practical feeding of poultry

PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY

by Harry W Titus^

IN THIS ARTICLE the four principal systems of poultry feeding—all-mash, mash-grain, pellet, and grain-milk—are described, and

numerous combinations of feedstuifs are given, with recommendations

for quantities, to fit various farm conditions. There is a discussion of

nutritional disturbances from the standpoint of cause and cure, and of

the relation of certain management practices to good nutrition in poultry.

Tables at the end of the article give analyses of most of the common feedstuffs available to poultrymen.

WHEN POULTRY is kept primarily as a source of income, as it is in most instances, it is desirable to have as much knowledge as possible of the factors that influence the cost of production. The various studies that have been made of the economics of poultry keeping indicate that feed accounts for 50 to 60 percent of the total cost of producing poultry meat and eggs. The prices of feeding stuffs vary from year to year and even from season to season ; and so it sometimes happens that a feeding stuff which it is economical to use at one time may not be economical at some other time. Thus, it is readily apparent that careful thought should be given to the nutritive value of the feeding stuffs used, their cost, their mutual replaceability, and their suitability.

In general, if a profit is to be made, all the necessary nutritive elements must be supplied in adequate quantities and as cheaply as possible. Frequently the cost of the feed may be reduced appreciably by the substitution of one feeding stuff' for another; but there are times when a certain feeding stuff' can be replaced only by a combination of two or more other feeding stuffs. Whenever substitutions are made, the resulting diet should be carefully checked to find out whether or not it contains enough of all the necessary nutrients, especially protein, minerals, and vitamins. The tables in the appendix will aid poultrymen materially in making substitutions.

3 Harry W. Titus is Senior Biological Chemist, in charge of Poultry Nutrition Investigations, Bureau of Animal Industry.

819

820 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

SUPPLYING THE NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS In selecting the ingredients to be used in compounding any diet,

consideration should be given to their palatability. Of two feeding stuffs of equal cost and apparently equal nutritive value, the more palatable should be chosen. Palatability is of great importance because any marked reduction in feed consumption usually residts in slower growth or a reduced egg production.

The so-called texture of a feed mixture is also of great importance. The fineness to which the several ingredients are ground is one factor influencing both texture and palatability. Feed mixtures that are too finely ground or that would form a sticky mass in the mouth and be swallowed with difficulty should not be used. A granular, loose-textured mixture of feeding stuffs is nearly always palatable and therefore to be preferred. Of course, the feed particles in a diet intended for very young chicks should be smaller than those in a diet intended for older chickens, but in no case should they be of a flourlike fineness.

As a result of our knowledge of the nutritive properties of feeding stuffs it is possible to choose the ingredients of a diet on the basis of their ability to serve as sources of one or more specific nutrients. For example, the cereal grains are used as sources of readily digestible carbohydrates, but generally yellow corn is preferred to all the others because it is a better source of vitamin A. Dried skim milk is used because it is a relatively good source of vitamin G (riboflavin) and of protein of excellent quality. Fish meal and meat scrap are also good sources of protein of very good quality and in addition supply relatively large quantities of calcium and phosphorus. Bran and middlings are sources of several of the vitamins and vita.minlike factors and tend to improve the texture of a mixture of feeding stuffs. Alfalfa meal and alfalfa-leaf meal are good practical sources of vitamins A and G and some others as well. Cod-liver oil and other fish oils are used as sources of vitamin D and sometimes of vitamin A. Linseed meal is a source of certain so-called essential fat acids and, if the proper quantity is used, tends to impart desirable physical properties to the feed masses in the intestines and to the excreted fecal masses so that they are less likely to soil the eggs,

THE ENERGY-PRODUCING NUTRIENTS

Although all the usual ingredients of typical diets for poultry, except salt, limestone, and oystershell, supply some energy, the chief sources of energy are the cereal grains and the grain sorghums. The latter, however, are not used so extensively in the feeding of poultry as are the former.

A fairly large number of experiments have been conducted to deter- mine the relative value of the difl'erent grains when they are fed at the same level in otherwise similar diets. The results show little diflerence in the gains of growing chicks regardless of which grain is used, provided the diets contain all the necessary protein, vitamins, and minerals. Oat- meal is somewhat more efficient in producing gains in live weight than corn, wheat, barley, or whole oats, but usually it is also more expensive.

For laying hens corn appears to be slightly superior and oats slightly inferior to barley and wheat. For chickens being finished for market, there seems to be little or no difference between diets that contain

PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 821

equal quantities of corn, wheat, oats, or barley. There is some evidence, however, that the flesh of chickens finished on diets containing chiefly corn or barley is superior to that of those finisheà on diets containing chiefly wheat or oats. White corn and oats are widely used in finishing diets because they do not tend to color the skin yellow as does yellow corn.

Notwithstanding the statements just made, the relative nutritive values of the cereal grains and grain sorghums are roughly indicated by their content of total digestible nutrients. Selected data on the digestibility in the chicken of a small number of feeding stuffs are given in table 8 (p. 842). As has been pointed out, however, many feeding stuffs are included in the diet because they possess certain specific properties, so it is clear that the content of total digestible nutrients should not be used as the sole criterion in deciding whether or not to make a substitution of one feeding stuff for another. For example, if a diet that contains yellow corn supplies only slightly more vitamin A than is needed, it would be inadvisable to substitute oats, wheat, or barley for the yellow corn, even though they may be considerably cheaper as sources of digestible nutrients. The substitution should be made only if sufficient vitamin A is supplied through the use of some other suitable feeding stuff, such as alfalfa-leaf meal, and the advisability of the change would be determined by the cost of the resulting diet as compared with the cost of the original diet.

THE PROTEIN There are many different proteins, but all of them are composed of

a relatively small number of comparatively simple compounds known as amino acids. The chicken is able to make in its own body some, but not all, of these amino acids, and unless most of those which it cannot make are present in the feed normal nutrition is impossible. A protein is said to be of good quality if it contains a sufficient quantity of the amino acids the animal is unable to make but which it requires for normal growth and reproduction. In the practical feeding of animals two classes of proteins are commonly referred to—those derived from plants and those derived from animals, or plant proteins and animal proteins. In general the animal proteins are superior in quality to the plant proteins.

Owing to the variability of the several protein supplements used in compounding diets for poultry, it is not possible to state their relative values for growth or reproduction in precise terms. Nevertheless, it is possible to indicate their relative values in a qualitative way by using a system of numbers in which 1 represents the highest value, 2 the next highest, 3 the next, and so on. According to studies of Mussehl and Ackerson {832y and data obtained at various times by the writer and his associates, the more common protein supplements may be rated as follows: Dried skim milk 1 Soybean meal 2 Dried buttermilk 1 Peanut meal 2-3 Fish meal (best grades) 1 Cottonseed meal 3 Meat scrap 2 Linseed meal 4 Fish meal (poorer grades) 2 Corn-gluten meal 4 Hempseed meal 2 Soybeans 4

i! Italie numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 1076.


According to data obtained by Wilgus, Norris, and Heuser {1221), the best grades of fish meal are whitefish meal (either vacuum or steam dried) and the domestic sardine meal. Flame-dried menhaden fish meal usually has been the poorest of those used in feeding chickens, but since 1935 there have been marked improvements in it. The domestic fish meals are usually greatly superior to the imported.

Wilgus, Norris, and Heuser (1221) also obtained data on the relative '^protein efficiency'' of several kinds of meat scrap that diftered from one another in their protein content. Apparently the best was the one that contained about 55 percent of protein, although it apparently was but little better than the one that contained 60 percent. How- ever, the protein content of meat scrap cannot be used as a reliable indicator of the protein efficiency of this product because the propor- tion of the different materials that are used in its manufacture varies according to the demand for them for other purposes. During the last year or two, as a result of a change in the demand for some of these materials, particularly those used in the manufacture of glue and gelatine, meat scrap that contains the higher percentages of protein has tended to be of better quality than it was when Wilgus, Norris, and Heuser obtained their data.

It is a well-established fact that some proteins supplement each other—that is, give better results when fed together than when fed alone. The experiments of Ackerson, Blish, and Mussehl (12) indicate that one-third of a mixture of fish meal and meat meal may be replaced by soybean meal without any decrease in the relative value of the mixture as a protein supplement, unpublished data obtained at the Department's Southwest Poultry Experiment Station, Glendale, Ariz., have shown that a mixture of equal parts of meat scrap and hempseed meal has about the same value as meat scrap.

It is not possible to give hard and fast rules for selecting protein supplements, because they vary in their nutritive value. However, in order to insure that the protein in the diet is of suitable quality, it is a good practice to derive between 20 and 40 percent of it from feeding stuffs of animal origin, such as dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, fish meal, and meat scrap.

THE MINERALS

In order to supply all the mineral elements that the chicken requires, it usually is necessary to include in the diet some calcium carbonate, salt, and manganous sulfate. Occasionally it is desirable to add some steamed bonemeal as a source of phosphorus.

The best sources of calcium carbonate are high-calcium limestone and oystershell. Limestones that contain not less than 39 percent of calcium are to be preferred to all other grades, but those that contain between 32 and 39 percent may be used. Oystershell that has been obtained in the shucking of oysters is ordinarily better than the so- called oystershell that is obtained from shell deposits, because the former nearly always has a higher calcium content. Good grades of properly cleaned oystershell contain approximately 38 percent of calcium. If a given lot of oystershell contains appreciably less than this percentage of calcium, it is an indication that it may have been obtained from shell deposits.

Any good grade of common salt may be used. It is desirable.


however, that it be finely granular and free flowmg. If lumps are present, the salt should be passed through a fine-meshed sieve in order to insure that there will be no lumps in the feed. Iodized salt may be used if desired.

Anhydrous manganous sulfate is the form in which manganese is most commonly added to feed mixtures for poultry, and it is also one of the most suitable forms. If it is not readily obtainable, manganous sulfate tetrahydrate may be used, but this supplies only about two-thirds as much manganese as the anhydrous product so that almost half again as much must be used.

When the diet contains little or none of the animal protein supplements, it is desirable and sometimes necessary to add some form of calcium phosphate. The most suitable form is steamed bonemeal. Raw rock phosphate should not be used unless it is definitely known that it contains no fluorine.

THE VITAMINS

Vitamin A In formulating diets for chickens, it is necessary to give special

attention to the matter of supplying vitamin A. There are two reasons for this: (1) The chicken's vitamin A requirements for growth and reproduction are relatively high, and (2) vitamin A is not very stable in feed mixtures.

Fraps and Kemmerer (388) found that under the climatic conditions at College Station, Tex., practically all the vitamin A, added to feed mixtures in the form of cod-liver oil, other fish oils, or cod-liver- oil concentrates, was lost after about 4 weeks of storage. They also found that the addition of the antioxidant, hydroquinone, delayed the destruction by only a week or two. Although climatic conditions are probably somewhat more conducive to the destruction of vitamin A in mixed feeds at College Station, Tex,, than throughout the rest of the country on the average, the fact remains that under ordhiary conditions during the warmer months of the year the destruction of vitamin A, when added in the form of fish-liver oils, fish oils, or concentrates of these oils, may be virtually complete after 4 months.

The richest source of vitamin A used in feed mixtures for poultry is so-called fortified cod-liver oil, which is cod-liver oil to which vitamin A and vitamin D concentrates from other fish oils or fish- liver oils have been added. It contains, on an average, somewhat more than 1,300,000 International Units of vitamin A per pound. Straight cod-liver oil, which averages a little more than 340,000 units per pound, is the next richest source. Although some lots of dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal may contain over 200,000 units of vitamin A activity per pound, the average for alfalfa-leaf meals in general is about 60,000. Sardine oil has a vitamin A activity of about 45,000 units per pound. Other feeding stuffs that may be used as important sources of vitamin A activity are, in decreasing order of potency: Corn-gluten meal made from yellow corn, garden peas, yellow corn, field peas, wheat-germ meal, and cowpeas. Under the various conditions under which poultry are kept, the most practical source of vitaimin A activity is high-grade alfalfa-leaf meal; yellow corn is also a good practical source but its potency is much less than


that of alfalfa-leaf meal. Fresh green grass is an excellent source^ having on an average about 107,000 International Units of vitamin A per pound, but it is not always available. The vitamin A content of a number of feeding stuffs is given in table 9 (p. 842).^

The situation in regard to the precursors of vitamin A—those substances in the feed which most animals are able to convert into vitamin A in their bodies—is somewhat different from that of vitamin A itself. For example, carotene, one of these precursors, is relatively more stable than vitamin A, even when it is extracted from plant materials and then added to the feed in the form of an oil solution. Moreover, the precursors of vitamin A are much more stable in the feeding stuffs in which they occur than they are in oil solutions.

Although corn may lose about 50 percent of its vitamin A activity and dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal as much as 85 percent after 9 or 10 months of storage, some samples of these feeding stuffs may retain some vitamin A activity after 18 months or more of storage. The important point, however, is that all feeding stuffs tend to lose vitamin A activity with age. Furthermore, the rate of loss is increased if they are ground and mixed with other feeding stuffs to make a feed mixture.

Vitamin Bi

Vitamin Bi appears to be rather stable in feeding stuffs and in feed mixtures. Inasmuch as the minimum vitamin l^^ requirement of the chicken is only about 90 International Units per pound of feed, and most if not all grains, seeds, and their byproducts contain at least 200 International Units per pound, there is little likelihood that typical diets of poultry will be deficient in this vitamin.

Vitamin D Under the usual conditions of brooding, the chicks may not receive

enough vitamin D unless some is added to their diet. Likewise, laying stock may not get enough of this vitamin if they do not get plenty of sunshine. Accordingly, it is necessary to add some vitamin D to the diet of laying stock kept in confinement. Even if the chickens are given access to range, they may not get enough sunshine during the winter months to meet their vitamin D requirements. In general, it is a good practice to add some vitamin D to all diets fed to chickens unless the chickens have access to plenty of sunshine—and this rarely happens except during the late spring, summer, and early fall. It is especially desirable to add some vitamin D to the diet of growing chicks during their first 8 weeks no matter what season of the year they are brooded and whether or not they have access to sunshine.

Vitamin D is much more stable in feed mixtures than is vitamin A; feed mixtures may be kept for 6 months or longer without any serious loss of vitamin D occurring. Most feeding stuffs contain little or none of this important vitamin. As in the case of vitamin A, the richest source of vitamin D used in feed mixtures for poultry is fortified cod- liver oil. It contains on an average somewhat more than 180,000 A. O. A. C. chick units ^ per pound. Straight cod-liver oil averages about 45,000 units per pound and cannot legally be sold as such if it

3 The standard unit of the A. O. A. C—the Association of Oíñcial Agricultural Gheniists. See footnote 9, p. 797.


contains less than 85 units per gram, which is about 38,590 units per pound. Sardine oil has about the same vitamin D potency as straiglit cod-liver oil and is widely used in feed mixtures for poultry.

Vitamin E So far as is known, vitamin E is quite stable under ordinary condi-

tions but it is quickly and almost completely destroyed by contact with rancid fats. For this reason, it is inadvisable to use feeding stuffs or feed mixtures that show any indication of being rancid. There are few truly quantitative data on the vitamin E content of feeding stuffs; however, this vitamin is widely distributed in nature. Green leaves and the germs of seeds are the best of the known sources ; it is also found in some fresh fats and oils. The approximately relative vitamin E content of about a score of feeding stuffs is given in table 9 (p. 842).

Vitamin G (Riboflavin) Vitamin G (riboflavin) is also quite stable under the usual conditions

of feed storage. The richest sources are liver and other glandular tissues, yeast, dried whey, and dried skim milk. Alfalfa, if properly harvested and cured, is a very good source and, in general, alfalfa- leaf meals contain more than straight alfalfa meals. Fish meals, meat scrap, and wheat-germ meal are fair sources. The cereal grains contain relatively very little. The most practical sources of vitamin G are alfalfa-leaf meal, dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, and dried whey. Alfalfa-leaf meal is a particularly desirable source of this vitamin because it also is a very good source of vitamins A, E, and K, and a fair source of vitamin Bi, the chick antidermatosis factor, and the anti-gizzard-erosion factor.

Vitamin K Vitamin K has been found in such diverse materials as hog-liver

fat, hempseed meal, tomatoes, kale, and dried alfalfa. As yet, its occurrence has not been cataloged for a very large number of feeding stuffs.

AntI-Gizzard-Erosion and Chkk Antidermatosis Factors The anti-gizzard-erosion factor has been found in a number of

materials, among which are wheat bran, alfalfa products, lung tissues, kale, pork liver and kidney, wheat middlings, and oats.

The chick antidermatosis factor is present in grain, grain products, and various other feeding stuffs. Three of the richest sources are dried yeast, liver meal, and cane molasses. Other very good sources, in the approximate order of their relative content, are peanut meal, dried whey, dried buttermilk, dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal, dried skim milk, alfalfa meal, wheat bran, rice bran, and soybean meal.

WATER AND GRIT

Water is an essential constituent of all animal tissues and is absolutely essential for all life processes, yet because it is so commonplace its importance is frequently overlooked. A constant supply of fresh, clean water should be kept before poultry all the time. Although the water requirements are greater during hot weather than during cold,


there is a greater likelihood of poultry getting too little water during periods of low temperature than at other times. This is because the birds are unable to break any ice that may form on the surface of the water and because of the chilling effect of ice-cold water. For these reasons, simple water-warming devices are usually a good investment.

Although grit is not absolutely essential, it permits chickens to make more efficient use of whole grains and of coarse, fibrous feeding stuffs. Apparently, grit also tends to prevent gizzard erosion in chicks when finely ground feed that contains little fiber is fed. Coarsely crushed oystershell and limestone may serve as grit but their use is not recommended because of the danger of the chickens consuming too much calcium in their effort to get enough grinding material. Therefore, it is desirable to feed all the required calcium in the feed and not permit the chickens to have access to grit that contains calcium. In choosing a grit, care should be taken to select one that is insoluble and nonfriable—that is, cannot be crumbled. Ordinarily, the best materials for use as grit are river gravel and native pebbles ; granite, feldspar, and quartz may also be used.

TONICS, MINERAL MIXTURES, AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS

Much money is spent unnecessarily by poultrymen each year for tonics, conditioners, ^^egg-makers,'' so-called complete mineral mixtures, and other similar preparations. The best WùJ to have healthy chickens is to feed them a well-balanced diet, keep them free of lice and mites, and keep their houses clean and sanitary. Tonics, conditioners, and egg-makers are of little or no value and merely serve to increase the total cost of producing poultry products. It is not possible to prepare a complete mineral mixture suitable for use in all diets, and the use of such mixtures is not recommended.

VICES AND NUTRITIONAL DISTURBANCES Although there is some evidence that the three common vices, feather

picking, cannibalism, and egg eating, are in part the result of dietary deficiencies, overcrowding is undoubtedly also important among the causes. Feather picking is usually the first of these vices to appear when birds are overcrowded. The exact nature of the nutritional deficiency involved is not know^n, but it has been found that feather picking is less likely to occur if the diet contains about 20 percent of barley or oats. Trimming back the beak is an effective means of curbing this vice.

''Cannibalism'' is a term used by some poultrymen in referring to the habit sometimes developed by chickens of picldng one another's toes, combs, vents, feathers, and other parts of the body. Used in this sense, the term also includes feather picking; it is, however, more common to restrict its use to those cases where blood is drawn. Cannibalism is of most frequent occurrence in overcrowded flocks, but it may be due to some as yet unkuown deficiency of the diet because the feeding of oats and barley appears to be of some value in prevention. As in the case of feather picking, trimming back the upper beak is an effective curb, but the use of ruby-colored window panes and ruby-colored electric lamps in the poultry house is often a simpler and cheaper means of preventing cannibalism.


Egg eating is also likely to develop as a result of overcrowding; however, the tendency to eat eggs is markedly stimulated by a deficiency of calcium in the diet. It has been observed also that this vice is likely to develop when the chickens do not get enough vitamin D. Other dietary deficiencies also may be contributing causes.

In general, properly fed chickens grow well, lay well, and are healthy. If growth is slow, egg production poor, or mortality heavy, the cause may be an improperly balanced diet that supplies either too little or too much of certain nutrients. It is important, therefore, that the poultryman be able to recognize the symptoms of nutritional deficiency and excesses. Unfortunately, many nutritional deficiencies produce the same general symptoms and it is not always possible to recognize the cause from the symptoms. However, there are a few deficiencies that produce more or less characteristic symptoms and these will be discussed briefly.

A condition known as nutritional roup, which is sometimes mistaken by the layman for contagious catarrhal roup, is caused by a deficiency of vitamin A. It may appear in chickens of any age. The symptoms are a cessation of growth in young chickens, lameness or a staggering gait, discharge from the nostrils, swelling beneath the eyes, and discharge from the eyes; in severe cases blindness and, finally, death result. Examination after death shows swollen follicles in the esoph- agus, pale kidneys, and frequently white accumulations of urates in the kidneys and ureters.

The symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin Bi are seldom observed under practical conditions, but they may be produced rather easily in the laboratory. These symptoms are a loss of appetite, emaciation, general weakness and inability to stand, and spasmodic movements of the head and limbs.

A deficiency of vitamin D in the diet of growing chickens produces rickets; but rickets may also be caused by a marked deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus or by a marked imbalance of these elements in the diet. The symptoms are poor growth, lameness accompanied by a stiff-legged gait, thickened leg bones and hock joints, and beading at the ends of the ribs. Spinal curvature and crooked breast bones may also be observed. In mature birds the symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin D are not so obvious, but a careful examination will show that the breast bones have become less rigid. The first symptom of a deficiency of vitamin D in the diet of laying stock is a thinning of the shells of the eggs. A marked deficiency causes a decrease in both egg production and hatchability.

There are no easily recognized external symptoms of vitamin E deficiency in the chicken. Recently, it has been claimed that a deficiency of vitamin E causes chickens to become more susceptible to range paralysis but adequate proof that this is so is definitely lacking. It is possible to prepare in the laboratory diets so deficient in vitamin E that they will seriously affect hatchability; however, in actual practice poor hatchability is much more likely to be the result of other deficiencies than it is of a deficiency of vitamin E.

The chief symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin G are a retardation of the growth of chicks and a decrease in the hatchability of eggs. In growing chicks, a marked deficiency of vitamin G causes a twisted or


Figure 1.—This rooster lived more than 4 years without a gizzard, thus proving that the gizzard is not au essential organ.


flexed condition of the toes that is referred to as '^curled toe'^ paralysis. The symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin K have been produced in

the laboratory but they are seldom if ever observed under practical conditions. The symptoms, which are easily recognized, are the occurrence of hemorrhages under the skin and throughout the various tissues of the body, and laboratory tests show a marked increase in the clotting time of the blood.

There are no external symptoms of the condition known as gizzard erosion. This condition can be diagnosed only after the bird dies or is killed. (It has been proved, incidentally, that the gizzard is not an essential organ in the chicken. Figure 1 shows a rooster that lived more than 4 years after surgical removal of the gizzard.) There are several types of erosion; in one type there are a number of threadlike, shaJlow fissures in the gizzard lining; in another there are small holes in the linings; and in still another type, there are small ulcers on the muscular wall at the site of the holes in the lining.

The symptoms of a deficiency of the chick antidermatosis factor in the diet of growing chicks are sores and incrustations at the corners of the eyes and mouth, on the bottoms of the feet, and on the joints of the toes. Also, the feathering is rough and there is a failure of growth.

Perosis (slipped tendons or hock disease) is caused by a deficiency of manganese in the diet. The gross symptoms are an enlargement of the hock joints, bending and rotational twisting of the leg bones, and, in advanced cases, a slipping of the tendons from their normal positions.

At times laying chickens may consume too much calcium and when the excess is great enough the hatchability of the eggs may be appreciably decreased. The consumption of too much oystershell or limestone grit may also cause a slight diarrhea. The obvious remedy is to control the calcium intake by not giving the chickens grit that contains calcium and by using feed mixtures that supply just enough calcium for high egg production.

Another cause of diarrhea is too niuch salt, which may be introduced into the diet by a mistake in weighing it out or by the inclusion of a fish meal of abnormally high salt content. The diarrhea may be slight or quite pronounced, depending on the quantity of salt consumed. Diarrhea may be caused also by feeding too much bran or too much milk. When egg soilage is excessive as a result of too moist or watery droppings, the various possible causes should be investigated, because even though the health of the birds may not be noticeably affected the market value of their eggs is decreased.

It has been claimed that a high protein intake produces gout in chickens, but there is no good evidence that this is so. At any rate too much protein is to be avoided because it tends to reduce the rate of growth and, if the excess is great enough, it may be a cause of damage to the kidneys. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING

Nearly every poultryman has his bwn system of feeding,^ but most of the various systems may be classified as one of the following or as a modification of one of them: (1) All-mash, (2) mash-grain, (3) pellet, and (4) grain-milk. It cannot be said that one system is better than another under all conditions, but it is true that under certain condi-


tions one system may be superior to the others. In any case, it sliould be pointed out with as much emphasis as possible that it is far more important to supply poultry with adequate quantities of all the necessary nutrients than it is to follow^ any given system. Any system that insures adequate supplies of all the necessary nutrients is almost certain to be successful from the standpoint of nutrition. Howêver, any system that ignores the principles of sanitation and economics may fail, no matter how well the poultry may be nourished.

THE ALL-MASH SYSTEM

The all-mash system of feeding derives its name from the fact that all the feeding stuffs used are suitably ground and mixed together to form a mash. In some cases, oystershell or limestone grit is fed in separate hoppers as a supplementary source of calcium; but it is generally best to use an all-mash diet in wdiich all the necessary calcium is included in the form of finely ground oystershell or limestone.

In one simple modification of the all-mash system a part of the mash is moistened and fed as a crumbly wet mash in an effort to increase— or sometimes to maintain—feed consumption. Another modification is to omit dried milk from the all-mash mixture and to feed an equivalent quantity (roughly 10 times as much by wêight) of liquid skim milk or liquid buttermilk. When there is a sufficient supply of liquid skim milk or buttermilk, some of the other protein supplements may be omitted from the all-mash mixture and the birds given all the liquid milk they will drink.

It is generally accepted that the all-mash system of feeding is best for the first 4 to 6 weeks. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated repeatedly that this system is suitable for the entire period of grow^th. Nevertheless, man}^ poultrymen prefer to begin feeding cracked grain some time betwêen the fourth and eighth wrecks, that is, to change to the mash-grain system. This, of course, is not necessary and perhaps is undesirable if the all-mash system is to be used after the pullets come into production, but it is the proper thing to do if the mash- grain system is to be used.

One of the chief advantages of the all-mash system in the feeding of laying stock is that it permits the poultryman to control the color of the yolks of the eggs produced. This is of considerable importance because on some markets a premium is paid for eggs w^th light-colored yolks. Another point is that this system tends to insure a greater uniformity of yolk color, which also'îs of great importance from the standpoint of the market value of the eggs; it appears likely that in future uniformity of color will be of much greater importance than lightness of color. Furthermore, there is some evidence that wheu the all-mash system is used, the hatchability of the eggs is more uniform. In any case, the all-mash system is satisfactory for caged or confined birds (fig. 2), as well as for those that have access to sunshine and green range. This system is usually the best one for the inexperienced poultryman.

THE MASH-GRAIN SYSTEM

As its name implies, the mash-grain system involves the feeding of both mash and grain. It yields the best results in the hands of the


Figure 2.—The all-niasli Fvsteni is satisfactory for caged or coiiiined birds, as well as for those that have access to sunsliine and green range. This system is usually the

best one fur the inexperienced {loultryuian.


skilled feeder. It is more flexible than the all-mash system aiui permits the poiiltryman who is familiar with the feed requirements of his birds to feed them accordingly.

There are several modifications of this system. As in the all-mash system, the oystershell or limestone grit may be fed separately or it may be ground fine and inchided in the mash. Likewise, wet mash may be fed for the purpose of maintaining or increasing feed consumption. When cod-liver oil or a similar source of vitamin D is required, it may be mixed and fed with the mash, as it usually is, or it may be mixed fresh each day with a portion of the grain. Yolk color may be controlled by using a mash and a grain mixture that have very nearh^ the same effect on it.

THE PELLET SYSTEM

The pellet system of feeding is in effect a modification of the all- mash system in that an all-mash diet is first prepared and then made into pellets. It may be modified in the same ways as the all-mash system. The advantages claimed for it are that it does not permit the birds to pick out some of the ingredients and leave the others, and that it tends to reduce the quantity of feed thrown from the hoppers and wasted. It does insure that all the birds will eat the same Idnd of feed, but at times the quantity of feed wasted may be as great as when the all-mash system is used.

THE GRAIN-MILK SYSTEM

When the grain-milk system is used the birds are usually given nothing but liquid skim milk or buttermilk to drink and are permitted to eat all the grain or grain mixture they want. Oystershell or limestone grit is fed in hoppers. The system is not suitable for feeding caged birds or birds otherwise confined. In general it is not recommended, but it may be used when plenty of good range is available and there is an abundance of liquid milk that, if not used in this manner, would have to be thrown away. This system may be used for both growing and laying chickens, but the former should be started on an all-mash diet. The feeding of the grain should be begun after the fourth week, the quantity being increased as rapidly as possible. The starting mash should not be discontinued abruptly but should be decreased gradually between the fourth and tenth weeks so that none is being fed by the end of the tenth week.

FEED FORMULAS Some typical formulas are given in tables 1-4 for all-mash diets

and mashes with which grain or a grain mixture is to be fed. In preparing these feed mixtures, careful attention should be given to the selection of the ingredients. Only feeding stuffs of good quality should be used. Except in the case of oats, barley, and feeding stuffs of high fiber content, the ingredients should not be finely ground.

MIXING THE INGREDIENTS

All the ingredients should be thoroughly mixed so that there will be a uniform distribution of those present in relatively small quantities. It is best to weigh out first the more bulk}^ ingredients and those that are used in greatest quantity, and then the other ingredients may be


added. It is a desirable practice to mix the salt and the other mineral supplements with some of the bran or middlings before adding them to the other ingredients. All oils should be mixed thoroughly with a suitable portion of the bran or ground corn before they are added. If pulverized or very finely ground oats are an ingredient, it is preferable to mix the oil with a portion of them, because finely ground oats tend to prevent destruction of the vitamin A in the oil.

ALL-MASH DIETS

Diets for Growing Chickens The all-mash diets given in table 1 are suitable for the production

of broilers and for the raising of breeding stock. Male birds to be marketed as roasters may be kept on these diets until they are of the proper weight. These diets may be fed to capons until they are 3 or 4 months old, after which, for the sake of economy, the protein content should be gradually reduced by the addition of increasing quantities of grain until the grain amounts to as much as 60 percent of the mixture. Pullets may be kept on these diets until within 5 or 6 wrecks of the time egg production is expected to begin, at which time a suitable all-mash laying diet should be substituted at such a rate that nothing else is fed for the last week or two. Males that are to be used for breeding may be kept on these diets until they are placed with the females. However, if the males are not to be placed with the females until they are more than 9 months old, they may be fed diets that contain considerably less protein, minerals, and vitamins after the eirfith or ninth month.

TABLE ].—AU-mash starting and growing diets

Ingredients Diet 1

Ground yellow corn Finely ground oats or barley Wheat middlings Wheat bran Dried slcim milk or dried buttermilk. Meat scrap (55-percent protein) Fish meal Alfalfa-leaf meal Soybean meal Corn-gluten meal Cottonseed meal Linseed meal Ground limestone or oystershell Salt mixture i Cod-liver oil 2

Total.

Percent 31.0 10.0 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 7.0 6.0

2.0 1.0

Diet 2

Percent 30.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

8.0 10.0

1.0 .5 .6

Diet 3

Percent 39.0 10.0 16.0

10.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

8.0

1.0 .5 .5

Diet 4

Percent 32.0

20.0 15.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.0

1.0 .5 .5

1 A mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).

2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.125 percent need be included in the diet,

A number of substitutions may be made in mixing the diets of table 1. Any of the cereal grains or grain sorghums may be substituted for the yellow corn and oats. Meat scrap and fish meal may be used interchangeably, but a good grade of fish meal is to be preferred to meat scrap unless it costs appreciably more. Cottonseed meal, peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soybean meal may be

141394°—39- -54


substituted one for the other^ but soybean meal is preferable to the others. Sardine oil may be used in place of the cod-liver oil.

Diets for Laying and Breeding Chickens As pointed out in the article on Practical Nutritive Requirements

of Poultry (p. 787) it probably is always best to feed laying stock diets that will permit the production of eggs of high hatchability no matter whether the eggs are to be used for hatching or not. Accordingly all the diets given in table 2 are formulated for the production of eggs of high hatchability. However^ good egg production may be obtained with diets that contain the quantities of vitamins A, D, and G that are suggested for laying stock in table 4 (p. 836).

TABLE 2.—All-mash diets for laying and breeding stock

Ingredients

Ground yellow corn Finely ground oats or barley Wheat middlings Wheat bran Dried skim milk or dried buttermilks Meat scrap (So-percent protein) Fish meal Alfalfa-leaf meal Soybean meal C orn-gluten meal : Linseed meal (old process) Ground limestone or oystershell Special steamed bonemeal Salt mixture ^ Cod-liver oil -'

Diet 5

Percent 37.2 10.0 20.0 6.0 5.0 2.0 2,0 7.0 2.5

2.0 3.3 1.0 .0

1.4

Diet 6

Percent 41.0 10.0 10.0 Ï0. 0 5.0 4.0

7.0 4.5

2.0 3.0 J.5 .6

].4

Total. 100,0

Diet 7

Percent 44.0 10.0 10.0

5.0 2.0 2.0 7.0 5.0

2.0 2.5

Diet 8

Percent 39.5

20.0 15.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 6.0 2.0 2.0

3.5 1.0 .6

h4


2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. O. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.35 percent need be included in the diet.

Several substitutions may be made in mixing the all-mash laying and breeding diets in table 2. If it is desirable to lighten the color of the yolks of the eggs, white corn or any of the other grains or grain sorghums may be substituted for the yellow corn. If the color of the yolks is to be further lightened, the alfalfa-leaf meal may be reduced to 5 percent by substituting an equal weight of dried skim milk or dried whey for the amount omitted. Meat scrap and fish meal may be used interchangeably. Peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soybean meal may be substituted one for the other.

MASHES WITH WHICH GRAIN IS TO BE FED

In compounding mashes with which grain is to be fed, it is necessary to make suitable allowance for the fact that the various grains are relatively poor sources of vitamin G. Likewise, when grains other than yellow corn are used, the vitamin A content of the mash should be somewhat greater than it need be otherwise. Because grains supply virtually no vitamin D, all mashes that are to be fed with grain should contain about twice as much vitamin D as all-mash diets. Care must also be taken to insure that the combination of mash and grain supplies the proper quantities of calcium and phosphorus.

PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY

Mashes for Growing Chicks

835

The starting- and growing mashes given in table 3 are intended for use when the mash-grain system of feeding is used. Finely cracked corn or other grain may be fed simultaneously with these mashes any time after the chicks are 2 weeks old. Only a small quantity of grain should be fed at first, but the quantity may be gradually increased until approximately equal quantities of grain and mash are being fed b}^ the time the chickens are 14 to 16 weeks old. Any suitable mixture of grains may be used, such as one consisting of equal parts by weight of corn and wheat, of corn and oat groats, or of corn, wheat, and oat groats. After the chickens are 6 to 8 weeks old, whole oats may be used in place of the oat groats and coarsely cracked corn may be used in place of the more finely cracked corn. After the chickens are about 12 weeks old whole corn ma}^ be fed.

TABLE 3.—Starting and growing mashes with which grain or a grain mixture is to be fed

Ingredients Mash 9

Percent 17.7 10.0 20.0 8.0

10.0 6.0 6.0

10.0 4.0

Mash 10 Mash 11 Mash 12

Ground yellow corn Finely ground oats or barlôv

Percent 18.9 12.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 10.0

Percent 25.3 10.0 20.0

Percent 17.5

Wheat middlings _ . _ 30 0 Wheat bran .-_ .. 10 0 Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk 10.0

5.0 S.O

10.0

10 0 Meat scrap (55-percent x^rotoin) Fishmeal --- ---

5.0 4 0

A-lfalfa-leaf meal 10.0 10.0

10 0 Soybean meal . -.- 4.0 Corn-gluten meal -- -- 4 0 Cottonseed meal _ - .-- 10.0 Linseed meal (old process) . - - _ _ - - - 3.0

1.3 2.0 1.0 1.0

Ground limestone or oystershell _ 1.1 2.0 1.0 1.0

1.7 1.0 1.0 1.0

2 0 Special steamed bonemeal ..-- ._ __ 1 6 Salt mixture 1. --- 1.0 Cod-liver oil 2 _ 1 0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 0


2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.25 percent need be included in the mash,

In mixing the mashes given in table 3, any grain, grain sorghum, or a mixture of grains and grain sorghums may be used in place of the yellow corn; meat scrap and fish meal may be used interchangeably; cottonseed meal, peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soybean meal may be substituted one for the other; and sardine meal may be used in place of cod-liver oil.

Mashes for Laying and Breeding Stock For the best results, an equal quantity of grain should be fed with

the laying and breeding mashes given in table 4. Oystershell or limestone grit should never be given to the chickens when these mashes are used. Either whole or cracked corn may be fed with these mashes ; but, if desired, mixtures of corn and oats or of corn, wheat, and oats, or mixtures containing the grain sorghums may be used.

A few substitutions may be made in mixing the mashes given in table 4, Any grain may be substituted for the oats or barley in mashes 13, 14, and 15. Either meat scrap or fish meal may be used to the exdusion of the other. Peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and


soybean meal may be substituted one for the other; but if light- colored yolks are desired^ corn-gluten meal should not be used. If it is desirable to lighten the color of the yolks, a grain mixture that contains no yellow corn may be used. Further reduction of yolk color may be had by replacing a third of the alfalfa-leaf meal with an equal weight of dried skim milk or dried whey. Sardine oil may replace the cod-liver oil.

TABLE 4.^—Laying mashes with which grain or a gram mixture is to be fed

Ingredients Mash 13 Mash 14 Mash 15 Mash 16

Finely ground oats or barley Percent

17.5 15.0 12.0 10.0 4.7 4.7

14.0 5.5

Percent 19.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

Percent 23.3 20.0

Percent

Wheat middlings._ 31 5 Wheat "bran_ .__ . _ ___ __ _. _._ 20 0 Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk_._ __ __ _ 10.0

6.0 5.0

15.0 5.3

10.0 Meat scrap (55-percent protein)__ __ 4 5 Fish meal 5 0 Alfalfa-leaf meal 15.0

5.0 12 0

Soybean meal _ _ _ '> 3 Corn-gluten meal _- __- _ _ 2 4 Linseed meal (old process) _ 4.0

5.9 2.7 1.2 2.8

4. Ó

2.4 1.2 2.8

4.0 5.3 3.1 1.2 2.8

Ground limestone or oystershell .._ 6.8 Special steamed bonemeal- _ 1.5 Saltmixture 1- __. . _ _ ._ _ 1 2 Cod-liver oil 2 _ 2.8

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0


s If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A, C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.7 percent need be included in the mash.

FEED MIXTURES FOR TURKEYS

Inasmuch as turkeys are usually raised under somewhat different conditions from those under which chickens are raised, and as very young turkeys require somewhat more protein, vitamin A, and vitamin D, a series of special formulas of feed mixtures for this species is given in table 5.

TABLE 5.—Feed mixtures for turkeys

c<j.„_j-; ..^, _ „V. „ „

Growing mashes All-mash laying diets

Ingredients No range

Fair range

Good range

No range Range

17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Ground yellow corn .. ^. Percent

18 15 12 12 10 13

8 10

Percent 15 20 12 10

7 7 7

10 10

Percent 20 15 15 10 10

5

Percent 84 12 12 12 10 13

Percent 25 25 20 10

ig'

Percent 30.0 20.0 22.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 5.0

Percent 30 0

Finely pulverized oats or barley. . . .. 20 0 Wheat middlings or shorts - _- 24 5 Wheat bran Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk-- __ _

6.0 4 0

Meat scrap (55-percent protein) _,_ 3 5 Fish meal (preferably sardine) __ 2 0 Alfalfa-leaf meal- .. 10

10 2 2 1

6 4 5 Corn-gluten tneal _ ___ Ground limestone or oystershell .- . _. 4.0 4 0 Special steamed bonemeal Salt or salt mixture 1 ._ . 1

1 1 1

1 1 .5 1.5

5 Cod-liver oil 2 _ 1 0

Total

) 100 100 100 100 1 100 100.0 100.0

' To prevent perosis, it is desirable that the starting mashes and the all-mash laying diets contain some added manganese. To supply this manganese, use a mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).

2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. O.A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International Units of Vitamin A per gram is used, only one-fourth as much need be included in the mashes and all-mash diets.


A starting mash should be fed until the poults are 8 weeks old and then a suitable growing mash should be fed. It is desirable to begin the feeding of cracked corn, or a mixture of cracked grains, after the poults are 2 weeks old. After changing to the growing mashes, any grain or grain mixture may be fed, but it is desirable to use a grain mixture that contains 50 to 75 percent of oats. No grain should be fed with the all-mash laying diets. It is unnecessary and undesirable to feed ground limestone or oystershell grit w^ith any of these feed mixtures; however, it is desirable to supply gravel or other insoluble grit.

MANAGEMENT

Management is an important factor in the economical and efficient feeding of poultry. Abrupt changes in diet, insufñcient hopper space, the use of stale feed, and poorly lighted houses all tend to decrease feed consumption and hence to retard grow^th or slow up the rate of egg production. Thus, attention to what may be considered as minor details may at times mean the difference between success and failure in poultry raising.

When poultry is kept without access to the soil and to sunshine, much more attention must be given to the diet. This is accounted for in part by the facts that sunshine may serve as a source of some or even all the vitamin D that is required and that the green growing grass and other plants may serve as sources of all the other vitamins. Furthermore, poultry that has access to the soil (fig. 3) is less likely to suffer from a deficiency of some of the mineral elements, for example, manganese, than is poultry that is kept off the soil.

Feed left in the hoppers from the preceding day is usually not so palatable as fresh feed; therefore it is good practice to give the birds only a little more feed each day than they will eat. The fresh feed should be mixed in the hoppers with the small residues from the pre- vious feedings so that there will be no accumulation of old feed at the bottoms of the hoppers. Furthermore, if the feed mixture contains cod-liver oil or other fish oil, no more than can be fed within 10 days or two weeks should be mixed at one time. This precaution should be observed very carefully when the oil is depended on as the chief source of vitamin A.

Abrupt changes in the diet are to be avoided in the feeding of laying stock, especially after the peak of production is reached, because they may cause the birds to begin molting somewhat earlier than they would otherwise. If for any reason a change in diet must be made, it should be made gradually over a period of at least a week or 10 days.

It is very important that there be sufficient hopper space, otherwise the birds may not be able to get all the feed they require. If throughout the day the birds are crowded around the hoppers, more hoppers should be used. Careful observation of the birds at the feed hoppers is the best guide to follow in providing hopper space.

It is a common practice, when grain or a grain mixture is used, to feed it in the litter in order to give the birds some exercise in obtaining their feed. Experience gained by feeding chickens in batteries indicates, however, that the value of this exercise has been overrated very much. In any case, the feeding of grain in the litter is to be

«o (Jj œ

> 73 na O o

> o

c c m

Figure 3.—(»ooil r;iti¡;i' iiiav be used to cut the cost of production and make feeding easier. Experimental fçrass plots for poultry at the Agricultural Research ('enter, Beltsville. Md.


condemned as an insanitary practice. The better practice is to feed all grain, or so-called scratch feed, in hoppers.

When birds are confined in houses, attention should be given to lighting. If the houses are poorly lighted, feed consumption may be adversely affected. Artificial lighting is sometimes used to increase the length of the feeding day during the fall and winter. Properly used, artificial lighting tends to increase the production of eggs during the fall and to maintain it during the winter. Apparently, however, it has little effect on the total annual egg production. If artificial lighting is to be used, it should be started about the first of October, and at times it may be advantageously started somewhat earlier. The total period of light from both natural and artificial sources should be about 14 hours. Both morning and evening lighting may be used to lengthen the feeding day, but unless dimming devices are used to end the evening lighting, it is best to use artificial light only in the morning.

APPENDIX

TABLE 6.—Average composition of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry

Mois- ture Ash Crude

protein

Carbohydrates

Fat, or other

extract Feedstufí

Crude fiber

Nitrogen- free

extract

Grains and seeds Barley. _ _ . _ _ -

Percent 10.4 10.1 13.4 9.1

33.8 7.0

11.6 11.9 11.4 9.3

11.9 11.0 9.9

11.2 9.7 8.9 7.5

11.1 7.0

10.0 10.2 9.3

10.3 11.8 7.6 7.3

11.8 8.8

11.7 9.4 7.9 9.6

11.0 10.1 8.6 6.0 5.4 6.9

10.3 11.8 8.8

10.7 8.8 9.1

Percent 2.9 2.6 3.6 4.5 1.6 3.7 3.1 1.8 4.7 6.1 1.3 1.7 2.3 .9

6.1 1.5 5,8 3.5 2.3 2,0 1,6 3.3 4,4 3.0 5.9 7.8 .7

2.9 1.6 5.8 5.9 3.4 2.0 3.4 2.2 2.8 2.3 5.6 4.7 .5

10,9 2.0 4.8 5.6

Percent 11.8 8.7

22.7 22.7 7.9

26.2 10.5 10.1 28.6 20.5 9.3

11.0 9.9 8.8

25.9 43.0 41.8 23.5 31.2 10.2 13.2 23.3 22.3 25.6 22.9 31.7

7.4 11.0 11.5 35.3 26.0 11.6 11.0 11.2 16.2 24.8 30.4 45.7 7.9 7.5

13.0 11.5 37.9 43.9

Percent 5.9 5.7 5.8 4.5 .7

14.7 8.3

10.4 6.0

11.1 2.1 1.8 9.6 1.1 7.2 2.6

11.4 4.1

11.5 1.7 1.8 5.9 7.1 4.4

18.6 23.9

.6 5.1 2.0 8.5

13.0 8.7 2.2

11.3 2.1

17.8 2.7 9.2 8.8 .4

12.5 2.1 5.0 5.9

Percent 66.9 71.0 53.0 58.0 55.4 41.8 63.0 63.5 42.2 44.7 71.2 68.8 61.6 75.5 48.5 42.1 27.1 56.3 37.5 72.6 70.2 57.0 23.1 53.6 18.4 25.3 77.6 65.5 70.1 35.0 45.7 63.1 70.9 59.5 64.2 14.0 11.6 24.0 66.3 79.4 41.1 72.0 26.6 30.0

Percent 2.1

Barley (Pacific Coast States) 1.9 Beans, navy Beans, pinto Bread .__ Brewers' grains, dried Broomcorn Buckwheat __

1.5 1.2 .7

6.6 3.5 2.3

Buckwheat middlings - _ -- 7.1 Coconut meal (old process) _. .. _ .-- 8.3 Corn Corn, Argentine Corn bran - --

4.2 5.7 6.7

Corn meal - ____ 2.0 Corn-gluten feed - - - - 2.6 Corn-gluten meal _ _-- --- 1.9 Cottonseed meal (41-percent protein) 6.4 Cowpcas Distillers' grains (corn)

1.5 10.5

Durra - - 3.5 Feterita - - - -- 3.0 Field peas ___ -_ -__ -- - 1.2 Flaxseed - - - - 32.8 Garden peas _ _ -- __-- 1.6 ITempseed __ .- _- 26.6 Hempseed meal -- - -- 4.0 Hominy (pearled) - -- -- 1.9 Hominy feed -- - -- 6.7 Kafir 3.1 Linsoed meal fold orocess) - 6.0 Malt sprouts - - 1.5 Millet (proso) __ -- - - --- 3.6 Milo 2.9 Oats - - _ - -- 4.5

6.7 Peanuts (hulls on) _ 34.6 Peanut kernels . - 47.6 Peanut meal (no hulls) (old process) Rice (whole)

8.6 2.0

Rice fnolished) __-__ .4 liifiG bran 13.7 Rye 1.7 Soybeans - 16.9 Soybean meal _ --- 5.6


TABLE 6.—Average composition of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry—Con.

Feedstufí

Grains and seerii—Continued Sliallu. Sunflower seed Sunflower seeds (hulled) Velvetbeans Wheat Wheat bran Wheat flour Whear-flour middlings Wheat-germ meal Wheat middlings, standard. Wheat red-dog flour Wheat shorts (gray)

Feeds of animal, origin Beef scrap Bonemeal, steamed Bonemeal, special steamed Buttermilk Buttermilk, condensed Buttermilk, dried Crab meal Fish meal (average of unidentified fish meals). Fish meal, herring Fish meal, menhaden Fish meal, whitefish (high ash) Fish meal, whitefish (low ash) Fish meal, sardine Fish meal, tuna Liver meal, Argentine IVTeat scrap (55-percent protein) Keat-and-bone scrap (50-percent protein) Pork liver, dried Pork cracklings Shrimp meal (or bran) Skim milk Skim milk, dried Tankage (60-pereent protein) Whey W^hey, dried

Green feeds, etc. Alfalfa, fresh ', .\lfalfa-leaf meal Alfalfa meal Beet pulp, dried Cabbage Cane molasses Carrots Grapefruit refuse, dried Kale. Mangels Orange peel, dried Orange-pulp meal Potatoes Rape Red clover hay Rutabagas Turnips Yeast, brewers', dried.

Mois- ture

Percent 10.0 7.4 5.0

10.0 11.0 10.2 12.9 10.5 8.7

11,1 10.2 10.3

0,5 3.1 3.1

90.8 71.6 7.1 8.1 8.0 9.1 8.0 7.8

12.1 8.0 5.0 5.0 6.7 6.0 4.8 5.0

11.0 90.5 6.0 8.0

93.7 6.3

Ash

Percent 1.8 3.4 3.8 3.0 L8

4.6 4.1 2.7 4.1

21.5 73.8 85.1

.8 3.5

10.1 40,1 19.7 12.1 20.4 26.0 17.6 15.0 20.2 5.0

24.2 29.2 5.3 2.3

33.9 .7

7.9 19.5

.6 8.5

Crude protein

Percent 12.9 16.0 28.0 24.8 12.4 15.6 10.7 17.0 28.9 16.9 16.9 17,6

68.0 13,0 6.5 3.2

10.6 33.4 34.7 60.4 66.0 57.5 61.6 60,9 67.0 60.7 65.4 55.2 50.0 63.7 56.4 42.0 3.5

35,0 59.8

.8 12.5

I

2.5 12.0 8.7 3,3

24.8 8.2 88.4 1.1 9.3 4,3

88.4 1.9 90.1 ].l 14.0 4.1 10.8 3.4 78.8 .9 84.6 2.2 12.3 6.7 88.8 1.0 90.6 .8 7.0 7.3

4.6 20.4 16.0 9.3 1.8 3.0 ].l 4.8 2.4 1.5 5.8 7.5 2.0 2.6

12,7 1,2 1.3

46.5

Carbohydrates

Crude fiber

Percent ].8

28.6 6,0 6,2 2,4 9,0

,4 5,1 2.7 6,6 3.2 5.5

2,2 .8

2.6 .0 .0 .4

8.5 .7

.4

.6

.4

.4

.8 2.2 2,1 .4 ,0

9,5 ,0 .0

2.7 .0 .3

7.5 17.1 27,3 19.1 1.1 .0

1.2 11.6 1,5 ,8

10,6 8,9 .5

2.4 25.7 1.5 1.1 1.1

Nitrogen- free

extract

Percent 70.0 21.4 16.2 50.8 70.5 55.1 74,2 59,3 44,7 56,6 62.6 58.0

,7 2.8 2.1 4.6

12.2 44.0 6.5 3.5 3.0 4.1 1,2 ,1

3.6 5,1 9.8 1.0 1.8

15.0 4.1 1.4 5.1

50.0 1.8 4.9

71.7

10.7 40.1 37.2 58.5 5.2

64.0 7.9

68.7 5.3 6.4

64.8 67.9 17.7 7.6

39.6 7.3 6.0

35,3

Fat, or other

extract

Percent 3.5

23.2 41.0 5.2 1.9 4.2 1.4 4,6

10.4 4.7 4.4 4.5

11.1 6.5 ,6 ,6

2,1 5.0 2.1 7. 7 9,2 9.2 3.0 8.7 6,0 8,6

14,0 10,7 10.9 10.8 32.2 2.2 .2

1.1 8.2 .0

2,6 2,5 ,8 .3 .0 .3

1.3 .5 .1 . 7

1.5 .1 .6

3,0 ,2 ,2


TABLE 7,—Average calcium, phosphorus, and manganese contení of some feed stuffs used in the feeding of poultry

Feedstufî Cal- cium (Ca)

Phos- phorus

(P)

Manga- nese (Mn)

Parts per

mil/ion 16 13 4

20 80

85 5

16 24

4 4

18 30

20

30 35 30

(0 2

16 16

40 35 35 15 34 20

(1)

(0 12

280 40 31 30

(0 39

119 4

113 160

119 35 60

5 Trace

0.2 .4

(0

Feedstuff

Feeds of animal origin— Continued

Fish mea] (average of unidentified fish meals)-.-

Fish meal, herring Fish meal, whitefish

(high ash)

Cal- cium (Ca)

Phos- phorus

(P)

Manga- nese (Mn)

Grains and seeds

Barley - -- -- Percent

0. 05 .16 .03 .20 .06

.29

.01

.03

.13

.06

.01

.23

.10

,04 .02 .08 .25 .08 .22 .01 .03 .03

.33

.18

.01

.04

.10

.0«

.07

.18

.01

.10

.05 20

.29

.41

.04

.11

.02

.07

.07

.08

.07

.08

7.23 .18 .56

1.56 13. 25

Percent 0.36

.45

.10

.46

.43

.64

.29

.20

.64

.40

.30

1.18 .46

.30

.32

.40

.66

.40

.87

.08

.51

.35

.74

.70

.33

.32

.36

.44

.39

.56

.09 1.84 .36 .53 .60 .99 .39

1.21 .11 .69

1.01

.93

.69

.93

3.73 .10 .33

1.05 .50

Percent 6.50 3.83

9.09

5.84 4.73 6.25

.11

10. 20

8.25 .06 .13

1.27

7.16 .05 .83

.42 1.90 1.44 .70 .07 ..56 .06 .74 .18 .73 .64 .02 .34

1.17 .06 .05

1.2fi

22.95 27.00 28.80 31.30 23.74 25.00 39.20 38.00

.00

.00

Percent 3.60 2.50

4.70

3.04 2.63 3.46 .90

4.91

4.00 L12 .11 .96

3.53 .04 .70

.07

.22

.21

.07

.04

.06

.07

.10

.07

.11

.10

.06

.07

.18

.04

.05 1.21

10. 42 13.00 13.34 14.49 2.55

Trace .00

Trace

.00

,00

Parts per

million Beans, navy 45 Bread - (1'

Brewers' grains, dried (1)

Coconut meal (old proc- Fish meal, whitefish (low ash) (')

Corn Fish meal, sardine Fish meal, tuna -._

40 Corn bran 0) Corn-gluten feed . - Liver meal, Argentine...

Meat-and-bone scrap (50- percent protein)

Meat scrap (55-percent protein)

4 C orn-gluten meal Corn mefîl 10 Cottonseed meal (41-per-

18 Pork liver, dried 4

Distillers* grains (corn), dried

Skim milk, liquid... Skim milk, dried Tankage (60-percent pro-

tein) Whev, liquid

Trace 0.6

Feterita - Field peas 14

1 Whev, dried-. 14

Hempseed meal Oreen feeds, etc.

Alfalfa (green)...

Hominy._ _ _- - Hominy feed Kafir 7

Linseed meal (old proc- Alfalfa-leaf meal. _ __ 30 Alfalfa meal 26

Malt sprouts \'Tillpt i^nro^o^

Beet pulp, dried 23 Cabbage. 21

Milo Cane molasses Carrots

(n Oats (0 Oatmeal, or rolled oats. _. Peanut kernels Peanut meal (old proc-

ess) - - --

Grapefruit refuse, dried-. Kale

(1) (1)

Orange peel, dried Orange-pulp meal Potatoes

^ Rice (polished) 3

Rape 50

Rye Red clover hay 40 Rutabagas 0) Turnips (1^ Yeast, dried 2

Wheat Calcium, phosphorus, and manganese supplements

Bone, fresh. .

Wheat bran. _.. - . _ _ _ Wheat flour . -. Wheat-flour middlings. __ Wheat-germ meal Wheat middlings, stand-

ard Wheat red-dog flour

12 Bonemeal 13 Bonemeal, steamed Bonemeal, special steamed. Crab shell

6 2

300 G vDsum 0)

Feeds of animal origin

Beef scrap

Limestone, high-calcium. Oystershell, washed

Manganous sulfate, anhydrous

200 100

Buttermilk, liquid Buttermilk, condensed.._ Buttermilk, dried Crab meal

Percent 36.3

Manganous sulfate, tet- i rahydrate 24.6

Information lacking.


TABLE 8.—Average digestibility in the chicken of some Jeedstuffs used in the feeding of poultry

Feedstuñ"

Grains and seeds Barley Buckwheat Corn, whole or cracked Corn, ground Corn meal Corn, Argentine, whole or cracked._. Corn, Argentine, ground Cottonseed meal Cowpeas Feterita Field peas Garden peas Kafir Millet Milo Mixed feed (laying mash) Oats Oatmeal, or rolled oats Rice (whole) Rice bran Rye Soybeans Soybean meal Shallu Wheat Wheat bran Wheat middlings Wheat shorts

Feeds of animal origin Beef scrap Buttermilk, dried Fish meal Meat scrap and meat-and-bone meal Skim milk, dried Tankage

Green feeds, etc.

Alfalfa-leaf meal Alfalfa meal Beet pulp, dried Potatoes Clover hay

Organic matter

Percent 76 72 87 88 87

Crude protein

Percent 75 59 76 79 74

Crude fiber

Percent

Nitro- gen-free extract

Percent

Fat, or ether

extract

Percent 62

36

Total digestible nutrients

Percent 68 65 SO 81 80 83 84 69 65 82 66 72 81 72 80 83 62 85 65 41 60 86 71 83 73 41

77 72 71 70 76 69

25 15 16 20

TABLE 9.—Average vitamin content of some feedstuffs used in the feeding of poultry

Feedstuff Vitamin

A per pound

Orain and seeds Barley Beans, navy Beans, pinto Bread Buckwheat Corn, yellow Corn, white Corn-gluten iiical (yellow) Cottonseed meal (41-percent protein). Co wpeas- Field peas Garden peas Hempseed meal -- .

See footnotes at end of table.

Interna- tional Units

400 (Ö) (6)

50 («) 3,180

0 6, 800

600 1,360 2,720 4, 540 («)

Vitamin Bipcr pound

Interna- tional Units

250 250

2,270 10

500 270 270

1,800 450 450 450

Vitamin D per

pound 1

A.O.A.C. chick

units 3 Trace

Vitamin E2

++ (Ö)

++ (

(S) («) (8)

++

Vitamin G (riboflavin)

per pound

Chick antidermatosis factor per

pound

Micro- grams

(gammas)' 400

(8) (S) (6)

300 450 450

0 300 350

(S) («) 1,100

Modified JukeR-

Lepkovsky units 5

0.7 .1

(Ö) (Ö) (6)

.7

.7 («)

1.0 1.3

(«) 1.5 1.0


TABLE 9.—Average vitamin content of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry- Continued

Feedstuff

Qrain and ^eíds—Continued Kafir Linseed meal (old process) Milo Oats Oatmeal, or rolled oats Peanuts (hulls on) Peanut kernels Peanut meal, no hulls (old process) _ Rice bran Rye Soybeans Soybean meal Wheat Wheat bran Wheat flour Wheat-germ meal Wheat-flour middlings Wheat middlings, standard Wheat red-dog flour Wheat shorts

Feeds of animal origin Buttermilk, liquid Buttermilk, dried Buttermilk, sweet cream, dried-. Cod-liver oil Cod-liver oil, fortified Fish meal, white Fish meal, sardine Fish meal, menhaden Liver meal, Argentine Meat scrap Pork liver, dried Sardine (pilchard) oil Skim milk, liquid Skim milk, dried Tankage Whey, dried

Green feeds, etc. Alfalfa (green) Alfalfa-leaf meal, dehydrated x\.lfalfa-leaf meal Alfalfa meal Cabbage Cane molasses Carrots Kale Potatoes Red clover hay Turnips Yeast, brewers', dried

Vitamin A per pound

Vitamin Bi per pound

Vitamin D per

pound 1

Interna- Interna- tional tional Units Units

250 (8) 200 2,000 250 (Ö)

80 270 (6) 230 (Ö) 900 (<•) 1,500

250 900 (') 1,500 (6) 250

600 1,100 170 900 140 340 150 450

(«) 10 1,900 1,930

100 800 120 1,000 60 («)

120 1,000

25 40 200 400 200 400

340,190 0 362,000 0

(6) («) (Ö) (6) (Û) (0) («) (Ö) (6) (8)

47, 670 170 45, 240 («)

15 40 130 400

(8) (8) («) (8)

63, 560 225 95, 000 450 32, GOO 400 13,000 400

200 100 (8) (8)

18, 200 100 181, 400 100

220 80 9,000 450 (Ö) 70 (8) 4,500

A.O.A.C. chick

units 3

Trace

(6) Trace Trace

< 45, 360 181, 600

(ß) («) (6) («)

200 45, 360

Vitamin Vitamin ^Ä"

i per pound

(6) + (6)

(6) ++

(6) (8) + + + + (8)

+++ + + +

+++ («)

+ + +

(8) + + (8) (6) (8) (8) (8) (6) (8) (8) + + (6) (ß)

++ +++ + ++ + + +

+ + + (8)

Chick antidermatosis factor per

pound

Micro- grams

(gammas)^ (8)

900 400 400

(8) 950

1,200 1.200

900 (6) 1, 300 1,400

400 1,000 (8) 1,800

700 900 450 900

1, 200 9,000

14, 000 0 0

4, 500 3,200 2,250

18, 500 2,700

45, 360 0

1,000 9, 500

800 12,000

2,000 8,000 7,000 5,000

100 2,000

120 2.240

55 (8)

45 16, 000

Modified Jukes-

Lepkovsky units ó

(8) 0.1 .7

(8)

(8)

(8)

4.0 4.0 1.8

1.0 1.0 .7

1.8

.3 3.0 3.0 0 0 .2 .2 .2

8.0 .2

10.0 0 .3

2.5 I

4.0 (8)

(8)

(8) (8) (8) (8)

.1 3.0 2.0 1.5

6.0 .1

15.0

1 Leaders (_ ) mean that the feedstuff contains no appreciable quantity of vitamin D. 2 The symbols in this column have the following meanings: + Fair source of vitamin E; -f-h Good

source of vitamin E; ++-1- Very good source of vitamin E; H-+-f+ Excellent source of vitamin E. 3 This is the official unit of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. It is equivalent to 1 inter-

national Unit of the kind of vitamin D found in pure cod-liver oil. ^ A microgram, or gamma, is one-millionth of a gram; it is equal to approximately one twenty-eight mil-

lionth of an ounce. 5 The modification consists in giving the same value to a pound of the feedstuff as was originally given to

a gram. In order that a diet may supply enough of the chick antidermatosis factor, it should contain not less than 0.9 modified Jukes-Lepkovsky unit per pound.

6 Information on vitamin content is lacking. " Cod-liver oil, if it is to be sold legally as such in interstate commerce, must contain at least 272,150 Inter-

national Units of vitamin A and 38,590 International Units of vitamin D per pound. The vitamin A content of cod-liver oil varies from 272,150 to about 1,000,000 International Units per pound and the vitamin D content from 38,590 to about 160,000 units per pound. Cod-liver oil and other vitamin-bearing fish oils should be purchased only from reliable sources and should be used according to the manufacturer's guarantee of their vitamin potency.

practical feeding of poultry

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