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Pragmatic Peace
Erik Gartzke 154A, Lecture 1June 27, 2011
Monday, July 11, 2011
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How Pragmatic is Peace?
• Definitions of Peace:
• Negative peace: the (mere) absence of active violence (war, disputes, terror, civil unrest)
• Positive peace: the absence of motives for active violence (greed, grievance, fear)
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• Tradeoffs for these Definitions of Peace:
• Negative: More obtainable, less satisfying, less substantial, may “doom” us to war
• Positive: More substantial, less obtainable, might actually provoke additional conflict
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War and Peace are Politics
• Definition of Politics:
• The authoritative allocation of values, resources or prerogatives -- David Easton
• Violence is a tool of politics ... is politics?
• The origins of insecurity (Thomas Hobbes)
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Civilization
• Definition of the State:
• Organization with a “monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory” -- Max Weber
• The state controls (or seeks to control) violence:
• Useful tool (for actor)
• Disruptive (to community of actors)
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Conflict
• Whenever people disagree or resources are finite (scarce), there is room for conflict.
• There are other ways besides the use of force to deal with conflict.
• The study of peace then involves analysis of the alternatives to force (negative peace)
• Or the exploration of ways to address or dissipate disagreement (positive peace)
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Conflict, continued
• So… because politics involves managing conflict, it is closely linked to violence.
• But politics is not necessarily violent, even as violence is not necessarily politics.
• Where are the overlaps and distinctions? A mugging is not politics. Why not?
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Conflict, continued 2• Law: the notion of legitimacy (rebels/
revolutionaries argue law is illegitimate)• Organization: political violence involves
groups or their leaders (terrorists may attack individuals, but they aim to affect societies)
• Authority: political violence always involves hierarchy (leaders don’t kill, but instruct others to do so… still like organized crime).
• Consensus: violence is seen as a necessary evil, states are organized around exclusive domestic right to use violence, compete with other states (When is civil war international?)
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Philosophical History of Peace
• The history of peace can be seen in terms of two conflicting tendencies, two wisdoms, and two competing intellectual perspectives:
• Tendencies (“ammunition” for opposing views):
• War is endemic (few years in history pass without international bloodshed)
• War is rare (most countries don’t fight most other countries most of the time)
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Phil. History, continued
• Wisdoms:
• Peace must be possible because it is the modal condition.
• Negative peace predominates.
• Peace must be tenuous because it collapses
• Warfare is recurrent if not frequent.
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Phil. History, continued• Perspectives:
• Pessimists (realists, some Marxists):
• Conflict is endemic to human social affairs.
• Optimists (liberals, idealists, others):
• Conflict as resolvable - at least containable.
• Conflict only recurs because something is wrong in human affairs - fix what is broken
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The Pessimist Perspective
• Realists offer stability.
• The best that can ensue is negative peace.
• Prevent any actor (state, individual) from seeing temporary advantage in using force, and violence will not occur.
• Classic arguments from Machiavelli and Hobbes epitomize the realist/pessimist view
• “...the natural state is one of war’’
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The State of Nature
• Definition:
• Anarchy: the absence of central authority.
• Anarchy is the world of “all against all”
• Not necessarily chaos
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Nature, continued
• Individuals compete for finite resources or incompatible objectives
• competition leads to conflict when might makes right (“the war of all against all”)The best that can ensue is negative peace.
• Politics originates in the dual needs to form common bonds of cooperation among some, and to better compete with others
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Nature, continued 2
• There is no politics without BOTH cooperation and conflict
• Evolutionary: innovation of politics allows some to better compete, because they don’t have to worry about “all against all”, just some.
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Making the World “Unnatural”
• Definition:
• Leviathan: an irresistible political authority, the totalitarian state.
• Converts natural war into (negative) peace
• Order within (the state authoritatively allocates resources, sets values)
• Security without (the state itself is in a war of all against all, i.e. a protection racket)
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Problems with Pessimism
• Even if this perspective is right empirically, it is disappointing
• Abandons prospect of moving beyond stability (order within, security without)
• May be self-fulfilling (if you believe pessimists, you behave in ways that make the pessimistic perspective a reality --- realism both positive and normative)
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Problems, continued
• Leviathan can be illegitimate, despotic, possibly even worse than state of nature
• The advent of politics just re-organizes war
• Moves it to international politics.
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The Optimist Perspective
• Optimists offer hope.
• Even if pessimist/realist arguments are correct about the past, they may not be true today.
• There are a wide variety of views about how to effect change.
• Most share a common conviction that pessimists are describing the world as it is in the absence of effective intervention by the insights of optimists.
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Optimists, continued
• Each optimist argument attacks some element of the logical chain provided by pessimists
• Human nature need not be exogenous (fixed) and preoccupied with competition
• Religion: most religious traditions argue that the evolution of human nature can follow from religious belief.
• Education: many arguments implicitly or explicitly claim that peace can be achieved by information. Wars occur because
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Optimists, continued 2
• Education: many arguments implicitly or explicitly claim that peace can be achieved by making people more knowledgeable.
• Wars occur because people don’t know each other. Exchange programs and travel are designed to eliminate hate.
• Social Construction: violence can decline as communities develop habits or interests that take them away from the use of force in resolving problems. (but ... why now?)
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Optimists, continued 3
• Even if human nature is exogenous (unchanging), social conditions can alter incentives.
• The Hobbesian leviathan is only one way to constrain latent conflict.
• Solutions need not attempt to change interests (positive peace), but to limit incentives to fight.
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Optimists, continued 4
• Institutionalists argue that the rule of law, democracy, and other mechanisms promote cooperation domestically and peace globally.
• Functionalists: take this argument further, seeing the dense overlapping of institutions as a mechanism for social change.
• Once individuals or nations have become habituated to cooperating, this network of institutions and norms is no longer needed.
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Problems with Optimists• The empirical track record for optimists is not
particularly encouraging (more below).
• Changing how people think could cause peace.
• But this has proven difficult to achieve.
• Societies that accommodate, rather than seek to alter, what many perceive as human nature often seem to do “better”
• Some of the worst mass violence in human history is tied to attempts to change human nature (Khmer Rouge, Nazis, Soviet Union)
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Problems, continued
• If violence is illegitimate, how do we police?
• What do we do about other types of illegitimate behaviors (genocide, etc.)?
• Pessimists complain that optimists rely too heavily on good will (E. H. Carr).
• Either we must change human nature (which may not be possible)
• Or we have to use coercion to deal with the recalcitrant that are the very threat of force and violence we are trying to avoid.
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Social/Intellectual Tradition
• History often occurs in cycles (Toynbee).
• The formative pessimist in Western tradition was Thucydides
• Pessimists is that they generally accept that peace is possible/durable within the state
• And yet they vigorously oppose the notion of world government.
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Conclusion
• Development both increases and decreases conflict among nations, benign on balance
• Increases less violent forms of conflict
• Decreases war-prone territorial conflict
• Development inhibits initiators, not targets
• Reduces incentive to conquer territory because wealth is no longer profitable to extract
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