pre exercise and mindfulness training- final

Running head: PRE-EXERCISE AND MINDFULNESS TRAINING 1

A Proposal to Study the Effects of Adding Pre-Exercise to Mindfulness-Based Training

Ryan C. Dugan, Samuel E. Dunham, Daniel J. O’Shea, and Josh S. Shiver

Valdosta State University

PRE-EXERCISE AND MINDFULNESS TRAINING 2

Abstract

Mindfulness has been widely studied in the field of psychology, and its benefits to the workplace

have been distinguished. The positive effects of exercise in reducing stress and anxiety have also

been shown in the literature (Asmundson, 2013; Head, Singh, & Bugg, 2012; Martinsen, Hoffart,

& Solberg, 1989). Individual differences exist between state and trait mindfulness that affect any

one individual’s ease of being induced into a mindful state (Smallwood, Mrazek, & Schooler,

2011). The addition of pre-exercise to a mindfulness training program is proposed, in hopes to

increase individuals’ ease of being induced into a mindful state. Participants will be randomly

assigned to one of three experimental groups, or a control group. One group will participate in

30 minutes of mindfulness training, three times per week. Another group will participate in 15

minutes of exercise, three times per week. The final group will participate in 15 minutes of

exercise followed by 30 minutes of mindfulness training, three times per week. The control

group will participate in neither exercise nor mindfulness training. Improvements in

organizational and individual measures will provide support for addition of pre-exercise to

mindfulness training. Furthermore, these improvements have the potential to produce enhanced

organizational benefits.


A Proposal to Study the Effects of Adding Pre-Exercise to Mindfulness-Based Training

Attitudes of employees within an organization are undeniably concerning to the

organization. An employee’s attitudes toward the organization, their coworkers, and the general

work setting can have an effect on the employee’s personal interactions within the work

environment, which can further affect overall productivity. Employees with negative attitudes

are less likely to work as well as employees with positive attitudes in nearly all work

environments, but especially in collective environments that require teamwork and cooperation

(Petty, 1995).

Attribution theory, as described by Gilbert (1995), can further explain employees’

attitudes toward the organization. Employees who believe that they operate in a highly stressful

work environment tend to have negative attitudes toward the organization (Wu, Zhang, Chiu,

Kwan, & He, 2014). Employees view the stressful environment as a fault of the organization’s

leaders. Such negative attitudes toward the organization can lead to increased turnover (De

Vasconcelos, De Vasconcelos, & Crubellate, 2008). Petty (1995) explains that employees might

understand that stress is inherent to the work they are performing, but the emotions evoked by

stress can be more influential than the cognitive basis of the attitude. Due to the potential

negative effects of stress on human attitudes, studying the means by which we might reduce

individuals’ stress levels will be paramount.

Stress can negatively influence attitudes within the workplace, which can lead to

increased tension between coworkers. Inductively, the negative effects of stress have the

potential to lead to a less productive work environment and, therefore, decrease overall

organizational revenue. Stress in the workplace, from both the content and context of work,

produces a number of undesired organizational outcomes, such as decreased performance and


increased turnover (Babatunde, 2013). Ajayi and Abimbola (2013) found organizational stress to

be negatively related to employee performance; as organizational stress increased, job

performance decreased. Similarly, Chan and Wan (2012) found that employees with higher

levels of stress feel more fatigued; those with higher levels of stress also demonstrate lower

levels of performance than employees with lower stress levels, when performing tasks requiring

self-regulation. Jobs requiring interpersonal interactions, such as a customer service position at a

call center, would require the individual to self-regulate emotions and opinions when interacting

with customers. Chan and Wan argue that employees with higher levels of stress are unable to

regulate their own thoughts, emotions, and behaviors as easily as employees with lower levels of

stress. In agreement with this finding, Chan and Wan argue that a high-stress employee’s

performance will suffer.

The effects of work related stress are not restricted to job performance alone.

Lennartsson, Theorell, Rockwood, Kushnir, and Jonsdottir (2013) demonstrated the link between

increased levels of perceived work stress and lower levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S) production within the body. DHEA and

DHEA-S are chemicals used by the immune system to ward off sickness and fatigue

(Lennartsson et al., 2013). Logically, an increase in the risk of sickness and fatigue, due to

stress, is expected to increase absenteeism rates, consequently reducing employees’ ability to

perform.

Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) may improve organizational outcomes.

Parswani, Sharma, and Iyengar (2013) found that individuals with coronary heart disease, who

partook in MBSR, experienced a significant reduction in anxiety, depression, perceived stress,

blood pressure, and body mass index. The results suggest that a long-term MBSR program may


result in reduction in absenteeism, therefore enhancing employees’ ability to perform.

High work-stress is also associated with increased turnover intentions (Babatunde 2013;

DeTienne, Agle, Phillips, & Ingerson, 2012). DeTienne et al. (2012) found that high levels of

stress within the workplace were associated with increased levels of turnover. In a similar study,

Chen, Lin, and Lien (2011) found that employees who experience role overload, role conflict,

and/or role ambiguity display high levels of job stress. In turn, high levels of job stress were

found to be associated with increased turnover intentions (Avey, Luthans, & Jensen, 2009; Chen

et al., 2011). Avey et al. (2009) suggest that understanding job stress, and how it affects

employees’ psychological well-being is important in understanding turnover intentions.

However, Avey et al. notes the importance for organizations to understand that proactive

intervention is the most realistic method of combating job stress. This finding parallels

Babatunde’s (2013) suggestion that stress in the workplace is difficult to eliminate, as it is often

intrinsic to the job. As a result, curative measures are the best course of action in combating job

stress.

Given that the effects of stress are detrimental to an organization’s ability to run

efficiently, organizations should attempt to reduce stress in order to satiate such problems.

Mindfulness training is one way for organizations to address stress-related issues. Mindfulness

is commonly conceptualized as a heightened conscious awareness in which one engages in active

and effortful thinking in the present moment (Langer, 1989). Hart, Ivtzan, and Hart (2013)

explain that mindfulness is comprised of four main components: engagement, the awareness of

environmental changes; seeking novelty, the curiosity and openness to the surrounding

environment; novelty production, the constructing of new experiences or meanings; and

flexibility, the ability to evaluate experiences from new perspectives and alter actions


accordingly.

These traits typically do not manifest themselves over time, as we spend much of our

time in a mindless state in which we tend to rely on our automatic inferences (Kahneman, 2011).

This reliance negatively impacts performance, cognitive function, well-being, and job

satisfaction (Hülsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt, & Lang, 2013; Langer, 1989, 1992, 1997, 2005). The

use of mindfulness training to break this cycle of mindlessness improves cognitive performance

(Langer, Heffernan, & Kiester 1988; Pirson, Langer, Bodner, & Zilcha, 2012). Individuals also

experience decreased levels of stress when mindfulness training is used to break the cycle of

mindlessness (Langer et al., 1984; Langer, Janis, & Wolfer, 1975; Langer & Rodin, 1976; Rodin

& Langer, 1977; Wolever et al., 2012).

Mindfulness research shows the same, beneficial outcomes among employees in differing

work environments. Levels of perceived stress decrease as an individual becomes more mindful

(Manotas, Segura, Eraso, Oggins, & McGovern, 2013). Individuals with higher levels of

mindfulness typically score lower on stress inventories and physiological measures of stress than

individuals with lower levels of mindfulness (de Vibe et al., 2013; Nyklíček, Mommersteeg, Van

Beugen, Ramakers, & Van Boxtel, 2013). Furthermore, low levels of stress decrease job burnout

and increase job performance (Roeser et al., 2013; Rossy, 2013). Herda and Lavelle (2012)

suggest that job burnout is positively related to turnover intentions. Similarly, Dane and

Brummel (2014) claim that lower levels of stress decrease the likelihood for an individual to

turnover. Thus, mindfulness training, by reducing stress, will not only afford organizations the

opportunity to become more effective through increased performance, but also to save money by

decreasing turnover rates and training costs for new employees.

Additionally, stressed individuals tend to become sick more frequently, miss more days


of work, and seek medical care more often (Farquharson et al., 2012). Obasi et al. (2013)

suggest that meditative practices, such as mindfulness training, aid in the prevention of cold and

flu illnesses. Furthermore, the day-to-day business operations become stifled when employees

do not show up to work, and workplace efficiency can be hindered. Therefore, the effects of

mindfulness training in reducing health issues should increase organizational efficiency through

the reduction of turnover.

In order to maximally increase mindfulness levels in the workplace, individual

differences must be considered. Mind wandering, a characteristic of the human condition, is

defined as the cognizant processing of stimuli not in immediate relation with the stimuli

pertaining to the task currently being performed (Smallwood, Mrazek, & Schooler, 2011).

Smallwood et al. (2011) suggest that high intelligence and education levels do not eliminate the

risk of the effects of mind wandering. Their study showed that even highly intelligent and well-

educated medical practitioners struggle with mind wandering. This research suggests that mind

wandering has no limit on the kind of people it can affect. The effects of mind wandering can be

present in any work environment, no matter how cognitively-demanding. Smallwood et al.

explain that mind wandering is both difficult to control and hard to recognize, and is therefore

difficult to prevent. However, the authors mention that there are techniques that can be effective

at moderating the impediments of mind wandering, such as mindfulness training.

A state of mindfulness can reduce the risk of mind wandering, and therefore remove a

potential impairment in learning, providing the opportunity to increase job performance.

However, reaping the benefits of mindfulness training is not as simple as implementing a general

program. Mitchell, Bach, and Cassisi (2013) suggest that the ease of being self-induced in to a

state of mindfulness is different between people. The authors explain that any individual’s


mindfulness skills can be measured in two ways: dispositional (trait) and situational (state). The

combination of trait and state mindfulness skills becomes important to consider when

constructing a mindfulness training program within an organization, if the goal is to maximize

the benefits associated with increased mindfulness. The training must consider that any one

person may have a disposition that allows them to become induced in a mindful state relatively

easy, but there is the possibility that a situational context could decrease that ease.

A mindfulness training program must take into consideration that not all people have the

same dispositions, or go through the same situations. Therefore, some people, especially those

with wandering minds and high stress levels, have a more difficult time being induced into a

cognitive state of mindfulness. Organizations should use this knowledge to structure, or re-

structure, their mindfulness training program in a way that leaves no individual out, and allows

the opportunity for individuals of all trait and state mindfulness skill levels to be successful in

becoming induced in to a mindful state.

Research may provide insight in to how to minimize the individual differences in trait

and state mindfulness skills. Research has shown support for exercise in reducing anxiety in

individuals. Head, Singh, and Bugg (2012) demonstrate the advantages of exercise in

moderating the effects of lifetime stress on hippocampal volume and memory in adulthood. This

finding suggests that exercise can have a beneficial effect for people in dealing with stress. The

workplace can provide many sources of stress for employees, and exercise has the potential to

help to alleviate some of that stress. Asmundson et al. (2013) further supports these positive

effects of exercise for people dealing with stress. Martinsen, Hoffart, and Solberg (1989)

showed reductions in anxiety for participants who engaged in aerobic and anaerobic exercises.

Herring, Jacob, Suveg, Dishman, and O’Connor (2012) also found that stress reduction occurs


when individuals engage in some form of exercise.

Research has consistently shown positive effects for exercise in stress reduction.

Specifically, aerobic exercises have been examined through many articles aiming to explore the

effects of exercise on stress levels (Brooks, Bandelow, & Pekrun, 1998; Diaz & Motto, 2008;

Newman & Motto, 2007). Support for the relationship between exercise and stress is not limited

to aerobic exercise only. However, the literature generally suggests that aerobic exercise is

helpful in reducing stress and decreasing the risk of health problems associated with stress.

In conclusion, our review of the literature showed that stress in the workplace could lead

to a decrease in job performance and an increase in turnover among employees (Ajayi &

Abimbola, 2013; Babatunde, 2013; Chan & Wan, 2012). Increased mindfulness skills have been

shown to satiate these effects. Therefore, the effects of mindfulness training could be expected

to benefit an organization. However, the fact that individual differences in trait and state

mindfulness creates a difficulty for some people to be induced in to a mindful state suggests that

a strategy must be implemented to reach all employees, not just the ones that fall into the ‘easily-

induced’ category (Smallwood et al., 2011). Exercise has been shown to reduce stress and

anxiety, two factors that contribute to individual trait mindfulness differences (Brooks et al.,

1998; Diaz & Motto, 2008; Newman & Motto, 2007). Exercise may decrease the impairments of

mindfulness-induction, thereby priming it. The use of pre-exercise in mindfulness training may

help induce those individuals who are not otherwise easily induced, and may further induce those

individuals who are. The effects of pre-exercise in mindfulness training may highly benefit an

organization as an increase in overall employee mindfulness is expected to improve job

performance and turnover rates (Babatunde 2013; DeTienne et al., 2012). These resulting

benefits would increase overall revenue for the organization. Overall, the use of pre-exercise in


mindfulness training could lead to highly advantageous outcomes for both the employee and the

organization.

Inductively, we propose that exercise can be used as a physical tool to help increase task

focus, and therefore help increase the ease of mindfulness-induction for participants. If, for

example, we have participants do a lunging exercise, a time may come where the exercise

becomes difficult enough to force the individual to relinquish their cognitive resources to solely

focus on the exercise in order to continue, thereby diminishing mind-wandering. However, if the

exercise is too easy, the individual may not have to solely focus on the exercise, and the

likelihood of the potential benefits may decrease. Similarly, if the exercise becomes too

difficult, cognitive resources may become overused, and burnout may ensue, resulting in the

limitation of the potential benefits of exercise on mindfulness. An exercise that is neither too

easy, nor too difficult, is expected to produce the greatest benefits in task-focus, resulting in an

increased ease of mindfulness-induction.

Hypotheses of the research proposal are divided in to two categories: organizational

hypotheses and individual hypotheses. For the organizational hypotheses, data regarding job

performance and turnover will be examined. We hypothesize that job performance will

significantly increase from pre to post-study (Roeser et al., 2013; Rossy, 2013). Furthermore, we

hypothesize that turnover rates will significantly decrease from pre to post-study (Babatunde

2013; DeTienne et al., 2012).

For the individual hypotheses, measures of trait mindfulness and perceived stress will be

examined. We hypothesize that the addition of exercise to mindfulness training will significantly

increase mindfulness levels (Smallwood et al., 2011). We also hypothesize that the addition of

exercise to mindfulness training will significantly decrease perceived stress levels (Brooks et al.,


1998; Diaz & Motto, 2008; Newman & Motto, 2007).

Method

Participants

Participants will consist of individuals within a single organization. The proposed study

will be conducted in an organization that operates in a high-stress environment, such as

brokerage firms (i.e., Merrill Lynch, J.P. Morgan) and public relations firms (i.e., Edelman PR

Firm, Waggener Edstrom Worldwide). Individuals will be required by the organization to

participate in the study, as part of mandatory professional development. Participants will be

randomly selected from each department within the organization.

Using Cohen's (1992) suggestions for social research, the proposed study will aim at

maintaining a power coefficient of .80 with an alpha level of .05, and a medium effect size.

According to Cohen’s guidelines on detecting differences, 45 participants will be needed at each

level of the intervention. The proposed study will include no fewer than 180 participants in total.

Materials

Participants will be given the English version of the Five Facet Mindfulness

Questionnaire (FFMQ; Bauer et al., 2008). The FFMQ was normed on undergraduate college

students at the University of Kentucky. The FFMQ is based on a factor analytic study of five

independently developed mindfulness questionnaires. The FFMQ yields five factors that

represent elements of mindfulness: observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of

inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience. Examples of items that comprise the

scale are: “When I’m walking, I deliberately notice the sensations of my body moving”; “I’m

good at finding words to describe my feelings”; and “I criticize myself for having irrational or

inappropriate emotions.” The 39 items are scored on a five-point scale from 1 (never or very


rarely true) to 5 (very often or always true), with items 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23,

25, 28, 30, 34, 35, 38, and 39 reversed scored, yielding a total score that ranges of 0 to 195.

Higher scores reflect higher global levels of mindfulness. Evidence of validity in the scale was

seen in psychometric analyses that have shown convergent and discriminant validity, as well as

incremental validity in the prediction of psychological symptoms (Bauer et al., 2008).

Participants will be given the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen, Karmack, &

Mermelstein, 1983). The PSS was normed on 2,387 U.S. respondents, 18 years of age and older.

The PSS measures the degree to which situations in one’s own life are appraised as stressful.

Examples of items that comprise the scale are: “In the last month, how often have you been upset

because of something that happened unexpectedly”; “In the last month, how often have you felt

that you were unable to control the important things in your life”; and “In the last month, how

often have you felt nervous and ‘stressed?’” The 10 items are scored on a five-point scale

ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often), with items 4, 5, 7, and 8 reversed scored, yielding a

range of 0 to 40. Higher scores reflect higher perceived stress levels. Evidence for validity in

the scale was seen by Cohen et al.’s results, as higher PSS scores were associated with failure to

quit smoking, failure among diabetics to control blood sugar levels, greater vulnerability to

stressful life-event-elicited depressive symptoms, and more colds.

Procedure

Participants will engage in three mindfulness training sessions per week, guided by the

same instructor each time. Mindfulness training sessions will take place on Mondays,

Wednesdays, and Fridays, with an allotted period from 1:00pm until 2:00pm in which the

intervention will take place. The days of the week were chosen so that participants had at least

one full workday between sessions. The time of day was chosen so that participation would


occur after lunch break, but before the afternoon work schedule. Exercise and mindfulness

training will take place in rooms of the same dimensions. A large room, much like the size of

typical class-training rooms at a local fitness center would be, will be used for each session.

The experimental groups will be manipulated on two independent variables: exercise and

mindfulness training. Exercise will be operationalized as 15 minutes of lunging the length of the

training space, and walking the length back, at a standardized pace. The pace will allow 30

seconds for participants to lunge to the other side of the room, and 30 seconds to walk back. The

instructor will supervise this standardized pace. Adjustments to the pace and/or length of

exercise time will be made by the instructor, if necessary. Mindfulness training, when

implemented, will last for of 30 minutes. Participants will be randomly assigned among three

experimental groups, and a control group. One experimental group will participate in exercise

only; another group will participate in mindfulness training only; and the other group will

participate in exercise followed by mindfulness training. The control group will participate in

neither exercise nor mindfulness training.

The study will last for 12 weeks. The FFMQ and PSS surveys will be given to the

participants at the conclusion of the intervention period. State mindfulness will not be explicitly

measured, as it is expected that trait mindfulness scores will reflect those who are more

susceptible to state influences. Since previous research has not provided a validated state

mindfulness scale, the validated trait mindfulness scale (FFMQ) will serve the purpose of

measuring both influences. Outcomes will be measured by posttests only, so that survey

sensitivity does not confound the results. Organizational data regarding departmental job

performance and turnover will also be measured at the conclusion of the study. These


organizational measures will be compared to the quarterly trends of the previous year with the

same measures after the intervention.

Before the study begins, demographic information will be recorded, including

organizational department, age, gender, marriage status, number of children, and race. Exercise

frequencies outside of work will be measured pre and post-study for each participant. The

proposed study will control for exercise frequencies outside of work, in order to more accurately

attribute outcomes to the intervention alone.

Proposed Analyses

Assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance will be examined prior to data

interpretation for all analyses. A correlational analysis of the organizational data measures (job

performance and turnover) will be interpreted to determine whether there is evidence of

convergent validity. The expectation is that job performance should be negatively correlated

with turnover.

Further analyses will include two separate t-tests, using each of the organizational data

measures, in order to determine whether the post-study data is significantly different from the

previous quarterly trends. Significant improvements found in either of the two t-tests will

provide support for the addition of pre-exercise to mindfulness programs in helping to induce

mindfulness in employees.

Lastly, a 2x2 factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) will be conducted in order to

examine the between-group differences in trait mindfulness and perceived stress. The ANOVA

will compare scores on the FFMQ and the PSS across all four conditions. The ANOVA will

show whether there is a significant difference in trait mindfulness and/or perceived stress based


on the manipulation of the independent variables, exercise and mindfulness training. A p-value

of less than or equal to .05 will be considered statistically significant for all analyses.

Discussion

Social psychological theories of attitude and attribution prime organizational concern for

the negative effects of stress in the workplace. The emotions that are evoked by stress often lead

to negative attitudes. A stress-producing organization is likely to fall victim to negative attitudes

amongst its employees (Wu, Zhang, Chiu, Kwan, & He, 2014). As negative attitudes can

adversely influence performance-increasing activities such as cooperation, as well as

organizational outcomes such as productivity, organizations must lend their attention to possible

ways to reduce stress in the workplace (Babatunde, 2013). Mindfulness training in the

workplace has been shown to reduce stress, and therefore afford an organization the opportunity

to increase job performance and decrease employee turnover (Dane & Brummel, 2014; Herda &

Lavelle, 2012; Roeser et al., 2013). However, one’s propensity to become induced into a

mindful state may differ between people, potentially limiting the benefits of mindfulness training

to less people than desired (Smallwood et al., 2011). Analyses of the effects of pre-exercise,

when included in mindfulness training, could be beneficial to an organization seeking to expand

the access of mindfulness training to a larger group of employees more effectively. The

proposed benefits of adding pre-exercise to mindfulness training includes an increased number of

people who can benefit from mindfulness training, simultaneously increasing job performance

and decreasing turnover. The implications of the desired results of this study are bountiful.

Organizations often operate under an effectiveness and efficiency model, getting work

done well, and quickly. The proposed research seeks to examine the effects of the addition of

pre-exercise to mindfulness training on organizational outcomes, potentially creating an avenue


for organizations to construct a more efficient and effective mindfulness program. If pre-

exercise in mindfulness training is determined to aid in mindfulness, organizational data will be

significantly enhanced in participants assigned to the exercise and mindfulness group compared

to those assigned to just exercise, just mindfulness, or the control group at the conclusion of the

intervention. Specifically, significant increases in job performance and decreases in turnover

will show support for the addition of pre-exercise in mindfulness training. These results may

further produce positive indirect effects such as increased organizational efficiency, improved

work environment, and increased revenue. Organizational improvements such as these are

extremely desirable and highly sought after. The value of the potential to achieve these

organizational improvements is immeasurable, so finding desired results in the proposed research

will be highly favorable to any organization with the means to implement a mindfulness

program.

Furthermore, the proposed research will examine group differences in mindfulness and

perceived levels of stress. Desired results will show higher trait mindfulness, as well as a lower

perceived level of stress in the participants who receive both exercise and mindfulness training,

compared to the other conditions. Significant differences between groups will provide the

organization insight on how to generate a more employee-friendly workplace. Similarly, these

findings will be accompanied with numerous indirect benefits that organizations will

undoubtedly value. These benefits include an added value to the participants, as they may learn

stress-management and mindfulness techniques that they may have not applied previously. The

combination of organizational value and individual value can exist simultaneously to more

quickly produce the desired positive effects of pre-exercise in mindfulness training. Individuals

that value the positive effects may partake in more exercise and/or self-instructed mindfulness


training outside of the workplace than they otherwise would have. Results will show this added

individual value if significant increases in exercise outside of work were shown from pre to post-

study. Additional support will manifest itself through positive correlations between trait

mindfulness and exercise outside of work. Results that show support for pre-exercise in

mindfulness training being valuable on both an organizational and individual level would be

highly desirable to any organization, but also to any individual interested in the benefits

associated with self-regulation.

Additionally, demographical influences will be examined to determine the effects that

gender, age, religion, department, marital status, number of children, and amount of exercise

outside of work have on trait mindfulness, perceived stress level, turnover, and job performance.

The finding of a significant demographical effect, such as gender differences in trait

mindfulness, will add depth to our understanding of how mindfulness impacts the workplace by

showing how pre-exercise affects different groups of people. Findings such as these could also

be beneficial in providing insight in to how to structure mindfulness training to target specific

audiences. Unfortunately, further research would be necessary before such claims could be

made.

The proposed research has limitations. The fact that only a single organization is

included in the proposed study is a threat to the generalizability of the results. While the study is

aimed for the use in one organization, the possibility exists for the organization’s structure to

change, potentially limiting the results found with in the current paradigm. Also, biases

associated with self-report measures of the proposed research may be a limitation (Dodd-

McCuev & Tartaglia, 2010). Social desirability bias and response bias have the potential to exist

within the proposed study (Fisher, 1993; Kantner & Lindsay, 2012). However, the analyses


involving hard organizational data may shed light on the degree of the threat of self-report

biases.

In conclusion, the detailed analyses of the proposed research may reveal many potential

advantages in combining pre-exercise with mindfulness training. If the desired results are seen,

the implications for organizations will be extremely beneficial and highly sought after.

Organizations must concern themselves with the effects associated with negative employee

attitudes, and the potential benefits of pre-exercise in mindfulness training may diminish those

effects. The potential that the addition of pre-exercise to mindfulness training programs could

lead to increased job performance and decreased turnover would be valuable to any organization

interested in increasing efficiency and revenue. Similarly, the desired results are applicable to

any individuals interested in self-regulation. Limitations to the proposed research exist, but do

not discount the value of the potential advantages. The large amount of data, although only

pertaining to one organization, may be able to distinguish which limitations might be more

threatening than others. Additional research would be beneficial, as with most topics, but the

proposed study would provide a solid foundation for further research on the effects of pre-

exercise in mindfulness training.


References

Ajayi, M. P., & Abimbola, O. H. (2013). Job satisfaction, organizational stress and employee

performance: A study of NAPIMS. IFE PsychologIA, 21(2), 75-82.

Asmundson, G. G., Fetzner, M. G., DeBoer, L. B., Powers, M. B., Otto, M. W., & Smits, J. J.

(2013). Let’s get physical: A contemporary review of the anxiolytic effects of exercise

for anxiety and its disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 30(4), 362-373.

Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., & Jensen, S. M. (2009). Psychological capital: A positive resource for

combating employee stress and turnover. Human Resource Management, 48(5), 677-693.

Babatunde, A. (2013). Occupational stress: A review on conceptualizations, causes and cure.

Economic Insights - Trends and Challenges, 65(3), 73-80.

Bauer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., . . . Williams, J. M.

(2008). Construct validity of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in meditating and

nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15, 329-342.

Brooks, A., Bandelow, B., & Pekrun, G. (1998). Comparison of aerobic exercise,

clompipramine, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. American Journal of

Psychiatry, 155, 603-609.

Chan, K., & Wan, E. (2012). How can stressed employees deliver better customer service? The

underlying self-regulation depletion mechanism. Journal of Marketing, 76(1), 119-137.

Chen, M., Lin C., & Lien, G. (2011). Modeling job stress as a mediating role in predicting

turnover intention. Service Industries Journal, 31(8), 1327-1345.

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159.

Cohen, S., Karmarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress.

Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 386-396.


Dane, E., & Brummel, B. (2014). Examining workplace mindfulness and its relations to job

performance and turnover intention. Human Relations, 67(1), 105-128.

De Vasconcelos, F., De Vasconcelos, I., & Crubellate, J. (2008). Stress in organizations:

Between efficiency and the institutionalization of fear. Brazilian Administration

Review, 5(1), 37-53.

de Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Tyssen, R., Friborg, O., Rosenvinge, J., Sørlie, T., & Bjørndal, A.

(2013). Mindfulness training for stress management: A randomized controlled study of

medical and psychology students. BMC Medical Education, 13(1), 107.

DeTienne, K., Agle, B., Phillips, J., & Ingerson, M. (2012). The impact of moral stress

compared to other stressors on employee fatigue, job satisfaction, and turnover: An

empirical investigation. Journal of Business Ethics, 110(3), 377-391.

Diaz, A. B., & Motto, R. (2008). The effects of an aerobic exercise program on posttraumatic

stress disorder severity in adolescents. International Journal of Mental Health, 10, 49-59.

Farquharson, B., Allan, J., Johnston, D., Johnston, M., Choudhary, C., & Jones, M. (2012).

Stress amongst nurses working in a healthcare telephone-advice service: Relationship

with job satisfaction, intention to leave, sickness absence, and performance. Journal of

Advanced Nursing, 68(7), 1624-1635.

Gilbert, D. T. (1995). Attribution and interpersonal perception. In A. Tesser (Ed.), Advanced

Social Psychology (pp. 99-147). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Hart, R., Ivtzan, I., & Hart, D. (2013). Mind the gap in mindfulness research: A comparative

account of the leading schools of thought. Review of General Psychology, 17(4), 453-

466.

Head, D., Singh, T., & Bugg, J. (2012). The moderating role of exercise on stress-related effects


on the hippocampus and memory in later adulthood. Neuropsychology, 26(2), 133-143.

Herda, D. N., & Lavelle, J. J. (2012). The auditor-audit firm relationship and its effect on

burnout and turnover intention. Accounting Horizons, 26(4), 707-723.

Herring, M., Jacob, M., Suveg, C., Dishman, R., & O'Connor, P. (2012). Feasibility of exercise

training for the short-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized

controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 81(1), 21-28.

Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at

work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job

satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310-325.

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Cambridge, MA: De Capo Press.

Langer, E. J. (1992). Matters of mind: Mindfulness/mindlessness in perspective. Consciousness

and Cognition: An International Journal, 1, 289-305.

Langer, E. J. (1997). The power of mindful learning. Cambridge, MA: De Capo Press.

Langer, E. J. (2005). Well-being: Mindfulness versus positive evaluation. In C. R. Snyder & S. J.

Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 214-230). New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

Langer, E. J., Beck, P., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Timko, C. (1984). An exploration of relationships

among mindfulness, longevity, and senility. Academic Psychology Bulletin, 6(2), 211-

226.

Langer, E. J., Heffernan, D., & Kiester, M. (1988). Reducing burnout in an institutional setting:

An experimental investigation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Langer, E. J., Janis, I. L., & Wolfer, J. A. (1975). Reduction of psychological stress in surgical


patients. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11(2), 155-165.

Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A

field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 34, 191-198.

Lennartsson, A., Theorell, T., Rockwood, A. L., Kushnir, M. M., & Jonsdottir, I. H. (2013).

Perceived stress at work is associated with lower levels of DHEA-S. Plos ONE, 8(8), 1-8.

Manotas, M., Segura, C., Eraso, M., Oggins, J., & McGovern, K. (2013). Association of brief

mindfulness training with reductions in perceived stress and distress in Colombian

health care professionals. International Journal of Stress Management. Advance online

publication. doi:10.1037/a0035150

Martinsen, E. W., Hoffart, A., & Solberg, Ø. (1989). Aerobic and non-aerobic forms of exercise

in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Stress Medicine, 5(2), 115-120.

Mitchell, J. C., Bach, P. A., & Cassisi, J. E. (2013). The use of structured imagery and

dispositional measurement to assess situational use of mindfulness skills. Plos ONE,

8(7), 1-10.

Newman, C. L., & Motto, R. W. (2007). The effects of aerobic exercise on childhood PTSD,

anxiety, and depression. International Journal of Emerging Mental Health, 9(2), 133-

158.

Nyklíček, I., Mommersteeg, P. C., Van Beugen, S., Ramakers, C., & Van Boxtel, G. J. (2013).

Mindfulness-based stress reduction and physiological activity during acute stress: A

randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology, 32(10), 1110-1113.

Obasi, C. N., Brown, R., Ewers, T., Barlow, S., Gassman, M., Zgierska, A., . . . Barrett, B.

(2013). Advantage of meditation over exercise in reducing cold and flu illness is related


to improved function and quality of life. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, 7(6),

938-944.

Parswani, M. J., Sharma, M. P., & Iyengar, S. S. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction

program in coronary heart disease: A randomized control trial. International Journal of

Yoga, 6(2), 111-117.

Petty, R. E. (1995). Attitude change. In A. Tesser (Ed.), Advanced Social Psychology (pp. 195-

237). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Pirson, M., Langer, E. J., Bodner, T., & Zilcha, S. (2012). The development and validation of the

Langer Mindfulness Scale: Enabling a sociocognitive perspective of mindfulness in

organizational context. (Fordham University Schools of Business Research Paper). New

York, NY: Fordham University Graduate School of Business Administration.

Rodin, J., & Langer, E. (1977). Long-term effects of a control relevant intervention among the

institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 897-902.

Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., . . .

Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout:

Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 105(3), 787-804.

Rossy, L. (2013). Mindfulness cuts stress, boosts productivity. Training and Development, 67(8),

70-72.

Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M., & Schooler, J. (2011). Medicine for the wandering mind: Mind

wandering in medical practice. Medical Education, 45(11), 1072-1080.

Wolever, R. Q., Bobinet, K. J., McCabe, K., Mackenzie, E. R., Fekete, E., Kusnick, C. A., &

Baime, M. (2012). Effective and viable mind-body stress reduction in the workplace: A


randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(2), 246-

258.

Wu, L., Zhang, H., Chiu, R., Kwan, H., & He, X. (2014). Hostile attribution bias and negative

reciprocity beliefs exacerbate incivility's effects on interpersonal deviance. Journal of

Business Ethics, 120(2), 189-199.

pre exercise and mindfulness training- final

Education

employees attitudes

mindfulness training

minutes of exercise

addition of preexercise

trait mindfulness

abstract mindfulness

negative attitudes

positive effects of