, or main goal of social studies is civic education, less fre-quently called citizenship education or civic competence. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) is that using the term “civic life.” in their College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) framework for Social Studies state standards. These definitions stress that all students need the knowledge, skills, and democratic dispositions to be active and to par-ticipate in public life. Civic education means that all students must be prepared to interact with the increasing diversity of their communities and the nation as well as to understand the complexity of the local, national, and global issues that are shaping the world.

To focus civic education, the social studies teacher must establish clear goals that are the broad statements of desired outcomes. Goals are long- term ideals or values that are determined socially. In education, they provide the general guides for the curriculum. Goals come before themes and content standards. Having an end in mind clarifies the purposes of content taught and the methods employed. Here are four important social studies goals:

1. To acquire knowledge from history, the social sciences, and related areas 2. To develop skills to think and to process information 3. To develop appropriate democratic values, beliefs, and dispositions 4. To have opportunities for civic participation

Sometimes civic participation is shown as the central goal, with the three others supporting the idea of an ideal citizen (Chapter 7).

These goals are not separate but are instead intertwined. As students acquire knowl-edge, there may be emotional attitudes attached, such as a high positive value given to the U.S. Constitution and the importance of adult voting. In a negative example, students can be taught skills such as how to use the Internet for getting information on public issues but never actually use technology to increase their knowledge and understanding. In this

Small Group Work 1.2

What Did You Like Best?What do you remember as being the best learning experiences you had in social studies classes? What were the most boring times? Is there much agreement in your group?

Even with the great diversity of widely different social studies teachers and classrooms, you and your classmates probably

remember learning experiences in which you were more actively involved, as in a mock trial, a debate, or participation in History Day. But these experiences typically did not happen every day. You may also remember doing boring worksheets. In the back of your mind, your previous teachers may connote what “normally” teaching social studies is supposed to be: standing in front of a class, imparting information, and getting students to read and to retain information from the textbook. These methods may have worked for you, as you now want to teach social studies. But for many students, the traditional style of teaching social studies is dull and uninteresting. ●

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case, they have been taught something but do not value it enough to engage in the prac-tice. Community participation or service learning may increase both knowledge about the local community and the skills needed to address problems in the community. All these examples show the connections among knowledge, skills, values, and civic participation. It is important to remember that teachers should go beyond just teaching the facts but try to win over their students’ hearts and minds to democratic values and citizenship.

Different ApproachesThe difficulty with the goals of civic education for the social studies is that although practi-cally no one disagrees with the goals, there can be many different interpretations of what civic education is. The goal statements are very broad. Some experts would define citizen-ship in a multidimensional sense, with a strong emphasis on global citizenship and human rights. Others would advocate a stronger commitment to diversity and multicultural edu-cation. Some experts want more emphasis on thinking skills. Still others support a more subject- oriented focus.

Look at the different approaches outlined in Table 1.1 . Each citizenship approach has strengths and weaknesses, although advocates of each position would disagree on their relative merits. Can civic education approaches be viewed from a different perspective than that of just a list? In an analysis of civic education approaches, Westheimer and Kahne (2002) point out that some civic education approaches stress having a good moral charac-ter, being active in the community, or advocating social justice.

One area of concern in teaching civic education is indoctrination. Every nation or social group brings up its children to reflect its own values and culture. Civic education in the United States has among its goals that students adopt values such as respect for others, justice, freedom, and democracy. These are regarded as the basic values of our society and

Ta b l e 1 . 1 Different approaches to Civic/Citizenship education

Approach Goals of Civic Education

Citizenship transmission Students are taught knowledge and values as a framework for making decisions.

Social science/history Students master social science/history knowledge and methods of the field.

Reflective inquiry Students use knowledge and thinking to make decisions and to solve problems.

Personal development Students develop a positive self- concept and a strong sense of personal efficacy.

Social justice Students develop understanding and skills needed to critique and transform society; often a focus on injustice/inequality.

Note: See Robert D. Barr, James L. Barth, and S. Samuel Shermis, Defining the Social Studies, Bulletin 51 (Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 1977) for the first three approaches.

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are not debatable. All the civic education models hope that the schools will instill in stu-dents a commitment to democratic values. This leads to the question of whether teachers include too much or too little affirmation of American values and practices.

Indoctrination is the shaping of minds by providing information without permitting the individual to question or examine the information being transmitted. Indoctrination sets out to instill or internalize certain values in students or to change the values of students so that they more nearly reflect certain desired values. Here you can see easily see a dilemma between indoctrinating students in shared democratic commitments and encouraging criti-cal thinking. The schools have the mission to instill democratic values in their students. Yet to indoctrinate a “correct” answer to an issue puts us on shaky ground. Most social studies experts believe a teacher’s responsibility is to help students think about issues, to arrive at good conclusions, but not to dictate the “right” answers.

The citizenship transmission approach is found in many classrooms. A view of the discipline as structured by major concepts and methods— the social science/history approach— is evident in many state standards. But this approach has been criticized for not socializing youth into civic life. The reflective inquiry models promise a great deal but have been difficult to implement across the social studies curriculum, especially if teachers are concerned about covering content. The personal development approach, with its emphasis on improving the self- concepts of students, has been generally accepted at the middle school level but is criticized for not putting enough emphasis on academic achievement. The social justice approach, with its emphasis on equality and human rights, is getting more attention, but there are different conceptions of what social justice or a “just society” means. For some, the aim of social justice should be to strive for racial and gender equality, while others emphasize ending war or achieving economic equality.

Should more approaches be added? Advocates of global and multicultural education also want their approaches to be considered as major goals of the social studies. After thinking about the many citizenship approaches, it would be worthwhile to form your own evaluation, perhaps based on a combination of elements from the different models.

Curriculum Standards and National Curriculum patterns

Troubled Times for Public SchoolsThe lack of confidence in public schools was illustrated by the landmark report A Nation at Risk, published by the U.S. Department of Education (1983). For the past 30 years or so, many parents and critics have felt that the public schools are not making the grade in terms of student achievement. International reports of the low rankings of U.S. students in science and math have parents as well as critics worrying whether our young people will be able to compete in the global economy. Another great concern is the fact that white and Asian American students have on average tended to earn higher test scores than black and Hispanic students, reflecting a continued achievement gap. Not all, however, agree about a crisis in education. Berliner and Biddle (1995) state that the crisis has been

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Curriculum Standards and National Curriculum Patterns 9

“manufactured” to discredit public education and to serve various political ends. Others have argued that the best policy to improve the schools would be a reduction in family and youth poverty.

In response to mounting criticism of the public schools, in 1989 state governors approved six national educational goals, which were later adopted in 1991 by President George H. W. Bush. The president, Congress, state and local community leaders, and business groups hoped that high academic standards based on national goals along with assessment of all students would be catalysts for reform and a stimulus for improving edu-cation. And some students, along with their parents, agreed that students were not being held to a high enough standard of performance, often due to grade inflation and low expec-tations for minority students.

National Social Studies StandardsResponding to the public’s demand for standards, in 1994, professional teachers are sup-posed to teach and students are expected to know (content standards) and be able to do (performance standards) at the end of a given time period. A performance stan-dard measures how well a student’s work meets the content standards. Often the perfor-mance standards have levels such as 4, 3, 2, and 1 or Advanced, Proficient, Novice, and Basic. Standards with challenging curricula were expected to engage all students to per-form at high levels. All students then would have access to higher- level knowledge and skills.

Standards are useful for the following reasons:

1. Can act as a guide for curriculum planning to improve student learning 2. Drive assessments of student achievement 3. Can inform selection and use of instructional resources

Standards can help both teachers and their students to be clear about their purposes in developing explicit goals for learning. Students can find standards helpful when teach-ers spell out criteria for high- quality work, explain how the work will be assessed, and give examples of what the work looks like. Students then have a better idea of what to do and how to do it. When goals and expectations are very clear, more students can meet them. Standards also can address the issue of discrepancy between Teacher A’s and Teacher B’s treatment of the same course in the same school, district, or state. Often the same courses taught by different teachers vary widely in content and skills, depriving some students of equal access to education.

To meet the demand for standards, professional social studies organizations have pub-lished their standards. In 2010, the NCSS, the leading organization in the field, revised its national curriculum standards for the social studies, which initially had been published in 1994. These revised standards maintain and enhance the ten major curriculum themes basic to social studies learning (Figure 1.2) and include four main skills: (1) Literacy Skills, (2) Critical Thinking Skills, (3) Learning Strategies (Decision Making, Inquiry Learning, etc.), and (4) Personal Interaction & Civic Engagement Strategies (www.ncss.org). The revised NCSS standards are now more aligned with the Common Core State Standards, with their emphasis on literacy skills.

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The NCSS report includes for each of the ten curriculum themes key exploration ques-tions for the early grades, middle grades, and high school. This block emphasis is in con-trast to the grade- by- grade outline in the Common Core State Standards (discussed in the following section; http://corestandards.org). The new NCSS revision also includes fresh examples with extensive use of technology. More attention is given to inviting students to become active participants in the learning process. Learners are to demonstrate their understanding with a stronger focus on student products and their assessment. NCSS still maintains a commitment to an integrated approach for all of the subject matter themes, as opposed to a separate subject area approach. In addition to the NCSS standards, organiza-tions in four subject areas— history, geography, civics, and economics— have also pro-duced standards for their respective fields (see Chapters 6 to 9 for more discussion). In 1999, the American Psychological Association published standards for high school psy-chology courses. Like NCSS, some of these subject area standards also have been revised from editions first published in the 1990s.

Also during the 1990s, a proposed first set of national history standards, funded by the federal government, engendered a fierce national controversy, with critics complain-ing about an anti- European bias and an emphasis on negative aspects of U.S. history (Chapter 6). These history standards were denounced by the U.S. Senate, and President Clinton’s administration did not defend them. Furthermore, conservatives were worried about a national curriculum taking power away from state and local governments. In turn, liberals were alarmed that the standards movement would hurt low- performing stu-dents, promote cultural bias, adversely affect teaching and learning, stifle educators, and lead to further standardization. All these factors led to the states controlling the for-mulation of their own standards instead of all states having the same voluntary national standards. Even the federally mandated testing allowed states to design and assess their own standards. Now almost all states have adopted standards for K– 12 social studies.

F i g u r e 1 . 2 NCSS ten Curriculum themes/Standards

Themes 1 to 7 are based on the major concepts of history and the social sciences:

1. Culture (anthropology) 2. Time, continuity, and change (history) 3. People, places, and environment

(geography) 4. Individual development and identity

(psychology)

5. Individuals, groups, and institutions (sociology)

6. Power, authority, and governance (political science)

7. Production, distribution, and consumption (economics)

The remaining three are broadly based and include many subject areas:

1. Science, technology, and society 2. Global connections 3. Civic ideals and practice

Based on National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: A Framework for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, Bulletin 111 (Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 2010), 4.

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No Child Left Behind at the CrossroadsBy 2001, President George W. Bush and Congress were not satisfied with the progress the states had made. State standards were failing four subgroups of students: low income, minority, English learners (ELs), and students with disabilities (SWDs). (See the Diverse Learners Definitions section.) The goals of equity were not being met concerning these students’ legal right to learn. A bipartisan Congress then passed the Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA), the most significant education reform in a quarter- century. ESEA was commonly known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB). NCLB mandated broader accountability, with required testing in reading, math, and science. Furthermore, if schools failed to achieve performance goals, they faced serious sanctions, including vouchers to parents for out- of- school programs and even eventually leading to replacement of school staff or converting failing schools to charter schools. However, the fact that states establish their own annual tests aligned with their own state standards has resulted in great diversity among state standards and in what a given state considers as “proficient” for its students.

The goals of NCLB are beyond reproach in drawing attention to the wide disparities in student achievement and holding districts responsible for raising achievement for all students. However, a revolt built up against NCLB; the following were some of the com-mon concerns:

● Far too many schools were punished just because one subgroup failed to meet the standards.

● It was unrealistic to expect SWDs and ELs to perform up to the standards.● Too much testing took up valuable teaching time, and using only one “big” annual

test failed to adequately measure student progress.● A public label of failure discouraged both teachers and their students.● The curriculum was narrowed, with more time spent only on reading/language arts

and mathematics.● Funds were not provided for adequate implementation of NCLB provisions.● States varied greatly on what they called proficient, and often states had low stan-

dards for acceptable progress.

Race to the Top and Common Core State StandardsBy 2009, President Obama’s Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, was well aware of the negatives of NCLB and the need to revise it. Duncan wanted to eliminate the extreme variation in standards across the states, starting with reading and math. A major step by


Your State Social Studies StandardsSecure a copy of your state social studies standards from the Internet. Examine one grade level and compare it with how you experienced social studies at that grade level years ago. Different? An improvement? ●

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President Obama’s administration was the introduction of the competition called the Race to the Top (RttT), which offered $4.35 billion in stimulus money to cash- strapped states to get them to adopt certain reform ideas. These reforms included the following:

● Adopting the Common Core State Standards● Focusing on aiding the lowest- performing schools● Expanding charter schools● Providing a data system to plot students’ progress to judge teacher effectiveness

based on student scores

Common Core State Standards Initiative. The reauthorization of ESEA by Congress stalled, so Duncan issued waivers from the existing NCLB rules to about three- fourths of the states if they would follow the reform ideas. One essential reform was the adoption of the Common Core State Standards Initiative, known popularly as Common Core of the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State Officers. www . corestandards.org (2010). These standards were designed to provide knowledge and skills necessary for success in college and careers. Texts would become increasingly complex at each grade level. The standards included a progression of knowledge of a subject area across grade levels, and the application of information in complex and higher- order set-tings. There was to be more integration of subject areas along with more attention to criti-cal thinking.

In June 2010, the Common Core State Standards Initiative (www.corestandards.org) released their standards for English language arts and reading (ELAR or ELA) and math for K– 12. Their aim was fewer, clearer, and higher thinking standards, with an additional 15 percent of the content left to each state. The English language arts report also included standards for literacy in history/social studies, grades 6– 12, since students need to read, write, speak, listen, and use language effectively in the content areas. Literacy in the con-tent areas means students must acquire a unique set of skills for each subject area.

The Common Core State Standards probably will have the most impact in social stud-ies teaching by placing more emphasis on the following two areas:

1. Reading critically, with more time on teaching academic vocabulary for reading texts, including primary and secondary source material

2. Writing arguable essays

To achieve these two goals, more attention will also have to be given to having students talk. However, the quality of student talk depends on the ability of students to use aca-demic language and to listen. Reading and writing depend on hearing talk or other forms of oral expression.

While it is important that all teachers work to improve the literacy of all students by using the criteria found in the Common Core State Standards, the primary mission of social studies teachers is still to follow the content, knowledge, and skills outlined in their respective state social studies/history frameworks so that students can become effec-tive citizens. The Common Core State Standards are to provide a context for students to become proficient readers, listeners, speakers, and writers in various subject areas, includ-ing social studies, but they should not replace social studies. How the Common Core State Standards are to be assessed is discussed in Chapter 5.

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Social Studies Crowded Out? The emphasis on the Common Core State Standards and state assessments has resulted in narrowing the social studies curricu-lum, especially in the primary grades. More time is spent on reading/language arts and math, with less time on social studies, music, art, and physical education. This means that many students arriving in the middle grades and high school have been taught a limited amount of social studies. Social studies teachers of grades 6– 12 cannot assume that students have learned grade- level content or skills in the social studies. However, it is not clear that there has been a decline of social studies teaching at the middle school and especially at the high school level. This is because a significant number of states have implemented tougher graduation requirements for the high schools. Now more states require high school students to complete a college and work- ready curricu-lum in order to graduate. English, science, math, and social studies courses, as well as foreign languages and art, have actually increased in recent years. The mean num-ber of required social studies course credits required to earn a standard high school diploma is 3 years and five months (U.S. Department of Educations 2011). Students are taking more rigorous academic courses, although they, may be watered down in some schools.

Need for a Third C for Civic Life? Concern that social studies education was being crowded out has led the NCSS to publish The College, Career and Civic Life (C3) in 2013 (http://www .socialstudies.org). This is a framework of guidance for the states to use to enhance and to upgrade their standards for rigor in civics, economics, geography, and history in K–12 schools. The focus of this framework is on inquiry and the concepts of the four major social science disciplines, but it does not dictate the content, instead allow-ing individual states to select the appropriate and relevant subject matter. The impact this report will have on state social studies standards will not be clear for many years since many states do not change their standards annually but wait for a number of years before starting to revise them. The relatively quick adoption of the Common Core State Standards was an exception.

Impact of the Standards MovementAlmost all states have now officially adopted the Common Core State Standards. Never-theless, it will take years to implement these reforms. In- service teacher training and pur-chasing new textbooks and related technology takes time. Some states and districts are starting off gradually with the sixth grade in the first year and then adding a following grade each year. For example, in the second year the standards for the seventh grade will be added, and in the third year those for the eighth grade. Other districts are asking all teach-ers, regardless of grade level, to start to adopt the new standards. The required testing in 2015 sets the pace of implementation.

Will you and other teachers really change because of standards and testing? Will high school English teachers actually reduce the number of novels they have traditionally had their students read and move toward the recommended 75 percent of informational texts including social studies texts? It may depend on the level of involvement in a given department and the buy- in to the standards reform. Some teachers are willing to adopt new

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standards and ideas. Others, however, resist them. These teachers report that standards have increased their preparation time due to new content and approaches while decreas-ing their enjoyment of teaching. Reform changes may exacerbate an already stressful job. Teachers may also resent the reduced control they have over the curriculum. No longer can they spend six weeks on the Civil War if the standards for the full year are to be met.

Will the standards- based reform succeed in raising student achievement? First, out-comes will vary greatly in different states and in different schools. Second, and most important, teachers are the primary agents of educational change. You, as a teacher, are the gatekeeper of the curriculum. You and other teachers choose both the content and how to prepare students for standards and testing. Some teachers may do drill- and- practice activities as an attempt to “teach to the test.” But the Common Core State Standards will require more thinking skills on the part of students. Tests will require more than mere content memorization, making drill- and- practice activities of limited usefulness. The best test preparation is a rich curriculum. All the standard reforms will fail unless the teacher understands and chooses classroom activities that enable students to achieve the standards.

Looking at three diverse school districts, Larry Cuban (2008) found teachers were hugging the middle in the era of testing and accountability. In other words, they were combining both teacher- centered approaches (mostly direct instruction, textbooks, and lectures) with student- centered activities (team projects, independent learning, and small group work). However, on the whole, teachers were not using much technology. Thus, teachers were making adaptations for standards- based education reform but were not using all the technology teachers have available.

Even More Reforms Needed?What are the primary problems facing schools? The number- one concern of parents and the public is the lack of funding for the schools. There are worries that public schools can-not improve if there are budget cuts. Another anxiety is our students’ competitiveness in a global economy. While the debate continues on how Common Core State Standards can be implemented, other reforms are also advocated.

Middle School Reform? Middle schools are very important. There is limited value to reforming high schools if the middle schools are failing as measured by achievement tests. American fourth graders’ achievement is fine in comparison with international scores, but by eighth grade they are falling behind, and by high school achievement scores continue to plummet drastically. This raises the question of whether teaching and learning in the middle schools is focusing enough on strong academic achievement. Critics believe too many middle schools concentrate on emotional and social development while failing to serve students’ academic needs. They believe that group hugs have had priority over learn-ing algebra. In other words, middle school students receive less academic instruction while social, emotional, and physical needs are comparatively overindulged. Thus, according to these critics, middle school education is failing to meet the intellectual needs of young adolescents (Yerke, 2005).

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The widely acclaimed Turning Points of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Develop-ment (Carnegie Corporation, 1989) reported a mismatch between the middle- grades struc-ture and curriculum and the social, emotional, physical, and intellectual needs of young teens. Nevertheless, the message about social and emotional support had far more impact on educators than the corresponding message about the need to strengthen the academic subjects in the middle grades. Turning Points 2000 (Jackson & Davis, 2000) reported that middle schools do not provide enough cognitive challenge for young adolescents. Young adolescents’ cognitive abilities are increasing, but there is less demand for them to think in most classes.

What has happened in the last few years in the middle schools? Are middle schools such a muddled mess that they should be completely overhauled? One reform implemented by some cities has been to shift to the K– 8 format. Evidence has been mixed comparing achievement of middle schools versus the much older K– 8 model (Offenberg, 2001). More important than the structure or organization of the school is what actually goes on in the classroom. Real changes in the teaching and learning are more difficult to implement than just changing the organization.

Advocates of the middle school believe that the positive aspects of the current system can be reinforced. The leading organization for middle schools, the Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE), in This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (2012), outlined a curriculum that is challenging, exploratory, integrative, and relevant (www.amle .org). Many different middle schools throughout the nation are trying to improve achieve-ment by providing all students with topics in algebra and geometry, laboratory- based sci-ence, weekly writing in all classes, and especially extensive reading. Reform ideas for the social studies as well as other subjects also include differentiated instruction, looping whereby the same teacher follows the same group of students through several grades, using students as volunteers, service learning, emphasis on safe and secure schools to avoid bul-lying, and less impersonal schools to avoid the loss of self- esteem.

These reforms do not ignore the challenge of middle school student apathy and dis-engagement. Compared with elementary and high school, middle- grade students are more likely to report feeling bored in school and doubtful about their ability to succeed. One difficult task of middle school teachers is to gradually move students from an emotionally warm teacher typically found in the elementary school to function with the more subject- oriented high school teacher. Given the differences among groups and individuals on what should be done, the debate on how to make middle schools both academically excellent while developmentally responsive will probably continue for many years.

High School Reform? High schools are also under pressure to reform. In particular, critics believe there is a mismatch between the skills needed for today’s workforce and postsecondary education and what is taught in the high school. Congress, governors, state education officials, business groups, civil rights advocates, as well as other groups, cite the Nation’s Report Card (the National Assessment for Educational Progress, or NAEP), which indicates that at least 30 percent of high school students perform “Below Basic” on reading, math, and history. Furthermore, the achievement gaps between nonminority and Asian American students compared to minority students still exist. The high dropout rates of high school students increase the difficulty for these individuals to become productive

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Diverse Learners Definitions

Teachers are facing more diverse classrooms, which can complicate efforts to teach 21st- century skills. Certain learners,

including ELs, struggling readers, and SWDs, require teachers to make adjustments in the curriculum and lesson plans. These students are most likely to become dropouts from high school. Dropouts not only have dramatically reduced life chances of finding employment, health care, and the “good life” but are costly to our economy and society. Every student counts, but every student is also unique. One size for all does not work for students.

Teaching students with a wide range of abilities is called differentiated instruction. Differentiated instruction is the practice of giving students multiple options or different avenues for taking in information, making sense of ideas, and expressing what they have learned. All students bring many commonalities to the classroom, but they also bring differences that make each one unique. Be careful not to stereotype students. Your African American student may be a superior reader while your white student may be a struggling reader. See the information and hints for teachers given in each chapter to help you meet the needs of these diverse students.

English Learners

These students are among the fastest- growing groups of students. They are now found both in small towns and in suburban schools that have had little previous experience with immigrant families. Nearly two- thirds of ELs are second- or third- generation Americans born in the United States. This is not just an immigration problem. About three- fourths speak Spanish. Though ELs have made some

improvements in reading and math, many still lag behind their English- speaking peers on state tests and, on average, fewer graduate from high school.

Students Reading below Grade Level: Struggling Readers

Besides the many ELs who are not reading at grade level, many other students struggle with reading. National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP) reading scores in 2005 found about one- fourth of students in grade 12 did not have basic reading skills. Yet adequate reading skills are a key to successful performance in school. These struggling readers are more likely to be found in urban schools than suburban schools. There continues to be a reading achievement gap between white/Asian American students and black and Hispanic students. Females in general score higher than males in reading. Like ELs, struggling readers face difficulties in academic courses and are less likely to graduate from high school or to graduate in four years. Many struggling readers are concentrated in the 10 percent of all high schools that produce 50 percent of the dropout students. These schools have been called “dropout factories.”

Students with Disabilities

About 14 percent of all public school students are classified as SWDs. Classification and diagnosis are difficult and often subjective. The same student could be labeled as learning disabled (LD) in one school and not another. About half of the students with disabilities are labeled as LD, with twice as many males in this category. Some school districts use the broad term specific learning disability (SLD) instead of LD. Attention deficit students are usually classified as having learning disabilities. Other categories include

(continued)

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Diverse Learners Continued

mental retardation (MR) or intellectual disability (ID); emotional disturbance (ED); sensory, physical, and health

impairments; and communication disabilities.The goal is to mainstream students with

disabilities as much as feasible. Nearly three- fourths of students with disabilities are being placed in general education classrooms. However, only about one- fourth of all general education teachers feel confident about teaching students with disabilities in their own regular classrooms. For each student with disabilities, you will need to work with the special education staff to create a plan and implement it and then reflect on it with the student and the special education coordinator to judge the plan’s success and whether it needs modification.

Gifted

There is now a broader definition of gifted besides an IQ score between 130 and 155, indicating intellectual giftedness. Creative and talented students, often in the visual or performing arts, are also included, although the definitions of creative and talented vary. About 2 to 5 percent of all students are considered gifted or talented. In practice, many of the gifted are placed in AP and honors courses in high school, but often the gifted also may be found in regular courses. Normally little attention is given by the teacher to the gifted in regular classes or at the middle school level. Sometimes the gifted and talented are hidden and may not be identified; some are even underachievers. MENSA, the high IQ group, has a website (www.mensaforkids.org) that offers games and activities for children as well as lesson plans for teachers, although its focus is more on younger children.

workers and citizens. This critical viewpoint of high schools is probably best expressed by former Microsoft chairman Bill Gates (2005), who has stated that “America’s high schools are obsolete.”

Even those who do graduate may not have the skills needed to succeed in the work-force or in postsecondary education. Many employers rate high school students’ basic skills as only “fair” or “poor,” while too many college students are required to take at least one remedial course in what they should have learned in high school. But some employers are more concerned about a lack of nonacademic skills, soft skills like getting along with others, enthusiasm, and motivation. Furthermore, employers, as in the past, still want their employees to be honest, punctual, dependable, and industrious.

Some middle and high school students are also critical of their schools. Some stu-dents find schoolwork, including history and civics, actually too easy and boring. Other students want fair policies equitably enforced, they want to get rid of “bad” teachers, and they want instruction that relates to “the real world.” These students admire teachers who know their subject matter, have high standards, listen to students, provide individual attention, and have a sense of humor. In addition, student engagement studies report that about 40 to 60 percent of high school students are “chronically disengaged” from school (National Research Council Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement

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and Motivation to Learn, 2004). Only about 30 percent of high school students enrolled in college prep programs said that their schoolwork was meaningful (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004).

Students differ in their aptitudes and interests. Some struggling and high- risk students want quality career and technical education. However, in the past, too often vocational education was for the poor and working class and college prep for the advantaged. Equity issues also are a concern in teaching 21st- century skills since at the present time often the amount of learning experiences students get both in and outside of school varies with socioeconomic status.

Advanced Placement Courses and the International BaccalaureateAdvanced placement (AP) courses can challenge high school students with college- level material, thereby raising standards and helping to ensure academic success in higher education. To promote equity, support instruction in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), and gain access to higher education, all public high schools through-out the nation have been encouraged to increase the number of AP courses available to students. Indeed, the number of high school students taking AP courses keeps climbing every year.

The goal has been for every high school to offer AP courses despite the controversy over tracking and giving a differentiated curriculum to students. For rural and urban high schools that do not have a range of AP courses, online AP courses are a good option, especially if there is a lack of highly qualified teachers for the college- level courses or student enrollment is low. Distance learning is a good option and is expected to increase in the coming years. In fact, a few states require each high school graduate to take an online course(s). In some cases, AP courses have been a vast improvement over what had been traditionally taught in low- income schools. Students have said learning how to read college- level textbooks and how to improve their writing skills have better prepared them for higher education. Nevertheless, some poor and/or minority students have been ambiva-lent about taking AP or honors courses. They may be unwilling to leave their friends in a regular class or feel they cannot make the grade in such courses. Many potential students are not participating in AP courses.

There presently are 34 available AP courses. U.S. History is the most popular of all the AP courses. Other social studies AP courses include World History, European History, U.S. Government and Politics, Comparative Government, Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, Human Geography, and Psychology. Detailed guides on the purpose, scope, structure, and administration of the exams are available from the College Board (www.collegeboard.org/ap), as well as course- specific institutes, websites, print resources, and email lists. Abundant materials on how to teach the courses, as well as student materi-als, are also available from commercial publishers.

The point scale for the AP courses is 1 to 5 with a score of 3 or higher for passing and failure with a score of 1 or 2. It is worth noting that as the number of students taking AP exams has increased, so has the failure rate, although the failure rate varies with dif-ferent tests as shown in Table 1.2 . The highest success rate for social studies courses is AP Psychology, typically a 12th- grade elective, followed by European History, a course

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that is declining in the curriculum compared to the required 10th- grade World History course. Microeconomics also has a high success rate, although not many students are tak-ing this AP course. On the whole, the required courses have a lower success rate for AP exams. Should the schools continue to encourage high school students to take AP courses? Most parents support AP programs. They feel AP courses enrich the curriculum and put their children on par with the elite private schools— although some elite private schools now focus on their own honors courses instead of AP courses.

A newer college- type program for high school students is the International Baccalaureate (IB), which is taken in the last two years of high school (www.ibo.org). This program replicates the courses taken in European secondary schools, with an empha-sis on assessment and promoting intercultural competence. Students can take individual courses with exams or work for an IB diploma. The costs of this program probably will restrict rapid growth, but on the other hand, college admission counselors appear to reward students who have taken the courses or have earned a diploma. It has been recommended as a model by some advocates of such skills. The partnership for 21st century skills (www .p21.org) strongly supports moving toward higher level skills.

A Need for Even Higher Standards for 21st- Century Skills?While the debate continues on how the Common Core State Standards can be imple-mented, a high- profile group of education, business, and civic leaders believe that just aiming for Common Core State Standards in reading and math is a meager beginning. A report by the National Center on Education and the Economy (2006), a nonprofit group partly financed by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation plus other foundations, urged an even more drastic redesign of the American K– 12 public schools to make the nation more

Ta b l e 1 . 2 Success rate of Social Studies ap Courses, 2011

AP Course Number of Students Percentage Successful

U.S. History 406,086 52.8

U.S. Government/Politics 225,837 51.6

Psychology 197,719 66.2

World History 188,417 48.4

European History 107,392 64.9

Macroeconomics 90,134 53.8

Human Geography 83,841 51.0

Microeconomics 56,303 63.6

Comparative Government 17,111 59.7

Note: Based on The College Board, The 8th Annual AP Report to the Nation, available at apreport.collegeboard.org

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competitive globally. For 21st- century skills, the emphasis is what students can do with knowledge, rather than mere competence in traditional academic disciplines. Students also need to know more about the world, become smarter about new sources of information, develop good people skills, and think outside the box. In one sense, the 21st- century skills are not new, but the fact that few students in the past achieved these critical- thinking skills and dispositions should only emphasize the critical tasks ahead. Other groups and indi-viduals have also offered their ideas on what a 21st- century definition of education should be in terms of subject areas and skills. For many, there should be more focus on STEM subject areas.

Everyone now talks about 21st- century skills. Besides just skills for the workforce, what are the skills students need to prepare for family life, civic responsibility, cultural awareness and sensitivity, adaptation to change, and leisure? Surprisingly, there is quite a bit of consensus on the lists of 21st- century skills. There is a key emphasis on criti-cal thinking, analytical ability, and technology skills, plus creativity, collaboration, and communication.

Advocates such as the Partnership of 21st- century skills (www.p21.org) standards want schools to be even better than before if American society is to survive, both in a global economy and at home. But critics are afraid that more stress on skills will become a substitute for a body of explicit, well- sequenced content. What mix of high school aca-demic courses plus soft skills like collaboration skills should the high schools implement? As for decades, there is a continued debate on what students should learn. Not everyone agrees that an academic curriculum emphasizing thinking skills and based on sending all students to higher education is best for all students. Students differ in their aptitudes and interests as well as the quality of their schools. In practice, will the 21st- century skills be implemented mainly in the affluent schools?

National Curriculum Patterns: Tradition and Present PlacementYou can see that the four main goals of citizenship education and the definition of the social studies are so broad (some would say “loose”) that widely different content and skills could be taught for each grade level. But this ignores the importance of tradition. Early in the 20th century, the recommendations of the National Education Association’s (1916) Committee of 1916 set the stage for the social studies content being taught throughout the United States.

How much is being retained of the historic 1916 pattern? What is the current status of placement of content in courses? Table 1.3 shows the 1916 recommendations in the middle column. The right column combines current students’ reports to NAEP of their courses and the results of studies using analyses of transcripts, reported research, and state recom-mendations. The earlier elementary grades are included in the current column to show the repeating pattern of courses in U.S. history and world history/cultures.

Please remember that this is not a universal pattern of social studies courses taught in the United States, because there are different state and local requirements. In an NAEP survey of U.S. history courses, when eighth- grade students were asked if they were currently taking a U.S. history course, 83 percent said yes and 17 percent said

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no. For the U.S. history course in grade 11, 79 percent of the students said they were taking such a course and 18 percent stated they were not. But regardless of when stu-dents take the course, an analysis of transcripts indicates that in 2005, 94 percent of high school graduates had taken one year of U.S. history. The second most popular one- year high school social studies course was world history, with about 77 percent of students having completed a one- year course. Clearly, history courses dominate the social studies curriculum.

At the secondary level, the biggest change appears to be the shift from teaching civics and government courses in ninth grade, as was recommended in 1916, to teaching it in the 12th grade. Less certain is what is happening at the sixth-, seventh-, and tenth- grade levels on world history/world cultures, as European history is being replaced by a more global history. Currently, a chronological approach in world history is replacing a relatively recent emphasis on world cultures. For example, in California, sixth- grade social studies covers ancient civilizations to around AD 500, the seventh- grade curriculum continues from that period to 1789, and the tenth- grade sequence concentrates on the modern period starting after 1789 to the present. Not all state curricula follow this division of time periods, but it is not atypical.

Ta b l e 1 . 3 Social Studies Grade topics

Grade 1916 Recommendations Current Scope and Sequence

4 — State history, geographic regions

5 — U.S. history often with focus on earlier period, geography

6 — World history, geography, less emphasis on world cultures

7 Geography, European history

World history, geography, with emphasis on world chronological approach

8 American history U.S. history, often focus on 19th century

9 Civics Civics, increasingly moving to the 12th grade (now 50 percent)

10 European history World/global history, emphasis more on chronological than regional or cultural approach

11 American history U.S. history, often emphasis on 20th and 21st centuries

12 Problems of democracy— social, economic, and political

Civics, economics; electives psychology and sociology (Niemi & Smith, 2000)

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technologies and textbooks

TechnologiesIn this section, which focuses on the newer technologies, the broader topics such as online/computerized courses are discussed first and then later more specialized technological tools like wikis. However, everyone is aware that technology and its usage change rap-idly. One of the best ways to keep up with what is happening with technology in education is to read Learning & Leading with Technology, the journal of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). Most of its articles, like the research in the field, are not directly related to social studies teachers, but to teachers in general. However, usually con-nections can be made to the field of social studies. There are also many anecdotal reports such as pieces about social studies teachers creating documentary reflections, using tech-nology to teach personal finance, or collaborating on a global scale.

Technology is also increasingly being used for in- service training, for example, requir-ing all teachers to take online courses to help ELs or to implement Common Core State Standards. Despite the growing prevalence of technology, teachers vary in their acceptance of it. Some are in the beginning stages of just dabbling and doing old things in new ways, while others are doing new things in new ways.

Technology: Boon or Bane? With regard to the use of technology in the schools, there appear to be two vocal camps: a larger group of optimists and a smaller group of pessimists. The optimists with their evangelic spirit see high tech as a fix for almost all of the schools’ problems. For example, advocates of digital teaching platforms (DTPs) believe that this new technology will change the face of classroom instruction. DTPs are designed to provide a full digital curriculum, with built- in tools that teachers can use to create lessons and assignments to meet the needs of every student. DTPs also provide tools for classroom management and, even more importantly, student assess-ment. Teachers can obtain learner profiles that not only give the academic background of each student but that also indicate the student’s interests and motivations. Furthermore, there will be a vast array of digital curricula available with open access. Therefore, teachers will be able to customize the learning of each student. Advocates of DTPs main-tain that this revolution will take place within a few years and will be one of the most important advances of all time, since in their view it will impact the whole world from Africa to Australia.

On the other hand, the remaining skeptics of technology believe that advocates of greater use of digital curricula are ignoring the schools’ culture. Although these skeptics often have valid arguments, they have sometimes stood in the way of implementing useful technology in their schools. Reform of the curriculum has always been difficult. Teachers may sabotage mandates from the administration, especially if they have not had a voice in the decision making. Parents who grew up with a more traditional curriculum may worry about how the new digital curriculum will work for their own child. Should the familiar textbooks really be thrown out? These worried parents elect the local school board with a mandate to move more slowly with the use of technology. The issue of student privacy also continues to be of great concern.

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Technologies and Textbooks 23

In a more moderate approach using thousands of hours observing classes in the use of both successful and unsuccessful technology, Warschauer (2011) indicated that just giving every student a laptop does not always work. Instead, success depends on Internet access, teacher training, and curriculum development. Technology can improve good teaching, but technology does not automatically make poor schools good.

A teacher can get hooked on using technology simply because of all of its wonder-ful capabilities. However, the priority should always be improving student performance through the use of technology. Besides helping students learn, technology can save teach-ers time and productivity, as when they use word processing and apps to write lesson plans; send emails to parents, other teachers, and administrators; find lesson plans on the Internet; use an electronic grade book; individualize learning; and the like. It should be pointed out, however, that not all teachers have every type of classroom- ready technology at their fingertips. Moreover, it goes without saying that unless technology is relatively convenient, teachers are not likely to use it. Nor are all textbooks, notes, learning materials, and assignments computerized, although the purchase of technology continues to increase in education.

It is important as well to question the assumption that all students are “digital natives,” that they are a homogeneous generation who can only learn by using technology. The reasoning goes that since today’s students are growing up with Internet access, Facebook, YouTube, as well as other digital resources, that they will automatically be drawn to tech-nology in the classroom. A subgroup of students do use technology well. In fact, students’ technological skills appear to be strongly linked to their economic background, with stu-dents of higher economic status tending to have more proficiency. So it is true that some of your students may be more adept at using technology than you are. However, as with all their abilities, students have a wide range of technological skills. Indeed, frequently students have a very superficial approach to retrieving social studies information and data sources.

Blended Learning. More attention is now being given to blended learning, also known as multimethod or mixed- mode learning. In blended learning, a course, unit, or lessons are taught using a combination of technology- based materials and face- to- face ses-sions in the classroom, expanding the opportunities for students to learn both content and skills. Educational activities that formerly took place exclusively in the classroom can be moved online, making technology play a larger role in student learning. The two elements are integrated: for instance, introductory lessons can be taught by a teacher in the class-room, and then students can participate in follow- up instruction online. Small group work and other interactions with student peer groups can also be built into the technology part of the course. Blended learning is expected to increase in the coming years in middle and high schools, in part because it offers significant cost savings, making it appealing to dis-tricts with bleak budgets.

As discussed earlier, AP as well as other courses are often available online and are helpful in rural areas, for home- schooled students, in schools where enrollment is low, and when teachers are not adequately trained to teach given subject areas. However, not all 6– 12 students can adapt to a course that is conducted entirely online. Students may lack self- motivation, have weak technology skills, have time management problems, have poor reading skills or competencies, and the like. For this reason, some schools have students

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work on their own using the online course, including some time with a small group, but every Friday (or another given day), require that students meet with a teacher, facilitator, or aide to check on how well they are progressing. Anecdotal evidence indicates that many 6– 12 students are catching up with the weekly assignments built into the online course. It is far more cost effective for a district if a teacher or aide can supervise and meet once a week with students enrolled in online courses, rather than teaching approximately 150 students each day in a typical five- class schedule. Of course, meeting with a teacher/aide does not have to be limited to just one day a week: students can meet twice a week with a teacher or aide. Blended learning can take many forms.

Blended learning can assist in differential learning if students of different abilities can be given different content and assignments based on their ability. High- achieving students can move more quickly ahead without being held back by their “slower” peers, who can take more time to understand and to process the material. Students who have been absent from school can pick up where they have left off. Students can learn how to work indepen-dently, as well as in small groups, important skills now and when they are adults.

Flipped Classroom. A special format for blended learning is the flipped classroom. Traditionally students have sat in classrooms during the day and then in the late afternoon or evening have completed their homework assignments. However, in the flipped class-room, during the late afternoon or evenings students receive instruction from videos, usu-ally prepared by the classroom teacher. The videos can be embedded with short quizzes or other materials to help students reflect on the concept(s) of the video. The typical video lasts around 10 to 15 minutes. Then during the day in the classrooms, where the teacher or peer group can help them, students do homework activities, group problem solving, and the like.

At first glance, the idea of preparing videos for even a week sounds like it would demand too much time. But realize that a flipped classroom routine does not have to be done every day in the school year. Flipping can be used for only a few days instead of for a complete course or unit. In addition, you may be able to use another teacher’s video lesson for a given day, either borrowed from colleagues in your own school/district or obtained from online resources such as Khan Academy or YouTube. Students may not be limited to just their own teacher’s videos but also have the opportunity to view other teachers’ videos on the same concept, often obtained from a library of course videos.

However, teachers should still plan to produce their own videos, which will be more customized for the needs of their particular classes. It takes about 30 minutes to create a ten- minute video, and teachers must learn how to use video- production software. Furthermore, support from administrators and tech staff is essential. But flipped classes offer the poten-tial to increase both student learning and student interest.

When students are allowed to do “homework” in class, teachers can spot difficulties they may be having. Essays or written assignments like reports often pose serious problems for students, as they have to weave together content, reading, and writing. At home, some students just about freeze when they have to work on a writing assignment— although the Common Core State Standards have writing as a priority in all subject areas.

In the flipped classroom model, the teacher produces a video on the content, includ-ing references to textbooks and other resources. The content/issue might be what should be done about the federal debt (or the state or local debt)? Or does our state (or local

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government) need prison/jail reform? Should our immigration policy be changed? In these examples, students are to support their thesis statements with evidence from various texts.

Let us examine an example of where a flipped classroom could work for teaching a social studies writing assignment. Using the flipped classroom model, Ms. Angela Tomas, the teacher, moves from desk to desk (or computer/digital devices) to help her students during the regular class meeting. Quickly reading her student David’s work, she tells him that evidence is needed to defend his thesis. Other students are told that they need help in writing their thesis in the first paragraph. Ms. Tomas may ask successful writers to help these struggling students. To one student, she gives prompts on how to get started. Other students do not know where to find supporting evidence for their thesis statements. Using classroom time for this writing assignment probably offers students a better learning expe-rience than having them try to do it at home, especially if they have not done much writing in their classes.

Flipping can have many advantages. In some cases, classroom management problems are reduced when students do not have to listen to a teacher talk, talk, talk. Instead class-room time can be better devoted to meeting students’ needs. Flipping may also increase communication between the teacher and students. In addition, some students appreciate being able watch videos more than once at home so that they can better understand the concepts and content. Parents/guardians can also become familiar with what is happening in the classroom.

On the other hand, flipping presumes that all students have high- speed Internet access and that they do not have to compete with other family members to use it. A digital divide still exists. Critics also believe that flipping may just increase the amount of time spent lecturing with the emphasis remaining on memorization. Furthermore, teachers are not professional actors. Teachers may need improvement on their lecturing skills. In addition, very little research exists on what are the best practices for an effec-tive flipped classroom.

Social Media. Definitions of social media vary, but in general social media are technol-ogies that are used to turn communication into an interactive dialogue. Almost everyone agrees that the pervasiveness of social networking websites like Facebook and the increas-ing popularity of text messages have resulted in an environment in which young people are increasingly in touch with their peers and their schools. Some classify social media into categories: social networking sites like Facebook, miniblogs like Twitter, and content com-munities like YouTube. Mobile devices are also increasing the use of social media.

Typically, teachers’ use of social media indicates a preference in the following order: Facebook, YouTube, and blogs, followed by LinkedIn, wikis, and Twitter. Other formats such as Flickr, SlideShare, and Myspace are used by very few teachers. This trend of teach-ers employing social media includes both older and younger teachers as social media usage continues to expand rapidly among all segments of society. However, almost all teachers maintain separate accounts for personal activities and class social networking. Even with a separate account for classroom use, only a very small percentage of teachers use social networking in their classrooms.

Specifically how teachers use one type of social media was shown by a study of wiki usage in U.S. K– 12 schools (Reich, Murnane, & Willett, 2012). The researchers found that wikis used in high- income schools were longer and provided more opportunities for

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students to learn higher- level skills than wikis used in schools serving low- income stu-dents. In addition, teachers mainly used wikis to post content and assignments but not for student collaboration. The full potential of wikis for students appears not be realized yet in schools.

In addition, tablets like iPads offer potential by being highly portable and providing continuous access to digital content. Available apps can help individualize instruction, an especially important area for low- performing and EL students. In addition, software and services such as Skype that allow students to make video calls can foster real- world access to global communities and support collaborative learning. Blogs, another resource, are explored in Chapter 3 as a useful tool for furthering discussion. In addition, numerous websites exist to help students create cartoons, timelines, animated videos, interactive posters, develop class polls, and the like. Some of these websites, however, require fees to use.

TextbooksTextbooks are the core of what content is taught in each social studies course. Rahima Wade (1993) estimated that 70 to 90 percent of social studies instructional time was text-book based. A 2006 NAEP survey found that 79 percent of eighth graders and 76 percent of 12th graders used their history textbooks daily or at least once or twice a week. Thus, about 80 to 90 percent of all social studies students read a history textbook at least once a week (Ravitch, 2004). These figures may even understate teachers’ and students’ true dependence on textbooks. Almost all homework assignments and much classroom activity are textbook driven. But despite their importance as an instructional tool, hardly anybody has a good word to say about social studies textbooks.

Historian Diane Ravitch and a team of experts evaluated the six most popular U.S. his-tory textbooks and the six most popular world history textbooks as part of a project by a conservative organization, the Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. Although the textbooks have colorful illustrations and bright graphics, the verdict of experts was that the books are heavy (students would agree with this point) and dull. According to this report, text-books mention everything but explain nothing; there is plenty of information but no evalu-ating. There is not enough breadth and depth necessary to develop ideas and concepts fully. Whole civilizations are covered in a few pages. Ravitch believes that part of the problem is that the major publishers try to avoid offending any group. In addition, Ravitch states that many teachers’ history background is inadequate and so they have to rely on the textbook.

While this textbook study was funded by a conservative organization, liberal authors also are critical. Just to name one well- known critic, James Loewen (1995) in Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong harshly criti-cizes texts as indoctrinating blind patriotism and simplistically presenting facts to be learned, free of controversy. In addition, many students find social studies textbooks too difficult to read and understand.

From these statements, one would wonder why teachers would even want a text-book. However, most teachers, even with the resources of technology and digital curricula, do not have the time or want the responsibility of building a curriculum from scratch. The units in the textbook can form the structure of a course. The textbook can be the primary

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source of information. In effect, the social studies textbook with its auxiliary materials is often the most valuable resource that a teacher has.

To supplement textbooks, there are many types of workbooks, test questions for formal testing, interactive notebooks, reproducible lesson masters, student handouts, PowerPoint visuals, customized state standards correlations, and DVDs, some of these for a price. It is especially valuable to have video clips or an audio presentation of the text for struggling readers and ELs. In addition, social studies textbooks are usually now very colorful with countless maps, artwork, charts, illustrations, cartoons, and the like aiming to make them more appealing to students.

Moreover, helpful for many teachers, textbooks now have more reading support built into the text with strategies for struggling readers and ELs as well as suggestions for the gifted/talented and students with disabilities. The teacher’s editions also include detailed lesson plans, questions, discussion topics, informal assessment tools, and Internet resources. Textbooks now provide more primary and secondary sources, which may allow for more than one perspective. The textbook can be organized around big ideas, questions, or concepts reflecting the influence of the standards movement.

Textbooks may be better than ever despite the long- standing criticism that they present an oversimplified and uncontroversial narrative. But it is the teacher who makes the text-book an effective resource and tool. The teacher’s edition and the associated technology can inspire teachers to do a better job of helping all of their diverse students to learn. For this reason, it is a good idea to try to get copies of textbooks other than the one you are using and teacher’s guides (some now only available at the publisher’s website or if you buy a classroom set of texts) and to explore websites of several publishers. These sources offer abundant ideas for student learning on a given topic. Thus, textbooks and their associ-ated material can be an important guide for the teacher.

Time to Switch to Ebooks or Digital Textbooks? More attention is now being given by both teachers and librarians on whether to use ebooks or traditional text-books. Presently, teachers and students appear to be divided into two camps: those who like the feel and comfort of a traditional book versus those who prefer reading ebooks. A negative cited of using ebooks is that it is less relaxing to view a screen and causes reading fatigue to occur faster. A positive of ebooks is easy access and portability and not having to carry numerous heavy books. Also helpful, publishers now offer digital textbooks with features including colorful magazine- style design, embedded videos, audio clips of sec-tion summaries, photo galleries, 3D graphics, animated maps, simulations, text- searching abilities, Web links, and self- check quizzes. Students can highlight the text, take notes, and search for content. An additional argument in favor of digital textbooks is that they can support individualized instruction. To offer a range of reading levels, it is cheaper to use a single reading level and to supplement it with the text- to- audio feature. However, there is little evidence presently that ebooks with all their additional features actually improve student learning.

For ELs, a translation or language support may be available, such as text- to- audio. This is a feature that can also be used by struggling readers. Typically the whole class, includ-ing some students using the text- to- audio feature, reads a chapter. Then the teacher can use assessments to quickly obtain feedback on student comprehension for the whole class or

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individual students to see if they have mastered the content. This feature points out to the teacher what topics may need reinforcement or which students need special help. A social studies digital textbook can also be updated more easily, which is especially important for economics textbooks.

Publishers are advertising technology as a means to promote student learning and also to enable the teacher to spend less time planning and grading. The technology offered by publishers has the following features:

● Deliver assignments such as selectable end- of- chapter questions and test- bank questions to students

● Automatically grade assignments, giving students immediate feedback with correct answers

● Allow teachers to view scored work immediately and track students’ grade reports● Offer students quick access to practice material and additional personalized lesson

plans

You and other teachers are decision makers. What is best? The promise of a digital textbook program? Or the print social studies textbook with auxiliaries? Teachers and dis-tricts also have to weigh carefully what alternative financially is best for them since the school will usually not “own” the digital textbooks but will pay fees each year for each class using the publisher’s technology program. Your state may also offer free digital text-books, but without all of the publisher’s convenient features. All of these considerations will have to be taken into account in making a decision.

Values, Character, and Moral education

The broad values that teachers believe are important for students to learn have not changed in recent years. They include democracy, honesty, freedom of speech, courtesy, tolerance, and freedom of worship. Teachers and the general public agree that the home has the primary responsibility for developing children’s values but that the school still has an important role to play. However, there may be differences in how teachers and students view such issues as cheating on a test, not telling the truth, or misbehaving in class.

You have already seen that one of the goals of civic education is the teaching of tradi-tional values. As with the different perspectives on civic education, there are also different approaches to the teaching of values, although there is overlap between the two. Elementary and middle schools may provide character and moral education programs to teach stu-dents to identify “good values” (such as citizenship, honesty, respect for others, kindness, and cooperation with others) and put these values into practice. Such programs reflect a movement to socialize the nation’s youth and try to correct and help those who are harm-ing themselves and others. Instances of school violence and anti-bullying are often cited as evidence that schools need to do more with character education. However, character education is broad in scope and the term describes many programs: moral education, car-ing community, ethic/moral philosophy, violence and anti-bullying prevention, social and emotional skills, and the like.

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Values, Character, and Moral Education 29

The Importance of Character Building for School SuccessMost parents believe that success in school and adult life comes mainly from cognitive skills and intelligence. However, more attention is now being given to character skills— self- control, persistence, curiosity, self- confidence, grit, conscientiousness, and the like. These character- building skills are essential for learning. It is difficult to learn social studies or other school subjects if students do not have self- control and have negative feel-ings about their ability to succeed. These character skills, just like reading, do not just come out of the blue but are developed by encountering and overcoming difficulties. As the old saying goes, the school of hard knocks develops character. Think how you learned to drive a car or mastered a difficult task. Often you had the support of mentors— your parent(s) or friends— in order to become independent and successful in doing the task.

According to the advocates of the character- building approach, two groups of children and young people are encountering difficulty in developing sturdy character skills (Tough, 2012). Privileged affluent students, who may be too protected by their parents from obsta-cles, do not have the opportunity to encounter and to master problems. Poor students, on the other hand, are facing too many problems and cannot overcome the many stresses in their environment. They lack resilience to overcome their difficulties. Therefore, any-thing that mentors such as teachers can do to help develop the positive character skills of their students is most worthwhile. Furthermore, employers also value these character

Do you think the anti- bullying programs of schools have been effective?Source: Mandy Godbehear/Shutterstock

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skills. Some experts, however, do not like the term character skills but rather would call them social and emotional skills. Regardless of what term is used, all agree that these skills are important for the success of students both in school and as adults.

Civic ValuesThere is a link between good character and good citizenship. One criticism is that the schools’ values are too strongly influenced by their interest in maintaining order. Generally, a school does not interpret good student citizenship as questioning the school’s rules. For example, the following are some rules that many students would like to address:

● School lunch policy● Teachers and classes● School bathrooms● Parking issues● Alcohol and other drugs● Dress codes● School sports

Whether character education should be taught explicitly in the school curriculum is a thorny issue. Formal character education programs are less typical at the high school level, partly because there are usually no specific courses in which it can be taught. However, this does not mean that the high schools are not trying to teach values to their students. For example, elimination of sexual harassment, cyberbullying, and school violence is a high priority of secondary schools. It is felt that students need instruction as a way to promote making school a safe learning environment free of harassment or violence.

You may have studied these different approaches for teaching values in your educa-tion psychology course. However, regardless of what approach is used for teaching val-ues, everyone agrees that the teacher is a role model. Your own behavior can show the proper way to act. Your students are observing you. They note what you do and say. They are particularly concerned that you treat them fairly! Your own values are shown by your behavior. (See Classroom Episode on page 31.) In addition, to obtain and to keep your cer-tification as a teacher in your state, you must have good “moral character” with an absence of violations of the law.

There is no such thing as a values- free classroom, because everything you do as a teacher reflects your values. Your rules for the class and the school’s rules are teaching values as well as emphasizing commonly accepted behaviors such as cleanliness, prompt-ness, honesty, and the following rules. “Respect others.” “If you are absent for a test, you must make it up at lunchtime within two days of returning to class.” “In small group work, everyone needs to contribute.” Values, however, may also be taught in a manner more subtle than direct teaching or telling students about the rules. There also may be a “hidden curriculum” based on a teacher’s unexamined assumptions and biases, with the result, for example, that popular kids get more favorable attention or ELs are ignored.

Notice that the various approaches to values education, shown in Table 1.4 , are gen-erally not unique in their methodology; the Methods column often includes “variety of methods.” Yet value approaches are not without controversy. Whereas almost everyone supports broad general values such as democracy, freedom of the individual, caring, voting

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Classroom EpisodeIs Teaching Social Justice a Form of Indoctrination?

Setting: A small group discussion of preservice secondary social studies candidates at a large public university. The enrollment in the secondary social studies methods class is primarily white female and male candidates. The professor of the class is an African American woman, Dr. Ellen Bernard. Social justice is part of the mission statement of the Division of Education. The definition of social justice includes addressing the dynamics of oppression, privilege, and isms such as racism.

Emma: Be honest with me. Do you really think lesson plans about racism and social justice will fly at the typical high school class in our state? I am planning to go back to teach in my suburban hometown. I really wonder about the reaction.

Jack: Maybe it depends upon the racial/ethnic makeup of your class.

Isabella: Our required readings and Dr. Bernard definitely state that issues like racism are for all of our students.

Helen: But I think you should always be concerned about the reaction when you talk about racism. You also have to be careful in some communities because they may think you are trying to indoctrinate the students to a certain point of view.

Isabella: But all students need to discuss and to deliberate civic and political issues. You need these skills.

Emma: What about discussion in our own class? Often I wonder if I speak up about my concerns about teaching racism and social justice, our instructor will mark me down. We need everything going for us if we are going to get a teaching job.

Helen: The practical side in me says to follow the “party line” on social justice for this class and all the other education courses. Then wait until you get tenure at your school district before really teaching about big controversial issues like racism.

Jack: That’s cynical. I’m concerned that our readings of Diana Hess and others state that too often many social studies teachers are holding back on teaching controversial issues. They censor themselves and are unwilling to help students to think and discuss important public issues because of fears of administrators and the community.

David: But you can protect yourself. If you present multiple and differing viewpoints on public issues, you can avoid the charge of indoctrination. People mostly get angry if only one point of view is presented.

Helen: Yet some students can tell where you stand on a given issue even if you give more than one point of view. This is important since some high school students feel in order to get a good grade that they must parrot back the “correct” point of view of the teacher.

Emma: Isn't that what I am doing now? Giving back the party line?

Your reaction: Do you agree or disagree about any of the statements of these candidates? What is your rationale for teaching or not teaching about racism and social justice?

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as a civic duty, and the like, parents want the school to support their values, and they may object if they think a teacher is downgrading, questioning, or dismissive of their cherished values. Whether teachers should try to keep their own personal values out of the class-rooms is another issue (Chapter 7).

Let us look at some potential problem areas in values education. As interpreted by educators, the moral development approach of Kohlberg (1966) aims to stimulate and fos-ter more complex reasoning patterns based on a higher set of values. Some, but not all, of the multicultural and global education approaches also aim to move students to a higher and more complex level of values (Hanvey, 1975). These approaches are often based on four to six developmental stages. In general, these approaches find that individuals in the ethnocentric or first stage of any of the models are more hesitant and less open. Those at

Ta b l e 1 . 4 Different approaches to Values education

Approach Purpose Methods

Indoctrination Values of students change in desired direction

Variety of methods, selective data provided

Moral development (Kohlberg)

Students develop higher set of values; just community

Moral dilemmas, small group discussion, teacher in devil’s advocate role

Multicultural education (Banks)

Cross- cultural development; cultural heritage

Variety of methods, experience diversity, reflection, role- playing, participation in consciousness- raising groups, community inquiry

Global education, peace education

Cross- cultural development by viewing world from global perspectives; foster attitudes that will support world peace

Variety of methods, attention to values, reflective learning, moral dilemmas

Values clarification (Simon et al., 1972)

Students become aware of their own values

Variety of methods, self- analysis exercises

Analysis Students use logical thinking to decide values issues

Rational discussion, research, critical thinking

Caring (Noddings)

Care for self, care for others, altruism

Modeling, dialogue, practice, confirmation, self- esteem

Social action Students have opportunities for social action based on their values

Projects in schools and in the community

Note: Difficulties arise when trying to place certain value programs such as those that stress self- esteem and drug- free behavior. Some people consider these programs to be “indoctrination,” whereas others put them in the “analysis” approach because they may use medical research as a data source.

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the higher stages are more interested in learning about and respecting other cultures and human rights.

The multicultural and global education approaches to values education are based on a belief that it is not enough to teach only content— although content is basic— about ethnic and racial groups or global issues. Individuals need to move to an important commitment to combat racism, all forms of prejudice, and discrimination, and develop into adults who accept individual differences. This commitment, according to Banks (1994), is typically created through the development of appropriate understanding, attitudes, and social action skills (Chapter 7). Some of these approaches have raised questions as to whose perspective is being taken as the norm. Carol Gilligan (1982), for example, has criticized Kohlberg for omitting a feminine perspective.

Approaches such as the caring approach of Noddings (2005) may also wish to reform the school, reconstruct society, or take some action. But not all community members will appreciate a classroom that examines discrimination in the community or labor conditions of the workers who make the clothing we buy. Parents, students, and the community may see the teacher as a political advocate for a viewpoint that is not their own.

Do any of these values or character education approaches work? It appears that val-ues or character education programs that are carefully designed and implemented are suc-ceeding. Avoiding philosophical disputes, values and character education finds strength at the local level where teachers, administrators, and local community members initiate programs designed to improve the social climate of the school and get the students to buy into the program. Then the result is a more civil and pleasant place for teaching and learn-ing to take place.

Nevertheless, it is important to think about your own values as you become a teacher. Your values will influence your planning and teaching, based on what you con-sider important for students to learn. Your values will affect how you teach controversial issues. They will also affect how you treat your students and your grading system.

Large Group Discussion

Controversial IssueShould the schools move forward on implementation of a digital curriculum? How would the role of the teacher change? Would you like to teach in such schools? ●


Your Value ApproachOf the various value approaches found in Table 1.4 , which one(s) would you feel most comfortable teaching? Which ones might be more effective? ●

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Summary

● The main goal of social studies is civic education.● National, state, and the Common Core State Standards aim for higher achievement

and influence what is taught.● National social studies curriculum patterns reflect the importance of tradition and

textbooks.● The growing use of technology (blended learning, flipped classrooms, wikis, and

the like), plus better textbooks and ebooks, both with their auxiliary materials, offer the promise of improving student learning.

● Your values influence your teaching as you aim to promote both the character and civic values of your students.

References

Association for Middle Level Education. (2012). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents (2nd ed.). Westerville, OH: Author.

Baker, E. L. (2007). The end(s) of testing. Educational Researcher, 3(6), 309– 317.

Banks, J. (1994). Multiethnic education: Theory and prac-tice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. (1995). The manufactured cri-sis. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley.

Carnegie Corporation. (1989). Turning points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. New York: Longman.

Cornbleth, C. (2008). Diversity and the new teacher: Learning from experience in urban schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Cuban, L. (2008). Hugging the middle— How teachers teach in an era of testing and accountability. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gater, B. (2005). National Education Summit, Feb 2, 2005. Washington. D. C.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological the-ory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hanvey, R. (1975). An attainable global perspective. New York: Center for War/Peace Studies.

Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Out- of- field teaching and the lim-its of teacher policy. Seattle: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington.

Jackson, A. W., & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1966). Moral education in the schools: A developmental view. School Review, 74, 1– 30.

Ladson- Billings, G. (2006). Yes, but how do we do it? Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. In J. Landsman & C. Lewis (Eds.), White teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Loewen, J. W. (1995). Lies my teachers told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. New York: Touchstone.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). The con-dition of education. Retrieved from www.nces.ed.gov/programs/coe

National Center on Education and the Economy. (2006). Tough choices or tough times: The report of the new commission on the skills of the American workforce. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality and Public Agenda. (2008). Lessons learned: New teach-ers talk about their jobs, challenges and long- range plans. Report available at http://publicagenda.org

National Council for the Social Studies (2013). The College, Career and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards. Report available at http://www.social-studies.org.

National Education Association. (1916). Report of the Com-mittee on the Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the NEA— The social studies in secondary education: A six year program adopted both to the 6- 3- 3 and 8- 4 plan of organization (p. 12). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

National Governors Association, Council for Chief State School Affairs (2010). Common Core State Standards Initiative. Washington, DC.

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Web Sites 35

National Research Council Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn. (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motiva-tion to learn. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Niemi, R. G., & Smith, J. (2000). Enrollments in high school government classes: Are we short- changing both citizen-ship and political science training? (Unpublished paper). University of Rochester.

Noddings, N. (2005). The challenge to care in the schools (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Offenberg, R. M. (2001). The efficacy of Philadelphia’s K- to- 8 schools compared to middle grades schools. The Middle School Journal, 32(4), 23– 29.

Ravitch, D. (2004). A consumer’s guide to high school history textbooks. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute.

Reich, J., Murnane, R., & Willett, J. (2012). The state of wiki usage in U.S. K– 12 schools: Leveraging Web 2.0 data warehouses to assess quality and equity in online learn-ing environments. Educational Researcher, 41(1), 7– 15.

Simon, S. B., Howe, L. W., & Kirschenbaum, H. (1972). Values clarification. New York: Hart.

Stotsky, S. (2004). The stealth curriculum: Manipulating America’s history teachers. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute.

Tough, P. (2012). How children succeed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

U.S. Department of Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for education reform. Prepared by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education (2011). America’s High School Graduates. Results of the 2009 NAEP high school Transcript Study. P. 13 Washington. D. C: National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2011– 462.

Wade, R. C. (1993). Content analysis of social studies text-books: A review of ten years of research. Theory and Research in Social Education, 21(3), 232– 256.

Warschauer, M. (2011). Leaving in the cloud: How (and why) to transform schools with digital media. New York: Teachers College Press.

Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J. (2002). Educating the “good” citizen. The politics of school- based civic education programs. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Association, Boston.

Yerke, C. P. (2005). Mayhem in the middle: How middle schools have failed America— and how to make them work. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute.

Suggested Readings

The history of social studies and of the men and women who influenced social studies is an interesting topic. See, for example, Saxe, D. W. (1991). Social studies in schools: A history of the early years. New York: State University of New York Press; and Hertzberg, H. W. (1981). Social studies reform 1880– 1989. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium (project SPAN). More recently are Ronald Evans’s books: Evans, R. W. (2003). The social stud-ies wars: What should we teach the children? New York: Teachers College Press; plus (2011). The hope for American school reform: The Cold War pursuit of inquiry learning in

social studies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; and (2011). The tragedy of American school reform: How curriculum politics and entrenched dilemmas have diverted us from democracy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Levstik, L. S., & Tyson, C. A. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of research in social studies education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum out-lines the latest research under such themes as Change and Continuity in Social Studies; Civic Competence; Assessment and Accountability; Teaching and Learning in the Disciplines; and Technology.

Web Sites

Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE)www.amle.orgPrimary middle school organization. Formerly known as National Middle School Association. Publishers of Middle School Journal and other publications.

Character Education Partnershipwww.character.orgMost important resource on character education, main-tained by Character Education Partnership. This site gives the 11 principles of effective character education plus other resources.

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Education Weekwww.edweek.orgTop weekly stories and other features about educational issues.

ERICwww.eric.ed.govWorld’s largest source of education information with more than one million abstracts of documents and journal articles on educational research and practice.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS)www.ncss.orgSite of the most important organization in the field of social studies, the National Council for the Social Studies. Material

on its associated groups, conferences, workshops, standards, and resources.

Rethinking Schoolswww.rethinkingschools.orgCovering important education issues and not limited to social studies.

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preface - higher education | pearson · 2 chapter 1 / middle and secondary social studies civic...

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